Chapter: 2

The Study Area: The City of Calcutta

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Boundaries of Calcutta City

2.3 Physiographic Setting

2. 4 Geological Structure

2. 5 Climatic Condition

2. 6 Demographic Structure

2. 6.1 Density of Population, 2. 6. 2 Migration, 2. 6. 3 Sex Ratio, 2. 6. 4 Religious Composition.

2. 7 Land Use Pattern

2.8 Housing

2. 8.1 Density of Houses, 2. 8. 2 Crowding in Residential Areas, 2.8.3 Type of Housing.

2. 9 Conclusions

2.1 Introduction

The City of Calcutta was established by traders of the English East India Company to

tap the rich natural resources of the Gangetic Valley of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa. 1•

The site where Calcutta was established was a typical rural area in the delta of lower

Bengal - a flat rice-swamp with a few scattered villages on the riverbank interspersed

with patches of jungle.

Job Charnock, an agent of the Company, had earlier made several attempts in

establishing an English fort and a city in this region. He had tried three places,

Hooghly, Uluberia and Hijli on the course of the river and had given them up for

various reasons. Eventually he chose a site near village Sutanuti where in 1686 his

men built a few clay and straw huts for a temporary stay near the village market.

The reason behind his choice perhaps was the proximity to several populous villages

and hats (periodic markets) from where labour and other provisions could be

obtained. Moreover, Bator, the oldest seat of European trade in Bengal was situated

~m the opposite bank where the docks were available for "repairing and filling the ship

bottoms" and provided good anchorage. It also served as an excellent moat against

any sudden attack by the Marathas who were invading the western parts of Bengal at

that time. There were also no Mughal fortifications nearby and land was available at a

very low price. Nearer the bay, but just above the swampiest level, Sutanuti occupied

a more naturally advantageous position, both commercially and strategically as

compared to the French settlement at Chandemagore founded in 1676.

Job Charnock withdrew the English factory from Hooghly in 16862 to Sutanuti, but it

was not till August 1690 that he succeeded in establishing a firm footing in that

village. In 1691 the English obtained a patent from Aurangzeb allowing them to trade

free of customs duty, on condition of an annual payment of Rs. 3,000. But it took

1 Kidwai, Atiya Habeeb (1987): Gateway Cities of Asia- Calcutta 1800-1981; Project Report; Indian Council for Social Science Research; New Delhi, pp.76-78.

2 Kidwai, Atiya Habeeb: (1989): Colonial Calcutta: A Scaffolding for Urban History (1690-1911); Working Paper Series; CSRD I SSS I JNU; New Delhi; pp. 6-7.

23

some years, before the English were allowed either to fortify their factory or to

exercise jurisdiction over the natives employed by them.

Map: 2.1 City of Calcutta

1690

HAORA

KAUGHAT

J In 1698, the East India Company purchased the two villages3 of Sutanuti and

Gobindpur.4 They acquired Kalikata from Savarna Ray Chaudhury, who held the

zamindari right of the area, by bribing the newly appointed Viceroy of Bengal5• The

area extended for about 3 miles along the eastern bank of the Hooghly and about 1

mile inland6•

In 1700 the Court of Directors urged the Company servants to develop the settlement

as a mercantile centre. Thereafter, the settlement gradually began to grow and take

shape. In 1707 the Company was induced to declare Calcutta a separate Presidency,

accountable only to the Directors in London. The first survey of the area showed that

the pivot of the settlement was Lal Dighi or the Great Tank (present Dalhousie

3 Of theses villages, Sootalooty was the northern most, being situated near Hatkbola in the Koomartooly ward, Calcutta was somewhere between the present mint and the Custom House, and Govindpore occupied the site ofthe new Fort William, including the Race Course; cited in S.K. Munsi (1990) The Genesis ofthe Metropolis2 p.44.

4 In an old map by Capt. Cameron (without date) Govindpore is marked on the site of the present racecourse. In Orme's map, Govindpore is placed on the riverbank near Hastings of Kidderpore.

5 Nair, P.T.(l986): Calcutta in the Jfh Century; Calcutta: Firma KLM Private Ltd; p.39. 6 Deb, Raja Binay Krishna (1905):The Early History and Growth of Calcutta; Calcutta: Romesh

Chandra Ghose. p. l6.

24

Square) near which most of the European residences were located. The Indian

population lived mainly to the north of Bara Bazaar, the great native mart where their

business was located. Sandwiched between these two localities were the slums of the

Portuguese who had begun to migrate to this settlement, near their church at Moorgi

Hata, after the destruction of their settlement at Bandel. They were soon to outnumber

the English population, four to one, making Portuguese the lingua franca of the town

for nearly a century7•

In 1717, the Company obtained from the Mughal Emperor the confirmation of all their

former privileges8 and the permission to purchase 38 more villages extending on both

sides of the Hughli for a distance of ten miles9. Howrah, across the river was also

included in the deal. The expanded settlement covered an area of 685 hectares (1692

acres).

The physical limits of the Company lands were further extended in 1752 and 1754

when Holwell, then Zamindar, purchased some 'out towns' and 'Simla' 10. These

'out-towns' were Banian Pukur, Puggladanga, Tangra and Dolland. In 1752 the area

under the Company according to Holwell thus became 1316 hectares (3253 acres I

5422 bighas).

In 1756 the town was briefly captured and renamed as Alinagar by Siraj-ud-daulah. In

1757, Clive and Watson retrieved it just before the Battle ofPlassey. The prospects of

the settlements completely changed after these events. The Company's treaty with

Jafar Ali Khan granted them the Zamindari11 of24 Parganas. In 1758 a 'sunnud' was

7 Op. cit; footnote 2; p. I 0. 8 The English Company sent an embassy to Delhi in 1715 for the confirmation of its privileges. It

succeeded in 1717 in obtaining a new farman or charter from Farukh Siyar. Murshid Quli Khan, the governor of Bengal, agreed to observe the first article of the farman which confirmed its rights to trai:le in Bengal, free of customs in return for an annual sum of Rs.3000.- See Sinha, J.C. (1927), Economic Annals of Bengal, London: McMillan, p.5.

9 The permission to purchase the villages was given as a compensation for the services of William Hamilton, Surgeon at the Embassy to Delhi who had treated the Emperor of a troublesome swelling in his arm.- See Martin, James R. (1837) Notes on the Medical Topography of Calcutta. The names of these villages still survive in Calcutta, viz. Cossipur, Chitpur, Belgachia, Bagmari, Beliaghata, Benia pukur, etc.

10 The purchase of Simla added 544 hectares ( 134 7 acres I 2245 bighas) to the Company land. See. op.cit, footnote 2; p.16.

11 Jagirdari was a salary, whereas, Zamindari gave ownership title.

25

obtained for the free tenure of the town of Calcutta, and finally in 1759 Lord Clive

was officially declared the Jagirdar of 24 Parganas.

The years immediately following the Battle of Plassey were very important in terms of

the social ecology of Calcutta 12• The Court of Directors of the Company decided that

'separate districts' should be allotted to the workmen of the Company. Holwell,

hence, distributed his tenants into groups according to their occupation and allotted

each group a distinct quarter in the town. Thus originated the to/as, the to/is, and the

paras, meaning quarters of the different trade guilds. The town was also sharply

demarcated into the European and Native town 13.

Map. 2.2

Indian T 01M1

I

lt l\

\

TOIMld CALCUTTA

Map. 2.3

CALCUTTA Localities- Indian Town

" 0 0 ., .. -

.., .

(1152- 1156}

Rambagan Pathur .. thata Shwt.h

:!! Jtrasanlo K uareapara

: : 4. ~ Chore Bat an

~ Battsto&a ID lluchooa Bazar Jhamapullur

NaharH Arm ant To.. Jal .. al'ttola Tola

Doom Toa.te

Soortea Bagan

Cotootota

Thuntuneaa .. .q

Chtnapura +'~ Choonagully

Champatola

Source: Map No.2: Sinha,Pradip (l978):Calcutta in Urban History; Calcutta:Finna KLM Private Limited.

