The Delhi Sultanate is the name used to describe five short-lived medieval dynasties

which were successful in establishing the Muslim rule in India for the first time. These

dynasties or sultanates were of Turkic origin and ruled from Delhi between 1206 and

1526 AD. The five dynasties which are together termed as the Delhi Sultanate are

listed as follows:

Mamluk Dynasty (1206 AD to 1290 AD)

Khilji Dynasty (1290 AD to 1320 AD)

Tughlaq Dynasty (1320 AD to 1414 AD)

Sayyid Dynasty (1414 AD to 1451 AD)

Lodi Dynasty (1451 AD to 1526 AD)

Of these, the Mamluk Dynasty was also known as slave dynasty and hence was the

first to establish its rule at Delhi.

The Indian slave dynasty lasted from 1206 to 1290. The slave dynasty was the first

Muslim dynasty to rule India. It is said that Muhammad Ghori did not have a natural heir

to the throne and he the habit of treating his slaves like his own children. Thus after the

death of Ghori, one of the most able slaves by the name of Qutub-ud-din Aibak

descended the throne. The history of the slave dynasty begins with the rule of Qutub-

ud-din Aibak. He was succeeded by two more able rulers after which the slave dynasty

vanished in no time due to lack of able rulers. 

Qutub-ud-din AibakThe first ruler of the slave dynasty was Qutub-ud-din Aibak who ruled from 1206 to

1210. He established his capital at two places, first at Lahore and then shifted it to

Delhi. It was during his reign that the construction of the famous Qutub Minar was

started. He was an able ruler and was very kind and generous with his people. Due to

his good nature, he earned the title of "Lakh Baksh", which means giver of thousands.

He could rule for a very short time as he died in an accident in 1210. He was succeeded

by his son Aram Shah but due to his incompetence, he was defeated in just one year by

Iltumish. 

Iltumish

After Aram Shah, the next able ruler was Iltumish. He ruled from 1211 to 1236. Under

his strong governance, the slave dynasty was able to find a strong footing and establish

itself as an important kingdom. The army was organized efficiently under Iltumish and

he also introduced a coin currency known as Tanka. It was in his reign that the

construction of Qutub Minar was completed. After ruling successfully for a period of 25

years, he died, but nominated his daughter Raziya Sultan as the heir to the throne. She

was an able ruler, but since she was a woman, she faced stern opposition from nobles

who got her murdered. 

Ghiyasuddin BalbanThe last effective emperor of the slave dynasty was Ghiyasuddin Balban. He ruled from

1266 to 1286. During his reign, the administration was strengthened and he paid much

attention to governance in his empire. The army was trained effectively to use weapons

and the production of arms and other war weaponry was at its peak. This is what helped

them fight against attacks by the Mongols. He died in 1286 and after him the slave

dynasty collapsed.

After the decline of the Slave dynasty, the Sultanate became even more fragile and

instable due to the numerous revolts and internal aggression. The Khilji dynasty started

with the crowning of Jalaluddin Khilji by the nobles. This was around the year 1290 A.D.

But within a few years, he was killed by his nephew Alauddin Khilji under a conspiracy

hatched by the latter. The Khilji dynasty is also known by the name of Khalji dynasty.

The history of Khilji dynasty is marked by brutal wars and internal conflicts among the

rulers. Read on about the history of the Khalji dynasty. 

The next territory that Alauddin Khilji conquered was that of Gujarat. Around 1301 A.D,

he captured Ranthambhor and murdered the Rajput Hamir Deva. Then, he killed Rana

Rattan Singh and captured Chittor. By 1305, he had captured territories like Malwa,

Ujjain, Mandu, Dhar and Chanderi but couldn't capture Bengal. He had conquered

almost entire north India by the year 1311 and established his kingdom successfully.

Read about the main Khilji dynasty rulers of India. 

Jalal ud-din Firuz KhiljiThe first Indian ruler of the Khilji dynasty was Jalal-ud-din Firuz Khilji, who ruled from

1290 - 1294. He invaded India and built his capital in Delhi, though he never really ruled

from there. He constructed another capital at Kilokhri, and ruled from there for around 6

years. During the time Mongols attacked the country, Jalal-ud-din Khilji put up a brave

front and smart negotiations made the Mongols depart. They came back however, five

years later and attacked once again when his nephew ascended on the throne. Jalal-

ud-din Khilji was murdered by his own nephew when he was going to visit him in Kara.

Ala-ud-din Khilji The second ruler of the Khilji dynasty was Ala-ud-din Khilji, whose real name was Juna

Khan. He ruled in India from 1296-1316. He was the nephew and son-in-law of the first

Khilji ruler, Jalal-ud-din Khilji. He killed Jalal-ud-din Khilji and then announced himself as

the ruler of Delhi. Ala-ud-din expanded his territory into the peninsular India within a

short span of time. He died on January 1316 due to an acute health condition. 