Map No.3: Kundu, A.K.(l996): Atlas of the city of Calcutta; NATMO; Calcutta:GOJ.

The Native Town "extended along the river, haifa mile north ofthe Old Fort. It then

consisted of 3 or 4 villages, more or less remote from each other and from the English

factory" 14• The physical extent of the native town was as follows: along the riverside

from Barabazaar to Bagbazaar on the edge of the Chitpur creek; inland it stretched in

a series of hamlets over the tract between the Ditch and the Kalighat-Road. The richer

12 Op.cit, footnote 2; p.l9. 13 Op.cit, footnote 2; p.20. 14 Ray, A. K. (1982): A Short History of Calcutta; Calcutta: RDDHI; p.205

26

natives crowded in Kumartoli, Jorabagan, Barabazaar, and other areas along the

riverside and built their houses in a quadrangle approached through a narrow lane for

considerations of security and privacy. The poor natives and artisans built their small

huts made of straw and mud in front of these rich mansions. They not only paid high

rents but also provided security to the rich.

The Europeans belonging to the lower classes began to expand in two ribbon

developments along the Bow Bazaar and Dharmatola Streets, running eastwards from

the main European settlement.

The Regulating Act of 1774 ofthe British Parliament made Calcutta the seat of British

India and Warren Hastings was made the first Governor General. In 1775 a royal

farman was obtained which granted the jagirdari of 24 Parganas to the Company in

perpetuity. These two events led to the first major physical expansion of the original

urban nucleus15•

The physical expansion of the town after 1774 followed a layout characteristic of

indigenous Indian towns which, barring a few exceptions, were never dominated by

large-scale plans.

Based on the historical study of the growth of the city of Calcutta, Figure 2.1 shows

the physical growth of the city during the period under study. It is clear that the town

area remained constant but suburbs were added to the city to accommodate the

growing population. The area under the Port and Canals, however, reduced over time.

15 Op. cit; footnote 2; pp.25-26.

27

Figure: 2.1

• e c(

1876 1881 1891

.,...

..; ..,

.,...

1901

Growth of Calcutta Urban Area

(So. KRL)

1911 1921 1931

.,...

..; .,... .,...

- Fort/Port/ Canal c::::::JAddtional Area

1941

Town Prope r

c:::::::JGrand Total --Unear (Grand Total) --Unear (Add ~i onal Area)

- Linear (Fort/Port /Canal) --Unear (Town Proper)

2.2 Boundaries of Calcutta City

.,...

.,; C>

The City had no legally defined boundaries before 1794. Popularly, the Fort 1William

region, old or new, was referred to as the city of Calcutta and the rest being E opean

'suburbs' or 'native town' 16• The first attempt at definition came from Alexander

Hamilton, in 1708-1710: "The Company's Colony is limited by a land-mark at

Governarpore (Gobindapur) and, another near Barnagul (Baranagar), about six

miles distant; and the Salt-Water Lake bounds it on the land side" 17•

The earliest official description dates from 1754: "The Company 's Settlement of

Calcutta is situated upon a bow of the River Ganges the Points of which are Salmon 's

Garden to the southward and Perrin 's Garden to the Northward. Our bounds extend

16 Nair, P. T.(l990): "The Growth and Development of Old Calcutta", inS. Chowdhury (ed.) Calcutta: The Living City; VoL 1: The Past; Calcutta: Oxford University Press; p.13.

17 Ibid; p.l3

28

inland in a kind of curve too, the greatest distance of which from the River is about a

l f"l d ,]8 1v.a e an a quarter .

In 1774, Warren Hastings proposed the boundaries of Calcutta for policing purposes

asi9:

SOUTH- Carry Jurie (Khari Juri, a village underMathurapur Thana);

NORTH- Palta, a village in Calcutta Pergunna;

EAST- Baddadherry (Bidyadhari) River;

WEST- River Ganges.

A 1779 judgement cited the " Kidderpore Nullah" as the southern boundary,

completing the circuit of the Hughli and the Maratha Ditch or Circular Road.

The boundaries of Calcutta for municipal and judicial purposes were at last fixed in

1794 by the governor-general, Lord Cornwallis, and practically remained the same

until 186720• A proclamation of 11th September 1794 gave a detailed account, which

was adequately summarized in an Act of 1840:

NORTH- Maratha Ditch;

EAST - Circular Road (constructed along the eastern portion of the Ditch);

WEST- the Hooghly River;

SOUTH- Lower Circular Road to Kidderpore Bridge and Tolly's Nullah to

the river, including the Fort and Cooly Bazaar (Hastings).

The Municipal limits expanded thereafter. Act XVI of 1847, excluded Fort William,

Hastings and Maidan areas from the municipal jurisdiction and thereby, the southern

boundary became the Lower Circular Road and the Chowringhee Road demarcated

18 Nair, P.T.(l989): Calcutta Municipal Corporation at a Glancei._Calcutta: The Calcutta Municipal Corporation; p.3. -Salmon's Garden was situated neaar the Kidderpore Bridge and Perrin's Garden was situated at Baghbazar. Probably, Marhatta Ditch formed the eastern boundary.

19 op.cit, footnote I; p. 13. 20Goode, S.W.(l916): Municipal Calcutta: Its Institutions in Their Origin and Growth; Edinburgh: T.

& A. Constable; pp. 6-7.

29

the southwestern boundary. Hastings was again included within Calcutta by Act V of

186821•

Meanwhile, the suburbs of Calcutta were defined in 1857 and a separate Suburban

Municipality was set up in 1876. Finally, in 1889, extensive changes were made in

the boundaries of the Calcutta Municipal Corporation. The old suburban Municipality

was split into: North Suburban (Chitpur and Kashipur), East Suburban (Maniktala),

Suburban (Garden Reach) and South Suburban (Tollyganj) municipalities.

The earliest list of thanas, both police and municipal administration was prepared in

1758.

Table: 2.1 Division or Thannahs of Calcutta (Calcutta Gazette, 9 June' 1785)

!.Armenian Church 2. Old Fort

3. Chand paul Ghat 4.South of Great Tank

5. Dhurramtolla 6. Old Court House

7. Duntulla 8.Amrahgully and Panchanand Tank

9 .China Bazaar 10. Chandni Chowk

11. Trul Bazaar 12.Chuook Danga

13. Gouh mah poker 14. Lunluncah Bazar

15. Simlal Bazaar 16. Gober Dingar

17. Molungah and Putool Dungah 18. Sham Pucknuah

19. Bytakhannah 20. Pudda puckreah

21. Soam bazaar 22.Joor sanko

23. Coomar tulley 24. Jaun hazar

25. Mutchua bazaar 26. Sootanuty haut colla

27. Dinga bangah 28. Hanse pookriah

29. Duoy hattah 30. Jora bagaun

31. Coolimbah

21 Op.cit; footnote 20

30

Map: 2.4

Wards of Calcutta Municipality

1850 1876-81 1891 -1921

~~

Between 1850 and 1881 , the total area under the Calcutta Municipal Corporation was

divided into 18 Thanas or Wards. The Corporation area was divided into 25 Wards

and their boundaries were defmed in the Third Schedule to the 1888 Act. The fringe

area wards formed portions of Thanas of Ooltadangah, Manicktolla and Beliaghata,

before the amalgamation of the greater part of the old suburbs with the Corporation in

31

1889. The area and number of wards of the Corporation remained unchanged between

1891 and 1921 when the Census took place. The municipalities of Cossipore­

Chitpore, Manicktolla and Garden Reach were amalgamated with the Corporation in

1923 and thereby, increasing the number ofwards to 32 in the 1931 Census. The area­

of the Corporation decreased in the 1941 Census and again increased in the 1951

Census22.