The second ruler of the Khilji dynasty in India was Alauddin Khilji. He was the nephew

as well as the son-in-law of Jalal-ud-Din Khilji. During the reign of Jalal-ud-Din Khilji,

Alauddin Khilji was appointed the Governor of Awadh and Kara. However, he wanted to

consolidate his position by becoming the ruler of the Khilji dynasty. Due to his ambitious

nature, he killed Jalal-ud-Din Khilji, marched to Delhi and proclaimed himself as the

king. His life history is presented in the form of this biography of Alauddin Khalji. 

Alauddin Khilji is known for his war tactics when the Mongols attacked Delhi. The

constant attack by the Mongols in India caused much panic and anxiety to the

government under Alauddin Khilji. The Mongols attacked almost a dozen times during

the reign of Alauddin Khilji. Every time, some division of Alauddin's army defeated them.

However, in 1299, the Mongols came to Delhi not rob, but to establish themselves. This

time, Alauddin went with a huge army and defeated the Mongols badly. When they

attacked again in 1307, Alauddin taught them a tough lesson. The Mongols were so

terrified after this experience that they never dared to step in India. 

Alauddin then led an expedition towards the south of India. He was said to be the first

Muslim king who went to the south to expand his territory. He made a slave named

Malik Kafur the army chief. Kafur proved to be a brave army chief and plundered many

kingdoms in the south of India. He brought back many riches like gold, silver, gems, etc.

and impressed Alauddin. The constant successes in the battles made Malik Kafur very

powerful. At one point of time, Alauddin was reduced to a puppet dancing to his tunes.

Finally, Malik Kafur is said to have poisoned Alauddin Khilji and murdered him.

Qutb-ud-Din Mubarak Shah

The third and last ruler of the Khilji dynasty in India was Qutb-ud-Din Mubarak Shah. He

was the weakest ruler of all and during his reign, all taxes and penalties were abolished.

He released all prisoners of war who were captured after waging gruesome battles. He

was ultimately murdered by Khusru Khan and this ended the Khilji dynasty in India.

The Tughlaq Dyansty

The Tughlaqs were basically of Turkish origin and the family was essentially Muslim.

Around the year 1321, Ghazi Tughlaq ascended the throne and was given the title

Ghiyath al-Din Tughlaq. The Tughlaq dynasty was able to withhold its rule due to their

strong allies like the Turks, Afghans and the Muslim warriors of south Asia. In the

following lines, you shall find information about the history of Tughlaq dynasty and the

major rulers of this dynasty. So read about the Tughluq Empire. 

Ghiyath al-Din TughluqGhiyath al-Din Tughluq was the founder of the Tughlaq dynasty in India. His real name

was Ghazi Malik and he ruled from 1320 - 1325. He was the one who founded the city

of Tughlaqabad outside Delhi. He waged a gruesome battle against Khusrao Khan, who

killed the last Khilji ruler. His successful defense against the Mongols made him an able

ruler and the founder of a dynasty in India. He conquered many areas including eastern

portion of Bengal, a huge territory. 

Mohammed bin TughlaqOne of the most controversial rulers in India, Mohammed bin Tughlaq was the

successor of Ghazi Tughlaq. The empire was spread and his rule grew. He was a

brilliant person who had full command over mathematics and medicine. Yet, he was

considered crazy by those who were there in his court. He was known to mete out very

cruel and brutal punishments to people who were found guilty of even small mistakes.

He shifted his capital from Delhi to a place in the outskirts known as Daulatabad which

harmed his reputation amongst policy makers.

Mohammad Bin Tughlaq was the second Tughlaq ruler of Delhi. He ruled Delhi from

1325 to 1351. Mohammad Bin Tughlaq was the eldest son of the founder of Tughlaq

dynasty in India, Ghiyas-ud-Din Tughluq. According to many historians, Mohammad Bin

Tughlaq is supposed to have killed his father to gain authority to the throne. Muhammed

Bin Tughluq is one of the most interesting rulers in the history of India. All through his

rule, Muhammad Bin Tughlaq introduced many reforms and measures but all flopped.

His biography states that he had a penchant for coins and is said to have introduced a

huge number of gold coins with fine calligraphy work. 

The greatest mistake committed by Mohammad Bin Tughlaq was to shift his capital

from Delhi to Daulatabad, located in the Deccan region of India. He did this in order to

administer the provinces located in the south. Not only did he move his entire

government, he forcibly moved the entire population of Delhi to Daulatabad. However,

things did not work out as he had planned them and due to adequate amenities, the

capital was shifted back to Delhi after two years. The population was greatly affected by

this step and many of the people died on the way due to pathetic travel arrangements. 

Mohammed Bin Tughlaq introduced token currency in India after being inspired by the

Chinese. Most of the coins were made of brass and copper, while gold and silver coins

were kept for the royal treasury. However, the copper coins were easy to forge and this

led to massive losses in the royal office. His unsuccessful experiments made him quite

unpopular with the people and his contemporaries. Poor administration in his empire led

to internal aggression and revolts. This weakened his empire and led to irreversible

damages. He finally died while on a campaign at Sindh. 

Feroz Shah TughlaqFeroz Shah Tughlaq was the successor of Mohammed Bin Tughlaq. Feroz Shah was a

caring ruler unlike Mohammed bin Tughlaq. He made sure that people in his kingdom

were happy and heard out their problems patiently. However, he was not militarily

strong and could not sustain any sort of external attacks or aggression. Feroz Shah

breathed his last in the year 1388 and after that the Tughlaq dynasty faded away in no

time.

After the Tughlaq dynasty disintegrated, the Sayyid dynasty rose to power. They were

essentially the rulers of the Delhi Sultanate of India and reigned from 1414 to 1451. The

history of the Sayyid dynasty is not clearly known but they claimed to be the

descendants of Prophet Mohammed. The Sayyid Empire was formed amidst chaos

when there was no figure of authority to control Delhi. The Sayyid dynasty had four

basic rulers. 

Khizr KhanThe founder of Sayyid dynasty was Khizr Khan and ruled from 1414-1421. He was

known to be an able administrator and was very soft natured. He never resorted to

bloody battles until it was absolutely necessary. It was his kind and docile nature that

did not let him acquire many kingdoms during his reign. He defeated the Hindus of

Daob, Kalithar and Chandwar since they had stopped paying tributes. Though he didn't

wage many battles during his reign, he was busy suppressing revolts in different parts

of his kingdom. He could not come up with many great reforms but still he was greatly

respected and loved by his subjects. 

Mubarak ShahAfter the death of Khizr Khan, his son Mubarak Shah succeeded him on the throne. Like

his father, Mubarak Shah was a wise man and an efficient ruler and remained on the

throne from 1421-1434. He used his resources carefully and to the fullest. He was a

devout Muslim and cared for his subjects. He was not quite able to possess many areas

and kingdoms during his rule and kept suppressing revolts like his father. The city of

Mubarakabad was founded by him in the year 1433.

Muhammad ShahAfter the death of Mubarak Shah, his brother's son Muhammad Shah succeeded him on

the throne since Mubarak Shah did not have a son. Muhammad Shah ruled from 1434-

1444. He was not an able ruler and misused his power and position of authority. He lost

the trust and affection of his nobles and royal force who had freed him from his captors.

He was lethargic and lazy ruler who just wanted to live his life in pleasure. 

Alam ShahAfter the death of Muhammad Shah in 1444, his son took over the throne under the title

of Alam Shah. During the year 1447, he visited a place called Baduan and loved it so

much that he decided to stay there forever. Till 1451, Delhi was ruled by Buhlul Lodhi.

Alam Shah ruled Baduan till he died in the year 1478. with his death the Sayyid dynasty

came to end.

The Lodi dynasty in India arose around 1451 after the Sayyid dynasty. The Lodhi

Empire was established by the Ghizlai tribe of the Afghans. They formed the last phase

of the Delhi Sultanate. There were three main rulers in the history of Lodi dynasty. All

three of them have been discussed in detail in the following lines. So read on about the

Lodi dynasty history. 

Buhlul Khan LodiBuhlul Khan Lodi (1451-1489) was the founder of the Lodi dynasty in India and the first

Afghan ruler of Delhi. He was an Afghan noble who was a very brave soldier. Buhlul

Khan seized the throne without much resistance from the then ruler, Alam Shah. His

territory was spread across Jaunpur, Gwalior and northern Uttar Pradesh. During his

reign in 1486, he appointed his eldest son Barbak Shah as the Viceroy of Jaunpur.

Though he was an able ruler, he really couldn't decide as to which son of his should

succeed him as the heir to the throne. 

Sikandar LodiAfter the death of Buhlul Khan, his second son succeeded him as the king. He was

given the title of Sultan Sikander Shah. He was a dedicated ruler and made all efforts to

expand his territories and strengthen his empire. His empire extended from Punjab to

Bihar and he also signed a treaty with the ruler of Bengal, Alauddin Hussain Shah. He

was the one who founded a new town where the modern day Agra stands. He was

known to be a kind and generous ruler who cared for his subjects. 