2.3 Physiographic Setting

Physiographically, Calcutta is a typical riverine city surrounded by marshes, tidal

creeks, mangrove swamps and wetlands23• The meandering river Hooghly is the very

lifeline of the city. A stretch of narrow belt of comparatively high natural embankment

(known as levee), some 2 - 5 kilometres wide stretches along the east or left bank of ' the river. This gradually slopes down to flat low-lying alluvial plains on the east.

There is a misconception in the minds of some people of Calcutta that the City is

saucer-shaped24. The topography of Calcutta is such that the riverbank of the Hooghly

or Bhagirathi is elevated, having its natural slope away from the riverbed. The

average elevation of Calcutta is 17 feet above the sea level with a maximum elevation

of 30 feet. At Kidderpore, it is between 19 and 22 feet; in the east near Salt Lake City

it is about 18.5 feet; and near the Netaji Subhas Road (formerly called Clive Street) it

is above 22 feet. The average slope, though not uniform, is in general from west to

east i.e. from the east bank of the Hooghly to the Salt Lakes. The marshes and swamps

that developed into Calcutta were on the east and Southeast of Netaji Subhas Road.

The natural drainage of the city was in a southeasterly direction. Manicktolla, Sealdah,

and Park Circus, are artificially raised areas.

22 Op. cit; footnote 18; pp.6-7. 23 Das Gupta, Siva Prasad ( 1990):"The Site of Calcutta: Geology and Physiography''; in S. Choudhury

(ed.): Calcutta: The Living City: VoL 1: The Past; Calcutta: Oxford University Press; p.2. 24 Das Gupta, Subir Kanta (1991): "Drainage of the Calcutta Area: An Overview"; in Biplab DasGupta,

et al(ed) Calcutta's Urban Future: Agonies from the Past and Prospects for the Future; Calcutta: Government of West Bengal; pp.302-318.

32

Calcutta had its natural drainage in the Khat (creek) that gave the city its name when

Job Charnock selected Sutanuti for the headquarter of the East India Company's trade

in Bengal in 1690. That creek originated from the Salt Lakes in the east and joined

the Hooghly just below the Princep Ghat, after meandering through Beliaghata,

Sealdah, Creek Row, Dharmatola and Government Place North. The great Cyclone of

1737 rendered this creek useless as a watercourse for navigation. The excavation of

Maratha Ditch (the present Acharya Jagadish Bose Road and Acharya Prafulla

Chandra Road- Old Lower and Upper Circular Road) in 1742 tolled the death-knell

of the Creek. This interference with the natural drainage of Calcutta gave rise to the

problem of water-logging in the town which is the main problem pointed out by Lord

Wellesley, Governor General, in his famous Minute of June 16,1803.

The Central Lake Channel of the Bidyadhari extended right up to the Creek Row even

in the late 1830s. From the fact that the depth of this Khal was no less than 20 feet at

Dhapa, one would surmise that the channel was much deeper that what was required

for a safe and sufficient outfall. The excavation of the Circular canal from Entally to

Hooghly for navigation rendered this old channel ineffective in carrying the natural

drainage of Calcutta.

Map: 2.5

Calcutta and Its Environment

Dum D urn

'

CALCUTTA Bel1agh ata

- -- S~ld-.a-0-F o rt Wilham

6

K idderpore - ·~. Ali p~r Dhakuria

... . ,..

Tollygunge Jadavpu r

c,.,­•,

33

2.4 Geological Structure

Calcutta is situated on the east bank of the river Hoogh.ly about 60 miles from the Bay

of Bengal. The region is a part of the world's largest deltaic zone at the mouth of

River Ganges. A series of "bore-operations" conducted under the superintendence of

a Committee of naturalists from December 1835 to April1840 revealed:

• A complete absence of marine deposits throughout the depth ofthe borehole;

• The existence of a peat-bed at 30 to 35 feet, and again at 382 to 395 feet below

the surface; and,

• The existence in considerable quantities, of fine sand and pebbles like those of the

seashore at 170 to 180 feet and at 320 to 325 feet, and again at 400 to 480 feet

below the surface. The greater part of these pebbles was derived from gneissic

rocks.

Rai5 points out that in remote antiquity, gneissic hills stood out from the sea where

Calcutta now is. At a later date - probably during the tertiary period - these hills were

depressed and tidal swamp extended up to the foot of the Rajmahal hills. Thereafter

the lower Gangetic plains below the Rajmahal hills began to be elevated by fluvial

deposits about 4000 to 5000 years ago. The extension of the delta was from the north

and west to south and east. Near Calcutta, an elevation of the area has alternately been

followed by a subsidence. In historical times the extreme southeastern portion,

including the districts of Khulna, Jessore, Sundetbans, and Calcutta, was not fully

formed in the seventh century A.D., when East Bengal was sufficiently inhabited to

form the nucleus of a kingdom.

Calcutta rests on a clay bed deposited by rivers forming the lower plain of the

Gangetic delta26• The clay overlies a thick pile of alluvial sediments deposited in the

recent geological era. The upper 300 metres of this alluvial pile clearly belong to the

25 Op. cit; footnote 14; p.8 26 Op.cit; footnote 23; p.4.

34

Quaternary age (commencing about 1.5 million years ago). It consists of successive

layers of clay, silt, sand and sometimes coarser sediments or even pebbles. These sub­

surface layers have not yet been clearly divided or classified. But a tentative division

can be made as follows:

o The existence of a thick clay layer at a depth varying from 254 metres

in the north of the city to 414 metres at Garia in the south. South of

Garia, the clay bed slowly rises.

o An extensive clay bed, 30 to 60 metres or even more in thickness,

which caps the entire sedimentary pile within the city proper. On the

southern periphery, especially at Tollygunje, this thins off and is hardly

9 metres thick. Sometimes the clay cap is overlain by thin, disjointed

strips of silts and fme sands, especially in depressions and along old

abandoned riverbeds. Elsewhere, peaty matters occur at many places

within the clay cap, at depths of 3 metres or thereabouts. Both the

bottom clay and top clay are sticky and plastic to semi plastic m

character, impervious to water and dark grey in colour.

o Between them lie thick layers of sand of varying grain sizes: fme,

medium, coarse, or even somewhat gravely. Small isolated patches of

clay are often set among them, or sometimes a pebble zone of varying

thickness (from 4 metres at Dhakuria to 25m at Kidderpore). Even

deeper pebble zones, at a depth of some 130 metres, have been found

at Taratola in southwest Calcutta.

The subsurface sandy layers of great thickness can hold plenty of water in the pore

space between th~ ~iq~ ~d &ijpP; the quantity of wat~r ~kpt(ndin~ on the size of the

grains. Thick sand beds, trapped between impervio~~ y'~y f~y((rs ~t the top and

bottom, serve as immense water reservoirs in the city.

Calcutta is, as it were, balanced upon a huge natural raft of clay, literally floating on

an enormous reservoir of water stored within the sand grains underneath. This

groundwater is held under great pressure exerted by the alluvial sediments above

35

them. The pressure falls or rises as water is pumped up in large quantities for human

use, or brought back into the sandy aquifers (water-bearing layers) through

underground seepage of rainwater. The layer of clay has been tunnelled through and

through to provide for sewerage, water-supply pipes, power cables, etc.

2.5 Climatic Condition

Calcutta has a subtropical climate with a seasonal regime of monsoons. The maximum

temperature reaches about 108° F or 42° C in May, and the minimum falling in

January to 44°F or 7°C. For the eight months, from March to October, the average

temperature remains above 80° F or 26.6° C. The greatest changes occur between the

months of October and November, and again between January and February.