Ibrahim LodhiIbrahim Lodhi was the son of Sikander who succeeded him after his death. Due to the

demands of the nobles, his younger brother Jalal Khan was given a small share of the

kingdom and was crowned the ruler of Jaunpur. However, Ibrahim's men assassinated

him soon and the kingdom came back to Ibrahim Lodhi. Ibrahim was known to be a very

stern ruler and was not liked much by his subjects. In order to take revenge of the

insults done by Ibrahim, the governor of Lahore Daulat Khan Lodhi asked the ruler of

Kabul, Babur to invade his kingdom. Ibrahim Lodhi was thus killed in a battle with Babur

who was the founder of the Mughal dynasty in India. With the death of Ibrahim Lodhi,

the Lodhi dynasty also came to an end.

The Delhi Sultanate administration systemThe administration system of Delhi Sultanate were directed and governed by the Quranic injunctions. The Quranic law was the supreme law of the empire.The Caliph was the supreme sovereign according to the Islamic theory of sovereignty. All Muslim kings through the world were his subordinates. During the Sultanate period, the power of the Caliph was at its zenith. Even if a governor became an independent king, he had to invoke the sanction of the Caliph’s name and called himself his vassal. In fact, the rulers of the Sultanate period were Muslims and they always tried to maintain a formal relation with the Islamic world.

Sultan – Head of the Sultanate Admininstration

The real  head of the administration of Delhi Sultanate was the king or Sultan himself. The Sultan at his death bed could also nominate his heirs and that was recognized by all other nobles. There was no hereditary principle of succession. Theoretically the office of the Sultan was open to all real Muslims, but in practice the Sultanate was restricted to the immigrant Turkes. Later on it became restricted to a smaller oligarchy and at last to the members of the royal family only. During the 15th and 16th centuries the Arab and Afghan people also could become the Sultan. Following the Islamic theory the Sultans of Delhi were considered to be the agent of Allah, i.e. God and it was his duty to enforce the divine laws expressed by the Holy Quran. He was thus the chief executive. It was his duty not only to enforce the Quranic laws but also to interpret them.

Judicial Administration of Delhi Sultanate

The Sultan was the highest judicial authority of Delhi Sultanate.  He was a perfect autocrat with wide powers and unfettered authority. His power was based on two pillars–religion and military. As long as he was upholding the Quranic law he enjoyed enormous and supreme power. Of course, the entire matter depended on the personality and military strength of Sultan himself. The powerful Sultans like Ala-ud-din-Khilji and Muhammad-Bin-Tughluq often violated the Quranic laws but nobody dared to challenge them. In fact there were no constitutional devices to remove a Sultan from the throne peacefully. The only way to remove him was rebellion and civil war. The Sultans of Delhi were not only the kings, they were also the religious head of the Muslim people in India.

Military Administration of Delhi Sultanate

The Sultan was also the head of the Military Administration of Delhi Sultanate. He was the commander-in-chief of the army as well. The Sultan of Delhi was thus a military despot having all powers of the State concentrated in his hands.

Central Administration of Delhi Sultanate

The Sultanate government was essentially a centralized one though it had the original democratic nature of an Islamic State. In fact, the circumstances had forced them to become a centralized one. During this period the Hindu Chiefs were not altogether suppressed and being hostile to the Muslim rule they were always rebellious. There was

the danger of repeated Mongal invasion. In view of this the Sultans were compelled to keep a large army and a centralized government.

The Sultan in his administration had to keep a good number of ministers the member of which varied from time to time. During the rule of the slave dynasty there were four ministers—

(1) the wazir,(2) the ariz–i–mamalik,(3) the diwan–i–insha and(4) the diwan–i–rasalat.Sometimes there was also the post of naib or naib–i–mamalik. He was superior to the wazirand next only to the Sultan. During the normal period he remained merely a deputy Sultan much inferior to the Wazir. But when the Sultan himself became weak and inefficient, this naibused to wield great authority later on, the posts of Sadr–us–Sudur and diwan–i-qaza was raised to the status of ministers. Thus, there were altogether six ministers during the prime period of Sultanate administration though sometimes the post of the comptroller of the royal household used to exert greater power than the other ministers.

The Wazir or the Prime Minister

In fact, the wazir “stood midway between the sovereign and the subjects.” He had great authority and often exercised the Sultan’s power and prerogatives though with some restrictions. All important officers of the state were appointed by him in the name of the Sultan. He used to hear complaints against all officials of the administration. During the illness or absence of the Sultan or when he was a minor, the Wazir acted for the king. He was the adviser of the Sultan in the affairs of administration and always kept him informed about the sentiments and needs of the subjects. The Wazir was also the head of the finance department. He used to lay down the rules and regulations of revenue settlement, fixed the rate of other taxes and controlled the expenditure of the empire. He was the superintendent of the civil servants and controlled the military establishment. All the requirements of the army were to be referred to him. The duty of his subordinates was to keep the accounts and disburse the salary of the military officers and troops. He was also to look after the stipends and subsistence allowances to learned men and the poor people. He was to look after every branch of public administration. As he had wide