On the basis of rainfall the entire year in Calcutta may be divided into four periods27:

o The period of excessive rainfall (monsoon months between June to

September);

o The period of minimum rainfall (winter months between November to

February); and,

o Two periods of intermediate rainfall (March to May; and October).

The average annual rainfall is about 64 inches. The highest average rainfall per day

occurs in June.

2.6 Demographic Structure

A historical study of the demographic structure of the city is constrained due to the

non-availability of population data before 187228• It is believed that during the last

ctecade of the sixteenth century after King Pratapaditya lost his little kingdom,

fishermen and cultivators from the upper riparian regions as well as a number of

Brahmins with their servants from Halisahar, Neemta, Triveni and Y osohara migrated

to the areas later included in Calcutta. Early records quote that one Lakshmi Kanta

27 Cunningham, Dr. D. D. (1880): "Medico-Topographical Report on Calcutta"; Indian Medical Gazette; May 1; pp.113-117.

28 Ghosh, A. K. (1991): "Ecology and Environment of Calcutta"; in Biplab Das Gupta, et al (ed.) Calcutta's Urban Future: Agonies from the Past and Prospects for the Future; Calcutta: Government of West Bengal; pp.60-83.

36

Ganguli (1570-1649) was allotted a tenancy of land including 'Pargana Kalikata'. His

earliest office (kutcherry) was beside the present Dalhousie Square Tank, locally

known as Laldighi. Apart from the Setts and Basaks in Govindapur village, some

references are found about Bhuvaneshwar Chakravarti and his relatives, the priests of

Kali temple at Kalighat, and forefathers of Maharaja Nabakrishna. Before the English

settlement came into being the Portuguese settled a cotton factory 'Alogodam' at the

site of Clive Street. The Armenians were also well settled in Calcutta by then29•

Table: 2.2 indicate the change in population of the city prior to Census evaluations.

Table. 2.2 Population of Calcutta Prior to Census

Source Year rrotal Population Hamilton's 1717 12000 Holwell 1752 1409056 Mackintosh's 1782 500000 Grand pre 1789 ~00000 !Police ~ommissioner 1800 500000 Chief Magistrate 1802 600000 Sir E. Hyde's 1814 700000 lEast India Gazetter 1815 500000 ~ssesso'S 1821 179917 Captain Steel's 1831 187081 Captain Birch's 1837 229714 Simm's 1840 ~61369 ~hief Magistrates 1850 1413184 IDowlean's 1866 ~52874

Source: Compiled From Different Reports

The city experienced a rapid growth of population, which was steady in the main town

area; steep (though lower than the main town area) in the added areas of the Calcutta

Municipal Area and more or less a constant in the Port-Fort-Canal areas.

29 Ghosh, Murari; A. K. Dutta and Biswanth Roy (1972): Calcutta -A Study in Urban Growth Dynamics; Calcutta: Firma K. L. Mukhopadhaya Private Ltd.; p.3.

37

Figure: 2.2

1878 1881 18!t1

Population of Calcutta (In Number) (1876-1941)

1901 1911

rmePeriod

1921 1931

TownPropor -~ c:J-/irea c:JCALCUTTA

1941

- u.- (Town Proper) - u.- (CALCUTT AI - Lne• ~--_, -Lne• (ForVI'IortiCIIMI)

2.6.1 Density of Population

With the expanding area and increase in the size of the population, the density of the

population also changed over time. From Figure: 2.3 it is clear that from 1876 to

1941 the density of population of Calcutta city as a whole remained constant,

increased rapidly in the 'main town' area, showed a gradual increase in the 'added

areas' , and remained constant in the 'Fort/Port/Canal areas' .

Figure. 2.3

70000 Density Of Population - Calcutta

1876 1881 1891

I T~ Proper - FortiPort/Ccnll

- Li1ear (T~ Proper) - Li1ear (CALCUTTA)

1901 1911 1921 1931 1941

Time Period

CJAdditional Aceta CJ CALCUTTA ---r - Li1ear (Additional Aceta) -Li1ear (Fort/Portl~

38

The ward wise distribution of density in Calcutta (see Maps 2.6) shows that between

1876 and 1941,

o Shampooker, Burtolla, Waterloo Street, Collinga, Park Street, Baman Bustee,

and Hastings had a Low density of population, varying between 1,500000 -

21,499 persons per sq. km. in 1876 and 1881.

o The density of population increased in most of the wards of the city between

1891-1921, except in the Added Areas and Waterloo Street, Collinga, Park

Street and Baman Bustee, where, the density of population varied between

1,500- 21,499 persons per sq. km. In 1931, the Burra Bazar area had a low

density of population followed by Waterloo Street, Kalinga, Park Street,

Baman Bustee, Tengra, Entally, Ballygunge, Alipore, Ekbalpur, Watgunge­

Hastings, Garden Reach, Tollygunge, Beliaghata, Maniktola, Belgachia,

Satpukur and Cossipur wards. By 1941, only Waterloo Street, Park Street,

Baman Bustee I Victoria Terrace, Ballygunge, Alipore, Ekbalpur, Watgunge­

Hastings, Beliaghata, Manicktola, Belgachia, Satpukur, and Cossipur wards

retained 'low density' of population.

o Between 1876 and 1931, most of the northern wards of the 'town proper', i.e.

Shampooker, Kumartuli, Burtolla, Sukea's Street, Jorabagan, Jorasanko,

Collootola, Moocheepara, Bow Bazar, Puddopooker, Fenwick Bazar and

Taltolla, had 'medium' (21,500 - 41,499 persons per sq. km.) to 'high'

(41,500 - 61,499 persons per sq. km.) density of population. By 1931,

Beniapukur and Bhowanipore wards of the 'added area', recorded 'medium'

density of population. In 1941, 'medium' and 'high' density of population was

observed in Burra Bazar, Entally, Beniapukur, Bhowanipore, Kalighat and

Tollygunge areas.

o 'Very high' density of popul~liOJl, varying between 61,500- 110,000 persons

per sq. km. was observed in the northern wards ofthe 'town proper' in 1941,

i.e. in Shampooker, Koomartooly, Burtolla, Sukea's Street, Jorabagan,

Jorasanko, Colootola, Moocheepara, Bow Bazaar, Puddopooker, Fenwick

Bazaar, and Taltola. Prior to 1941, such a high density was observed only in

Colootola in 1901.

39

• The Port-Fort-Canal areas of the city had a very low density of population

varying between 200- 1,117 persons per sq. km.

Map: 2.6

Changing Pattern of Density of Population in Calcutta- Ward Wise

Index

PopUation (per Sq. Km)

D 200-1499 D 1500-21499 D 21500-41499

41500 - 61499

- 61500-81499 - 81500-11()(0)

Maps not to Scale

40

Changing Pattern of Density of Population in Calcutta- Ward Wise

2. 6.2 Migration

Index

PopUatioo (per Sq. Km)

D 200-1499 D 1500 - 21499 D 21500-41499 D 41500- 61499 • 61500- 81499 • 81500 -110000

This rapid increase in the population of Calcutta during the Colonial period was a

result of migrants converging on the city from a vast hinterland in search of a

livelihood. From Tables 2.3, 2.4 and 2.5 it is clear that nearly 60 to 67 percent of the

population of Calcutta came from outside, i.e. they migrated into the city from the

neighboring districts of Bengal and other provinces of India. People from Bihar and

Orissa had moved into Calcutta as early as 1891 followed by people from Punjab and

Rajputana. The maximum immigration took place in 1901 and 1911. The Burdwan,

Presidency, and Dacca Divisions contributed the maximum number of migrants from

Bengal Province.

Table. 2. 3 Proportion Of Migrants In Calcutta

Year Percenta2e of total population 1876 1881 1891 1901 1911 1921

Born in Calcutta 32.5 40.26 39.8 45.25 41.17 48.12 Mi2rants 67.5 59.74 60.2 54.75 58.33 52.88

Source: Raza and Habeeb(l991): "Characteristics of Colonial Urbanization- A Case Study of the Satellitic Primacy"; in M.S.A. Rao et al.(eds) A Reader in Urban Sociology; N Delhi: Orient Longman.

4 1

Table. 2.4 Migration into Calcutta From Different Parts of India

Migrants From 1881 1891 1901 1911 1921 Ben2al N.A. 241051 257951 278979 274697 Bihar 59495 121642 139345 150478 125202

Orissa 13027 25518 26483 N.A. 43851 Assam N.A. N.A. 2630 4986 2951 British Burma N.A. NA. N.A. N.A. 1044 Uttar Pradesh N.A. N.A. 90337 89635 67433 Pun.iab 278 N.A. 6235 8261 7150 Rajputana 143 494 14701 20888 28339 Bombay N.A. N.A. N.A. 3243 4931 Madras N.A. N.A. 1875 2944 3235 Central Province & Berrar N.A. N.A. N.A. 2535 4669

Source: Chattopadhyaya, Haraprasad (1987): Intemal Migration in India: A Case Study of Bengal; Calcutta: K. P. Bagchi and Company.

Table. 2.5 Migration into Calcutta From Other Districts of Bengal

Divisions 1891 1901 1911 1921 Burdwan Division ~9.54 ~2.44 43.55 38.37 Presidency Division ~6.97 42.19 42.14 38.96 Rajshahi Division ~.66 1.69 1.3 2.5 Dacca Division 11.14 10.52 9.99 16.61 Chittagong Division 1.69 3.16 2.95 3.43 Cooch Behar Division 0.07 0.13 Total 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00

Source: Haraprasad Chattopadhyaya(1987):Internal Migration in India: A Case Study of Bengal; Calcutta: K. P. Bagchi and Company. ·

2. 6.3 Sex Ratio

The sex wise composition of the population of Calcutta during the period under study

shows that there were more males than females in the city. Figure: 2.4 indicate the

changing pattern of sex ratio in the city. It is also observed that there has been a

decline in the sex ratio between 1876 and 1941 in the main town area as well as in the

added areas of the city. On the other hand, the sex ratio in the Port/Fort/Canal areas

has increased at a very low rate.

42

Figure. 2.4

8D Changing Pattern Of Sex Ratio In Calcutta

1m Em SD 400 :m 3D 100

0

1876 1881 1891 1901 1911 1921 1931

c::JC:IIaJia - Urear(TOMPI"c:p!r) - l..irea"(Mild Aea)

-Unar (RitlfafCnli)- Urear(QIICUia)

The ward wise analysis of sex ratio in the city of Calcutta given in Map: 2. 7 reveals

that:

• The sex ratio had been low and ranged between 90 and 849.

• Wards with a very low sex ratio were Port-Fort and Canal areas of the city

followed by Waterloo Street (1876 -1941), Barnan Bustee (1901), Park Street

(1911), Burra Bazar (1911 - 1941) and Fenwick Bazar (1931-1941).

• 'Medium' sex ratio, ranging between 215-500, was observed mainly m

Jorabagan, Collootola, Moocheepara, Bow Bazar, Fenwick Bazar (1876-

1921 ), Taltolla, Collinga, Park Street, Ali pore, Watgunge, Ekbalpur and

Hastings wards of the city.

• 'High' to 'Very high' sex ratio rangmg from 501-850 was observed in

Sharnpooker, Koomartooly, Burtolla, Sukea's Street, Jorasanko, Puddopooker,

Moocheepara (1876-1901), Taltolla, and Collinga (1876-1901), Hastings,

Tengra, Entally (1891-1931), Beniapukur, Ballygunge, Bhowanipore,

Ekbalpur and Tollygunge, Puddopooker (1876), Ballygunge, Tollygunge,

Bhowanipor~ (1891-1901), Ekbalpur (1891), and Beliaghata (1931); i.e. the

wards lying on the outskirts of the main town area during the period of growth

ofthe city.

43

Map. 2.7

Changing Pattern of Sex Ratio Of Population Calcutta- Ward Wise

Index

Female /1000 Male

D 90-214.99 D 215 - 339.99 D 340 - 464.99

465-589.99 590-714.99

- 715-850

Maps Not to Scale

44

2.6.4 Religious Composition

Index

Female /1000 Male

D 9o -214.99 D 215 - 339.99 D 340 -464.99 D 465 - 589.99

590-714.99 - 715-850

Maps Not to Scale

It is necessary to have an idea about the religious composition of the people in the city

as it plays a very important role in understanding the socio-cultural aspects of the

population.

Figure. 2.5

70

II)

~!I) :§,4) ! ~:I)

3)

'I)

0

1876 1881 1901 1911 1921 1931

c:::JQhers J Urew (Qhersj

- Mc:termedln; c::l CITistiii'IS

- Urear~- Lilea'(antanst

45

From Figure 2.5 it is clear that the Hindus outnumbered the population of other

religions in the city. Nearly 60 to 70 per cent of the total population of city were

Hindus, 25-30 per cent were Muslims, 4- 7 per cent were Christians and less than 4

per cent included other religions such as Jewish, Armenians, Chinese, Parsees,

Buddhists, Sikhs, etc. The changing pattern of the religious composition of the

population in the city shows that over time the Hindu population increased marginally

while the Muslims, Christians and Other groups decreased.

Based on the Report submitted by the Smallpox Commission in 1850, we find that

Calcutta was divided into three main divisions with specific dominant religious

communities.

• Northern Division was predominantly Hindu, comprising of wards -

Shampooker, Koomartooly, Burtolla, Jorabagan, Jorasanko, and Sukea's

Street;

• Middle Division was predominantly European, comprising of Bow Bazaar,

Burra Bazaar, Colootola, Moocheepara, St. James' Street, and Mangoe Lane;

and,

• Southern Division was predominantly Muslim and comprised of Park Street,

Fenwick Bazaar, Taltola, Collinga, Baman Bustee and Coolly Bazaar.

Table: 2.6 indicate that relatively the Hindus were more in number in the Northern

Division. Their proportion decreased in the Middle Division and the Southern

Divisions. The Muslim community was relatively dominant in the Southern Division

but their proportion decreased in the Middle Division and the Northern Divisions.

The ruling classes i.e. the Europeans were more numerous in the Middle Division

followed by the Southern Division. The Eurasians were mainly concentrated in the

Southern Division followed by the Middle Division and Northern Division. Nearly all

the Armenians and Chinese resided in the Middle Division. Among the other Asiatic

communities, nearly 73 per cent lived in Middle Division, 25 per cent in the Southern

Division and only 2.3 per cent in the Northern Division.