power he also enjoyed great prestige and was handsomely paid the revenue of a large estate. His office was called the diwan-i-wazarat. The in-charge of the office was naib wazir. There was also the other stuffs like the mushrif-i-mamalik (accountant general), mustauf—i—mamalik (auditor general). It was the duty of the accountant general to enter all accounts received from the provinces and various departments. The auditor general used to audit them. During Firoz Tughluq’s reign there was, however, a change while the accountant general used to deal with income and the auditor general with that of expenditure. The accountant general was assisted by a Nazir while the auditor general too had his assistants. Both the offices had many subordinate clerks.

Diwan-i-ariz or diwan-i-arz or the army master

The post of Diwan-i-ariz was next to the Wazir. He was the controller general of the military establishment. It was his duty to recruit troops and to maintain the descriptive rolls of men and horses. He was also to arrange to held review in order to inspect the forces. The Sultan was the commander—in—chief of the army. So the Ariz—i—mamalik was not to command the royal troops generally, but sometimes he had to do it, at least a part of the army. He particularly looked after the discipline of the army, their equipments and their dispositions on the battle field. It was a very important department. Sometimes the Sultan himself performed some of its tasks. Alaud—din—Khilji often paid personal attention to it.

Diwan-i-insha or the in-charge of royal correspondence

Diwan-i-insha was the third important minister. He was in charge of the royal correspondence. A member of Dabir (writers) assisted him. They were all masters of style. This department used to make all correspondences, even of the confidential matters made between the Sultan and the rulers of other states or of the important vassals and officials of the kingdom. They drafted the important royal orders and sent to the Sultan for his sanction. They were then copied, registered and dispatched. Thus the department performed very confidential nature of work. Naturally the head of the department was always a very trusted person of the Sultan.

Diwan-i-risalat or the minister for foreign affairs

There is, however, a controversy about the function of this officer. Dr. I.H. Qureshi told us that the minister used to deal with the religious matters and also look after grant and stipends to scholars and pious men. Dr. A. B. M. Habibullah, on the other hand, said that he was the minister for foreign affairs and was the in-charge of diplomatic correspondences and the ambassadors and envoys sent to and received from the foreign rulers. It seems that Dr. Habibullaha’s view was correct. The diwan–i–rasalat was an important officer as all the Sultans of Delhi were always eager to maintain diplomatic relations with the Central Asian powers and other powers of the country.

Sadr-us-Sudur or Minister of the department of religions

The Sadr-us-Sudur was the minister of the department of religion, religious endowment and charity. It was the duty of the chief Sadr (Sadr-us-Sudur) to enforce the Islamic rules and regulations and to look after that the Muslims strictly follow those regulations in their daily life. He also disbursed money in charity and rewarded the learned Muslim divines. He also paid the grants of subsistence allowances to scholars and men of piety.

Diwan-i-Qaza or the Chief QaziThe chief Qazi was the head of the judicial department. He supervised the administration of justice in the kingdom. Very often, only one man was appointed to carry on the works of both the departments of the religious endowment and charity and the department of justice.

All these ministers were not of the same rank or importance. Only the Wazir enjoyed higher status and privileges. The other ministers were like secretaries to the Sultan and very ordinary in status. There was no council of ministers. The Sultans often appointed and dismissed the ministers at his own sweet will. The Sultan had a large number of non-official advisers. This circle of advisors was known as Majlis–i–Khalwat. They consisted of the Sultan’s personal friends, trusted officials and ulemas. Though the Sultan was not bound to accept their advices yet often they exerted great influence on him. There were some other departmental heads as well like – barid–i–mamalik (head of the intelligence and posts department) diwan–i–amir kohi (department of agriculture), diwan–i–mustakhraj, diwan–i-khairat (department of charity), diwan–i–istihqak (department of pension), Sar–i–jandar(Chief of the royal bodyguards)