46

Table: 2.6

Community Wise Distribution of Population in Calcutta 1850

Communities North Div. Mid Div Sn Div. Total

Europeans 0.53 60.07 39.40 100.00

Eurasians 2.64 46.83 50.53 100.00

Armenians 0.56 99.33 0.11 100.00

Chinese 0.00 99.76 0.24 100.00

Asiatic 2.33 72.88 24.79 100.00 Hindus 51.92 37.44 10.64 100.00 Mohammedans 24.72 34.32 40.96 100.00

Total 41.23 38.63 20.14 100.00

Source: Report of Smallpox Commission 1850

Table. 2.7 Ward Wise Distribution of Different Communities in Calcutta 1850

Sections Europeans Eurasians !Armenians Chineese !Asiatic Hindus Mohammedans

~orasanko 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.55 13.23 7.12 Koomartooly 0.06 0.09 0.00 0.00 0.00 11.94 1.67 Shampooker 0.05 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.00 6.49 1.29 Burtolla 0.19 1.19 0.00 0.00 0.00 9.54 11.87 §_ookea's Street 0.11 1.34 0.56 0.00 0.23 3.36 1.81 Jorabagan 0.11 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.55 7.73 0.99 Bowbazar 13.25 24.29 0.56 22.31 15.73 2.73 4.18 Burra Bazaar 11.47 0.56 89.13 28.57 14.91 17.08 8.83 Colootola 6.85 5.96 8.52 47.34 18.73 5.46 8.11 Moocheepara 10.91 2.45 1.01 0.00 4.77 7.36 10.40 ~t. James Stree 6.69 11.96 0.11 0.00 5.10 4.19 1.51 Mangoe Lane 10.89 1.82 0.00 1.53 0.59 0.62 1.24 Parkstreet 8.15 2.21 0.00 0.00 0.10 0.61 1.06 Fenwick Bazar 9.66 27.67 0.00 0.00 0.00 3.62 10.83 Taltolla 6.63 10.12 0.00 0.00 23.31 1.48 12.51 Colinga 6.69 5.94 0.00 0.12 6.79 2.59 12.27 Bamun Bustee 5.47 1.41 0.11 0.00 7.63 1.03 2.41 Coolley Bazar 2.81 2.97 0.00 0.12 0.01 0.94 1.92

Total 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 Source: Report of Smallpox CommiSSion 1850

The ward wise distribution of the religious communities for the years 1876, 1881,

1901, 1921 and 1931 is shown in Map 2.8. The analysis shows that Hindu population

was highest in most of the wards of the city with some exceptions during the period

under study. Muslims were dominant or in high proportions in Collootola, Taltola,

Colinga, Port, Bow Bazar (1881 and 1901), Beniapukur (1901-1931), Ekbalpur

47

(1901), Garden Reach (1931) and Ballygunge (1931). Christians were dominant in

the Fort area with a comparatively high proportion in Bow Bazar, Waterloo Street,

Fenwick Bazar, Taltola, and Colinga. By 1921 Christians dominated Park Street, and

Baman Bustee wards of the city.

Map: 2.8

Changing Pattern of Religious Composition of Population Calcutta - Ward Wise

Index

Maps Not to Scale

48

Changing Pattern of Religious Composition of Population Calcutta - Ward Wise

1921

Calcutta Ward Map

1931

N

A

1931

N

A

Index

Religious Groups Hndus NkJSiims Christians Others

Maps Not to Scale

49

In 1876, the 'Others' category dominated Fort William area, but over time, Christians

and the Hindus became higher in proportion. By 1921 people belonging to ' other'

religious groups were high in the Fort area, Burra Bazaar and Colootola wards.

2. 7 Land use Pattern

With the growth of the City the original land use pattern also changed. Figure 2.6

indicates the land use pattern of the three hamlets I villages which mainly constituted

the city of Calcutta. In the early years of the eighteenth century nearly 50 to 70 percent

of the land was under agricultural use, followed by jungle area, which was around 30

to 40 percent of the total land area. Only 10 percent of the land was under built up

houses, tanks, gardens, paths and other immediate uses.

Figure. 2.6

Land Use Pattern of the Hamlets that grew into City of Calcutta - 1706

Swm1i Town d Blzaar Gobindaptr Calcutta Calcutta

The Subdivisions of CalaJtta

Ia HOUSES • TAN<S & PATHS • AGRICLl.TlRALUSE D GARlENS • DfTCHES • J I.N>LE o MSTEGR<XN> I

Source: Chatteljee, Monidip: "Settlement Pattern in the Calcutta Metropolitan Area - A futuristic Vision"; in Biplab DasGupta, et al (ed)(l991): Calcutta's Urban Future: Agonies from the Past and Prospects for the Future; Calcutta: Government of West Bengal.

Table: 2.8 show the change in the land use pattern of the city between the eighteenth

and the twentieth centuries.

50

Table. 2.8 Changing Land Use Pattern Of Calcutta Since 1706

Area Covered in °/o of Total Land Land Uses 1706 1847 1911 1961

Residential 16.61 63.92 41.72 61.65

Commerce (includin_g_ offices)- 0.67 9.61 12.09

Industry - - 0.82 2.35

Public & Semi-Public - 1.42 4.42 6.76

Transport &Communication 6.26 11.95 - -Recreation (incl. organised open space) 8.81 0.23 1.39 3.16

Slums - - 15.2 6.24

Agriculture 40.13 - - -Water body - 1.65 - -Forest, barren, vacant ponds,

and marshes 28.19 20.16 - -Others (non-specified) - - 26.84 7.84

TOTAL 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 Source: Chatteijee, Monidip: "Settlement Pattern in the Calcutta Metropolitan Area - A futuristic Vision"; in Biplab DasGupta, et al (ed)(l991): Calcutta's Urban Future: Agonies from the Past and Prospects for the Future; Calcutta: Government of West Bengal.

Based on the above information we find that over time and with the increase in the

population, the percentage of land for residential purposes has increased. It is also

observed that along with the planned construction of residences in various parts of the

city, the growth of slum areas have also increased which was negligible in the initial

years. The area under agriculture and forest has decreased over time and the vacant

lands, and marshes have been cleared and ponds filled to build residences and other

buildings for commercial and other purpose. This changing pattern of land use has

not only changed the geography of the region but also decreased the carrying capacity

of the land. This had its effect on the health of the inhabitants.

2.8 Housing

Provision of adequate housing is necessary for a healthy urban life30• The city of

Calcutta exhibits certain peculiarities in the array, structure and design of houses,

roads, lanes and bye lanes, and in the pattern of dwellings and accommodation

facilities.

30 Mitra, Manimanjari (1990): Calcutta in the 2ff' Century - An Urban Disaster; Calcutta: Asiatic Book Agency; p.l73.

51

A proclamation was issued in 1695 permitting persons desirous of living in Sutanuti

to "erect houses at their pleasure, on any site ... in any portion of the wastelands

belonging to the Company"31• Since Charnock did not have the Emperor's

hukumnama (paper of official permission), which gave the company freedom to

construct brick buildings, the first buildings had mud walls and were thatched. They

consisted of a warehouse, a dining house, a secretary's office, a room to sort clothes

in, a cook room, and an apartment for the Company's servants, three houses for agents

and the guardhouse. The only masonry building the English settlers acquired was the

cutchery (courthouse) of the earlier Indian Zamindar32• The factory establishment

consisted of a doctor, 6 senior merchants, 3 junior merchants, 7 factors and 4 writers.

Although the English Company obtained an Imperial order as early as 1691 to

continue trade on yearly payment, nothing was done to clear jungles, construct roads

or build houses. The early traders lived either in mud hovels or in the cabins or

forecastles of their ships or worse still in small country boats in the stifling heat and

torrential rains of Calcutta33• In 1700 A.D., Charles Eyre got instructions to build a

fort and name it after William III. In 1702 the President's House was commenced

which took four years to complete. In 1706 the old factory house was pulled down

and in its place was erected a single-storied house for the servants of the Company -

the first "Writers' Building". But it was not till the death of Aurangazeb in 1707, that

the English had any real opportunity of fortifying the settlement. By this time the other

European merchants had built their houses on the eastern side of the Fort, the western

side being lapped by the Hooghly. The pivot of the settlement was "The Green before

the Fort", now called "Lal Dighi" by the Indians and "Dalhousie Square" by

Europeans34•

31 Charnock's letter to the Company Directors in England, March, 1695, cited in C.R.Wilson (1906), Old Fort William in Bengal, Vol.l p.246.

32 Ray,A .K. (1902): A Short History of Calcutta- Towns and Suburbs; Part I; Vol. VII; Census of India-1901; p.28.

33 Bagchi, P. C. (ed.) (1938): The Second City of the Empire; 25th Session of the Indian Science Congress Association; Calcutta; p. 34.

34 Ibid; p.35.

52

The first brick and mortar house any native in the city possessed was the estate house

of Savama Chowdhury beside Laldighi35• The first survey of Calcutta, done in 1706,

estimated the area of Calcutta at 685 hectares, with 8 pucca (permanent) houses and

8,000 kutcha (temporary) houses, and 2 streets and 2lanes.

The localities inhabited by natives, around Bara Bazaar, generally referred to as the

'native' or 'black' town, continued to be an amalgam of straw huts. Only 16 dust­

ridden lanes served the settlement and were secured by a gate at the Palisade and at

the ghats. This humble town, surrounded by swamps, marshes and tiger infested

jungles, was, however, very rich.

In the next fifty years, i.e. by 1756, the area almost doubled to 1307 hectares, and the

number of 'pucca' houses increased to 498, i.e. more than sixty times while, the

number of 'kutcha' houses increased to 14,450 i.e. less than two times. In that year

Calcutta had 27 streets, 52 lanes and 75 by-lanes36•

The new Fort William necessitated substantial alterations in the town plan of Calcutta.

The Indian dwellings along the riverbank were cleared to obtain space for the large

fort and the tiger infested jungle at Govindapur began to be cleared to provide open

land called the 'Maidan' for a free view and firing space.

The house rents in Calcutta were high so people kept constantly building. Since this

was done without a plan, the town soon became "as awkward a place as can be

conceived; so irregular that it looked as if all the houses had been thrown up the air

and had fallen down by accident"37•

Table 2.9 indipates the numerical growth of residential houses in the city of Calcutta

to cater to the increasing population during the eighteenth century.

35 Op.cit; footnote 29; p.74. 36 Ghosh, Santosh Kr.{l991): "Calcutta's Urban Growth and Built Form"; in Biplab Das Gupta et al.

edited Calcutta•s Urban Future: Agonies From the Past and Prospects for the Future; Calcutta: Government of West Bengal, p.l36.

37 Op. cit; footnote 2; p.21.

53

Table. 2.9 Number of Houses in Calcutta (Eighteenth Century)

I Year I Pucca I Kutcha I Total

11706 l8,ooo 18,008

11726 113,300 113,340

11742 1121 114,747 114,868

11756 114,450 114,948

11794 11 ,114 113,657 114,771 Source: Ray, A. K. (1902): A Short History of Calcutta- Towns nd Suburbs; Part I; Vol.

Figure. 2.7

• • • ::0 0 :z: , .! ... ::0 u u 0 ... 0

0 z

VII; Census oflndia - 190 1; p. l25.

1 40000 Growth of Total Occupied Houses In Calcutta

120000

100000

80000

60000

4 0000

20000

0

"' "' N "' • ~ ~ .... 0 "' "' ~ ~ ~ .... 0 "' ~ ... 0 N • "' "' N .. .. ... "' .... "' "' 0 ~ N N .. .... .... .... .... .... .... .. .. .. ., .. .. .. .. "' "' "' "' "' • ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

"' ~ Time Pe ri o d

I = T o tal --L i ne ar (T o tal) I

From Figure 2. 7 it is clear that there has been a rapid, and at times fluctuating increase

in the number of occupied houses. The fluctuations were caused by several disasters

and sieges in the eighteenth century, which destroyed many houses in the city. Many

huts were also cleared for digging the Marhatta Ditch in 1742; for the building of the

new Fort William (1758-1776) in Gobindapur; and for the construction of the

Government House between 1798 and 1803. In 1780 about 15,000 straw houses were

destroyed in fire.

54

In 1782 Warren Hastings divided the 'black town' and the 'white town' into 35 wards

and pushed the natives further awa~8• A number of garden houses were built in the

outskirts ofCalcutta. By a treaty in 1757, the area up to 600 yards on both sides ofthe

Marhatta Ditch came under the control of the English. It was filled up and the

Circular Road was built.

2.8.1 Density of Houses

The overall density of houses i.e. number of houses per sq. km. remained more or less

constant between 1881 and 1941 [See Figure 2.8] . However, a sharp increase in the

density of houses is observed in the ' town proper' and to a lesser extent in the 'added

areas' of the town. In the Port-Fort-Canal area, the density of houses was extremely

low and remained more or less constant.

Figure. 2.8

1 2 0 00 e Density of Houses In Calcutta

:.:: cT

1 0 0 00

1/)

~ 8 0 00 .. 11. .. .. 6 0 00 .. "' 0

:1: 4 0 00

2 0 00

0

1 a 81 1 8 9 1 1 9 01 19 1 1 1 9 21 1 9 31 19 41

Tim e P e rio d

Town Proper - AdditionaiArea

=F or 11 P o r1/C a n a I = C A L C U T T A

--Linear(Town Proper) - Linear(CALCUTTA)

-- L i n • a r (A d d i ti o n a I A r e a ) - L in e a r ( F o r t /P o r tl C a n a I )

The spatial and temporal analysis of 'density of housing' in Calcutta, as shown in Map

2.9 shows a more or less 'medium' (1 000- 2499 houses per sq. km.) to 'high' (2500-

5999 houses per sq. km.) density in most ofthe wards of Calcutta. 'Low' density of

housing (<1000 houses per sq. km.) is observed mainly in the Port-Fort-Canal areas,

Waterloo Street, Park Street, Baman Bustee and Hastings wards of the ' town proper'

and in the later time period in Ballygunge-Tollygunge, Alipore, Entally, Beniapukur

38 Op. cit; footnote 36; p.l36.

55

and Entally wards of the 'added area'. A 'very high' density of housing (i.e. more

than 6000 houses per sq. km.) in Calcutta has been observed since 1901. Between

1901 and 1941 most of the wards in the ' town proper', except Burra Bazaar, Waterloo

Street, Park Street and Baman Bustee, had very high density of housing. The ' added

area' ofKalighat, Entally and Beniapukur also had very high density of housing.

Map. 2.9

Changing Pattern of Housing Density Calcutta- Ward Wise

I ndex

No . o f Hou s es (Per Sq . Km . )

0 - 499 .99 500 - 2499.99 2500 - 4499 .99 4500 - 6499.99 6500 - 8499 8500 - 10499 10500 - 21100

Maps Not to Scale

56

Changing Pattern of Housing Density Calcutta- Ward Wise

Index

No. of Houses (Per Sq . Km .)

0 - 499 .99 500 - 2499 .99 2500 - 4499.99 4500 - 6499 .99 6500- 8499 8500 - 10499 10500 - 21100

Maps Not to Scale

57

2.8.2 'Crowding' in residential areas

Apart from analysing the density of houses in an urban area, it is also necessary to

have an idea about the density of population in each house i.e. 'crowding' in each

house, as this has an impact on health of the people living in it. It is clear from Figure

2.9 that though the 'density of population' in each house decreased over time, the

number of persons per house has remained more than 5.

Figure. 2.9

25

CD 2 0 Ill :I 0 J: 15 ... CD

a. 1 0 c: .2 -.!! 5 :I Q. 0 a. 0

Density of Population per House in Calcutta

1 88 1 1 8 9 1 1 90 1 1 91 1 1 9 2 1 1 93 1 1 94 1

Time Per i od

T ow n P ro p e r -- A d d i ti o n a I A re a

=Fort/Port/Canal =CALCUTTA

--Line a r (T o wn Proper) --Line a r (Add i tion a I Are a)

-L i n e a r IF o rt/P o rt/C an a I) - Line a rIC A l CUT T A)

The spatial and temporal analysis of 'crowding' i.e. number of persons per house in

each ward of the city is shown in Map 2.10. The analysis indicates that in 1881, most

of the wards had a relatively low crowding rate of 1-5 person per house except in Park

Street, Waterloo Street, Collootola and Baman Bustee where 16- 25 persons resided

in each house. In 1891 Park Street, Fenwick Bazaar, Collootola and Hastings had 16-

25 persons per house. The other wards had a moderate rate of crowding i.e. 6 - 15

persons per house. This high density, however, is not indicative of overcrowding in

these wards as there were huge palatial houses in these areas built by the Europeans.