and diwan-i-bandagan (chief of the slaves). The latter two chiefs had great influences on the Sultans.The Sultanate of Delhi was never divided into homogeneous provinces with uniform administrative system. The Sultanate of Delhi was a centralized monarchy and no Sultan of Delhi ever thought of rearranging the provinces on a uniform basis. During the thirteenth century, the entire Sultanate was consisted of military commands. These were known as the Iqtas. Iqta means part or share, of a land and land revenue given to a person by the ruler, the Sultan. The system was introduced by Sultan Iltutmish who had distributed Iqtas in a wide scale among his Turkish followers. Each Iqta was under a powerful military officer known asMuqti. During the time of the so-called slave kings of Delhi, the important Iqtas were Mandawar, Amraha, Sambhal, Badaun, Baran (Bulandshahr), Koli (Aligarh), Awadh, Kara, Manikpur, Bayana, Gwalior, Nagpur, Hansi, Multan, Uch, Lahore, Samana, Sunam, Kluhram, Bhatinda and Sanhind.When Alaud-din-Khilji conquered practically the whole of the country including the Deccan, he had allowed the big and small provinces to remain as they were. Thus during his time there were two types of provinces – that is, the lqtas which he had inherited from his predecessors and the new areas which he had conquered. Alaud-din retained the old Iqtas. To the newly acquired provinces he appointed new military governors. As all these provinces had been big and flourishing  states before they were conquered, they were naturally larger in area and income. The principalities or some vassals were also reduced to the position of governors. Thus from the time of Sultan Alauddin Khilji there were three kinds of provinces in the Sultanate. The officers-in--charge of an lqta continued to be known as the Muqti and those appointed in-charge of the new military provinces were called walis or sometimes the amirs.These walis or amirs obviously enjoyed higher status and powers than the muqtis. Thus the muqtis were the governors of their respective jurisdictions and enjoyed great powers. The size or the administrative system of the Iqtas were never uniform and even the degree of the political and military power of the muqtis differed from Iqta to lqta.However, the Muqti was free to carry on his own administration though, of course, he had to follow the local traditional usages. It was his duty to employ his own officials, to collect the revenues, to defray the expenditure of his own administration. He was also to pay the surplus revenue to the central government. Though in theory, he was subjected to the central audit, in practice he was practically fully independent. His principal duty was to maintain law and order in his province and to carry out the king’s commands. It

was also his duty to furnish a contingent of troops to the Sultan of Delhi whenever the latter asked him to do so. The Muqti enjoyed a high salary which was charged on the revenue of his province. He had a big army of his own and a big official establishment as well. He was also required to collect revenues from the Sultan’s vassals whose kingdoms were situated within his province. These vassals were required to pay Kharaj or land revenue and also the Jizyas. Though the muqtis acknowledged the suzerainty of the Sultan of Delhi they were otherwise independent in their own Iqtas. Both the muqtis and walis were required to do the same task. They were required to keep powerful military establishments, to maintain law and order in their jurisdiction and to punish the refractory Zamindars. They were also required to furnish an account of their income and expenditure and to pay the residue to the central government. They were advised to protect and enforce the Muslim laws, to protect the Ulemas, to arrange for the administration of justice, to enforce the decisions of the courts, to keep the high way free from robbers and to encourage trade and commerce. In each province there were the staffs to collect the revenues known as Nazirs and Waqufs. There was also a higher officer known asSohib-i-diwan or Khwaja appointed by the Sultan to keep accounts. There were also a Quazi and other subordinate officers. The most important provinces during the Sultanate period were Bengal, Gujrat, Jaunpur, Malwa, Khandish and the Dakhin.

The Mughal Empire of India:-

The Mughal Empire at times of its glory had ruled over modern Afghanistan, Pakistan and also the majority of the Native Indian Subcontinent, subsequently called Hindustan, from the time of 1526 to 1707. The founder of the empire was the Timurid leader Babur, who laid the foundations of this great Empire at the time of 1526, when he defeated the last of the Delhi sultan Ibrahim Lodi in the first war of Panipat.

The word "Mughal" was the Persian translation of the word "Mongol". The religion of Mughals was Islam.

The Afghan ruler Sher Shah Suri typically conquered many territories at the time of the second Mughal Emperor Humayun. Although, during the reign of Akbar the Mughal Empire grew rapidly, and continued to grow till the end of the reign of the Aurangzeb Alamgir. Jahangir, heir of Akbar, ruled the great empire from 1605–1627. In March 1627, Emperor Shah Jahan, the heir of Jahangir, succeeded to inherit the great throne. Therefore he inherited the largest and the greatest empire of that era collectively known

as Hindustan. There was a saying that "at the time of mid-century this was perhaps the greatest empire within the world". Shah Jahan had built the wonder of the world known as Taj Mahal in the memory of his true love Mumtaz Mehal, which is located in Agra.

The Mughals of India confronted a tough competition from theMarathas Empire, and also right after Aurangzeb died in the year of 1707, this empire began to lose his power, which provided a way for the rise of the Hindu Maratha Empire. The Mughals however were able to remain in power for more than a Century and a half. In 1739 they had been defeated simply by Nadir Shah the commander of the Persian army. In 1756 Ahmed Shah Abdali took Delhi again, finally it was ended by the British after the war of independence 1857.

Religious Beliefs of the Mughal Emperors:-

The Mughals were a liberal-minded Muslims, but although most of the subjects of the Empire were Hindus. Since Babur set up this Empire, this dynasty continued unstable (and was even exiled) till the reign of Akbar, who was not simply associated with open-handed temperament and also intimately familiarized, since his birth, he was associated with the culture of the Indians. Under the Akbar's reign, the court removed this Jizya (the poll-tax on non-Muslims) and also discontinued use of this lunar Muslim Calendar. Certainly one of Akbar's unusual concepts with regards to religion was Din-I-Ilahi (Faith-of-God). That was the eclectic mix of Hinduism, pantheistic versions of Sufi Islam, Zoroastrianism and Christianity. It was absolutely proclaimed the state religion until the end of his reign. However, this orthodoxy obtained influence solely three ages later on, with Aurangzeb, regarded intended for maintaining the doctrines of orthodox Islam. That last of the great Mughal remove all the liberal policies of his ancestors.

The Reign of Mughal Emperor Babur:-

From the earliest of the 16th Century, Muslim armies were consisted upon Mongol, Turkic, Local, and the Afghan war, which had invaded Indian Sub-continent beneath the leadership of the Timurid prince Zahir-ud-Din-Mohammad Babur. Babur was claimed to be the great grandson of the great Mongol conqueror Timur Lenk (Timur the Lame), which had invaded India who he claimed to be the descendent of the great Mongol leader, Genghis Khan. Babur was driven through Samarkand because of the Uzbeks and originally established his reign within Kabul at the time of 1504. Later, using inside plots of the Delhi sultanate against Ibrahim Lodi, and also upon the invitation of Daulat

Khan Lodi (governor of Punjab at that time) and Alam Khan (uncle of the Sultan), Babur invaded Indian Sub-Continent at a time of 1526.

Babur, a seasoned armed forces commander, invaded India in 1526 with his well-trained expert 12, 000 warriors to face Ibrahim Lodi’s big, unwieldy and disunited army of more than 100, 000 men. Babur defeated this Lodi sultan decisively in the first war of Panipat. By the use of firearm carts, portable artillery and superior cavalry Tactics, Babur was succeeded to achieve the great victory along with the dead Sultan. 12 months later at the time of 1527, he was decisively defeated, in the war of Khanwa, by the Rajput confederacy under the command of Rana Sanga. His third great war was the battle of Gogra. In this war Babur routed the forces of Afghans and the sultan of Bengal. Babur died at the time of 1530 in Agra before he could full fill his dreams. He left the legacy of his descendent to full fill his dreams to create the greatest empire on Indian Sub-continent.

The Reign of Mughal Emperor Humayun:-

After the death of Babur, he left a very difficult task to his child Humayun (1530–56). This emperor was pushed through all sides by a reassertion of the Afghan states towards the Delhi throne and also due to the conflicts over his own succession. He fled to Persia, where he was remained a guest of the Safavid court of Shah Tahmasp for almost one Decade. While in Sher Shah's reign, an imperial unification and also management platform had been established. This was further improved by Akbar later on within the hundred years. In 1545, Humayun accumulated the foothold within Kabul with Safavid support and also reasserted his claims to Indian states, a task facilitated due to the death of Sher Shah Suri due to which Afghan power became weaker in Sub-continent. Therefore, Humayun conquered Delhi in 1555 but unfortunately after the six months he found due to the fell down from the steps of his library.

Reign of the Great Emperor Akbar:-

The Akbar was born in Umarkot, Sindh, India on October 15, 1542 at the time when his father was facing the exiled. Akbar grandfather Babur laid the very foundation of the Mongol dynasty. After the death of the afghan ruler Sher Shah Surri, Humayun managed to get the rule of Hindustan in 1555. But unfortunately he died after the few months of his victory.

Humayun's death in the year of 1556 left the responsibility of conquest to his young heir, Jalal-ud-Din Muhammad Akbar (1556–1605). After a great victory in the Second war of Panipat at the time of 1556, Bayram Khan energetically leads development on Akbar's behalf. When Akbar became old enough, he started to free himself from overbearing ministers, court factions, and also exhibited his own convenience of the ruling and leadership. He himself personally monitored and created his policies, which had been useful for the Mughals for more than 200 years. He continued to invade, annex, Kabul within the northwest, Kashmir to north, Bengal far towards east, and also Narmada Water with central India.

As a brave leader which truly valued the challenges like administering the great empire, Akbar married Jodhabai which was becoming the mother of his heir Jahangir. He gave Hindu chiefs the higher positions in government. He inspired intermarriages among Muslims and Rajputs. He also gave permission to build new Hindu temples. Akbar had enjoyed celebrating the Hindu festivals such as Deepavali and Divali. He discouraged the Jizya tax which was enforced on the non-Muslims at his time. Akbar believed that no one should pay taxes to worship their Gods.

Akbar Newly Created Religion Din-I-Ilahi (The Divine Faith):-

Akbar created his very own concept “rulership as being a divine illumination” which could be seen in his newly created religion Din-i-Ilahi (The Divine Faith), which was a mixture of Christianity, Buddhism, Hinduism and Islam. Akbar encouraged the remarriage of widows who had lost their Husbands. Also Akbar strongly discouraged the marriages of a little kids he also discouraged the sati custom.

In the last days of the Akbar's reign, the great Empire expanded to the north India, south on the Narmada water. Well known exclusions had been Gondwana with central India, which in turn paid great honor towards Mughals, Assam at northeast, and also huge areas of Deccan. The area to the south on the Godavari water conquered totally under the Mongols. At the time of 1600s, the Akbar's Empire had the income of more than £17 million. If we compare it with the Great British Empire of 1800s, it would be equal to their entire treasury.

Rule of Emperor Jahangir and his son Shah Jahan:-

Mughal rule under Jahangir (1605–27) and under Shah Jahan (1628–58) was famous intended for political balance, fast economic task, gorgeous paintings, and also thunderous historical monuments. Jahangir married the Persian princess who he

renamed Nur Jehan (Light of the World), which inspired most of the persons within the court to delight the emperor. As a result, Local poets, designers, students, and also officers--including her own family members lured because of the Mongol court's luxury, got asylum within India. The amount of useless officials mushroomed, while the too much Local manifestation annoyed this fine balance with impartiality in the court. Jahangir preferred Hindu celebrations although but favored massive conversion process to Islam.

He persecuted the followers of Jainism and even executed Master Arjun Dev, who was the fifth saint-teacher of the Sikhs at a time of 1606 for refusing to make changes in their holy book Master Granth Sahib (the Sikh holy book). The execution had not been totally intended for the above reasons. Master Arjun Dev Ji supported prince Khusro, a contestant towards the Mughul throne within the civil warfare that created right after Akbar's death. Noor Jahan's desire to select the prince of his own choice to the throne led Shah Jahan to rebel against Jahangir at the time of 1622. At this time, the Persians took control over Kandahar including lower Afghanistan, which was the incident that was a critical hit to the Mughals Prestige.

In between the time 1636 and 1646, Shah Jahan dispatched Mongol armies to conquer the Deccan along with the countries towards the northwest of the empire, further than the Khyber Pass. These decisions exhibited his armed forces toughness these kinds of strategies had almost drained the imperial treasury. Due to the growing requirements of the treasury the tax on the peasantry had been greatly increased. Political unification and also obtains large areas which inspired the introduction of huge facilities associated with commerce and crafts. The cities like Lahore, Delhi, Agra, and Ahmadabad linked by streets and waterways. The world-famous Taj Mahal was built-in Agra in Shah Jahan's reign as a grave intended for his True love, Mumtaz Mahal. The item symbolizes Mughals creativity and architecture good results and also too much economic bills at any given time when sources had been shrinking. The economic positions associated with peasants and artisans didn't strengthen for the reason that the current administration never makes almost any sustained adjust within the active sociable design. There is simply no motivation with the income representatives to generate sources separate associated with the concepts received on the Hindu zamindars and also whole village leaders, which, on account of self-interest and also regional prominence, didn't give over this whole on the levy revenues towards imperial treasury. Due to their huge dependence on revenues earned by lands the Mongols unwittingly nurtured armies become the reason of this break-up of the empire.

Aurangzeb

Aurangzeb was the final of the Great Mughal ruler. While in his fifty-year reign, this empire had reached towards his greatest physical size and also confirmed unshakable indications towards decline. The bureaucracy had been grown corrupted and that Mongol armies used expired weaponry and old tactics. Aurangzeb refurbished Mughal armed forces prominence and also widened the power southward, a minimum of for some time. Aurangzeb was facing a series of competitions against the Pathans in Afghanistan, the sultans of Bijapur and Golkonda within the Deccan, the Marathas within Maharashtra along with Ahoms and Assam. Peasant uprisings and revolts by regional leaders started to be well widespread, while would this conniving of the nobles be able to sustain their very own reputation in the expenditure of the slowly worsening empire.

The improving relationship of his government with Islam additionally widened the gap between the ruler and his Hindu servants. Contenders against the Mughal throne had been a lot and the reigns of Aurangzeb successors had been short-lived and stuffed with strife. Due to the separation of the regional Nawabs who founded their independent kingdoms, The Great Empire experienced a lot of reversing. During the war time of 27 years from 1680 to 1707.The Mughals encountered many heavy defeats by the Marathas. They had no choice but to make peace with Maratha armies and Afghan armies which had invaded Delhi and had stolen many treasures including the Peacock Throne in 1739.