Hence, it cannot be said that the houses were crowded in these wards.

58

Map. 2.10

Density of Population Per House in Calcutta- Ward wise

Index

per 0 1-5 0 6-15 - 16-25 - 26-41

Maps Not to Scale

59

Density of Population Per House in Calcutta- Ward wise

Index

per 0 1-5 0 6-15 · 16-25 ·3;-41

Ma~ Not to Scale

60

In 1901, 1-5 persons per house were recorded in Alipore, Hastings, Ekbalpur and

Ballygunge-Tollygunge wards while the other wards recorded 6-15 persons per house.

The 1911 Census shows an extraordinary high rate of crowding in each house of the

city when the minimum number of persons (15) in one house was recorded in

Bhowanipore and maximum ( 41) in Ekbalpur ward. In 1921, a high rate of crowding

varying between 16-25 persons per house was recorded in Park Street and Hastings

wards; normal (1 - 5) in Beniapukur, Collinga, Watgunge, Khidderpore, Ekbalpur,

Entally, Taltolla, Fenwick Bazaar, Moocheepara, Puddopooker, Bow Bazaar, Alipore,

and Collootola. Rest of the wards recorded moderate crowding varying between 6 -

15 persons per house. By 1931 - 1941 most of the wards recorded normal to moderate

rate of crowding.

2.8.3 TypeofHousing

From the point of view of structural characteristics, the houses of Calcutta can be

broadly classified under two types39:

i) Kutcha or temporary constructions with wall material of grass, leaves, reeds

or bamboos; timber; mud; un-burnt bricks or metal sheets and of roof

materials like, grass, leaves, reeds thatch, wood or bamboos, tiles, slates,

shingles or other metal sheets; and,

ii) Pucca or permanent constructions with wall materials like burnt bricks and

. lime, cement concrete and stone slabs and roof materials of brick lime or

cement concrete.

The rapid urban growth since the early eighteenth century led to a very haphazard

growth of houses and accommodation facilities in the city. The slums or 'bustees' in

Calcutta sprang up to house the urban poor. Bustees were called 'native village' in old

records and the slum houses were simply designated as 'huts'. Both these were the

seedbeds of disease and epidemics. There were no 'thatched huts' in the Corporation

39 Op. cit; footnote 30; p. 173.

61

area as they were prohibited in 1837. According to the Administration Report of the

Calcutta Municipality for the year 186840,

"A bustee, or native village, generally consists of a mass of huts constructed

without any plan or arrangement, without roads, without drains, ill-ventilated,

and never cleaned. Most of these villages are the abodes of misery, voice, and

filth, and the nurseries of sickness and disease. In these bustees are found

green and slimy stagnant ponds, full of putrid vegetable and animal matter in

a state of decomposition, and whose bubbling surfaces exhale, under a

tropical sun, noxious gases, poisoning the atmosphere and spreading around

disease and death. These ponds supply the natives with water for domestic

purposes, and are very often receptacles of filth. The arteries, which fed these

tanks, are the drains that ramify over the village, and carry the sewage of the

huts into them... paths are so narrow and tortuous that it is difficult for a

stranger to find his way through ... The huts are huddled together in masses,

and pushed to the very edge of the ponds... and the intervening spaces,

impervious to the rays of the sun are converted into toilets, used by both the

sexes in common ... "

It is clear from Figure 2.10 that in the initial years of the city's growth, the number of

Kutcha houses was more than the Pucca houses but gradually and mainly after 1911

'pucca' houses outnumbered the 'kutcha' houses when the 'Calcutta Improvement

Trust' took after the maintenance of the city administration.

In the middle of the nineteenth century, Calcutta was divided into northern and

southern divisions. The northern division extended from the line of Burra bazaar and

Lal bazaar Street to the Chitpur canal and contained 9,823 masonry buildings and

41,917 huts. According to Mr. Simm's Report in 1850, the number of habitations

within the jurisdiction of the Commissioner of the Town of Calcutta was 61,400.

40 Op. cit; footnote 18; p.l61.

62

Figure. 2.10

Share of Pucca and Kutcba Houses

27.13 21 .0821 .8422.33 21.32

0. 10 0.30 0. 81

Table :2.10

II ~ .. .. == ~ i ~

!!. I =: ~

:c ~ ~ e ~

: 5 : ... ..

Time Period j-+- Pucca ~ Bustee/Kutcha J

Type of Houses in Calcutta - 1850

Number of Residences Pucca Houses Huts 1 Storied Pucca Houses 5,918 -2 Storied Pucca Houses 6,438 -3 Storied Pucca Houses 721 -4 Storied Pucca Houses 10 -5 Storied Pucca Houses 1 -Total 13,088 48,312 Grand Total ofHabitations 61,400

Source: Administration Report of Calcutta Corporation - 1856-59.

By 1866, the total area of the city increased along with population. The house types

were:

Table. 2.11 Type of Houses in Calcutta- 1866

No. Of House Types No. Of Pucca houses Huts

5 storied house 1 -4 storied house 26 -3 storied house 999 -2 storied house 7677 -1 storied house 7272 -TOTAL 15975 42917

Total Number of Houses 58892 Source: Report of the Census of Calcutta - 1866.

63

Considering the spatial distribution of houses in the city, it is clear from Table 2.12

that their total number was more in the northern division of the city than the southern

division. The northern division possessed high rise pucca houses, which varied from

one story to five stories. Although European and their allied population dominated

the southern division of the city, there were plenty of huts that probably housed the

domestic workers of these palatial houses occupied by rich people.

Table. 2.12 Distribution of Different Types of Houses

in Calcutta - 1866

Northern Southern House Types Division Division Total

Pucca 5storied house 1 0 1 4storied house 22 4 26 3storied house 764 235 999 2storied house 5777 1900 7677 1 storied house 5144 2128 7272 Huts 31120 11797 42917 Total 42828 16064 58892

Source: Report of the Census of Calcutta- 1866.

Table. 2.13 Type of Houses in Calcutta - 1876

No. of Huts I Kutcha House Types No. of Pucca Houses Houses

5 storied houses 2 4 storied houses 34 3 storied houses 1187 2 storied houses 8636 1 storied houses 7037 Total 16896 22860 Grand Total 39756

Source: Census of Calcutta- 1876.

Note: Out of 16,896 'Pucca Houses', 15,667 houses were inhabited. Out of22,860 'Kutcha

Houses I Huts' , 22,195 were inhabited. 'Huts I Kutcha Houses' were 'Tiled' and not

'Thatched' . Off the total 'Kutcha Houses I Huts', 1 , 120 had upper storied and 21 , 7 40 were

single storied.

The temporal analysis of house types in Calcutta shows that between 1881 and 1891 ,

the share of Pucca house in the city was comparatively low and these were

concentrated in District II followed by District I and District III. But over time, there

was a sharp increase in the number of Pucca houses in all the districts.

64

Figure. 2.11 Types of Houses in Different Districts of Calcutta

District I tD D. 1strict II !II v Ill vv lO

~ Ill

Sl r--. 4J r--. 3) r--. 3) 1------

1------11

h h t- l.i 0

~

- .. 1111 1117 11111 - 1!BI - - .. 1IJI 1117 11111 - 1!BI --- --!o~tm~otwa-L.iwfbDt-Liwf'Jrht!

District III District IV

- .. 1111 1117 11111 - 1!BI -

11 -- 1111 - 1IJI 117 11111 - 1!BI --!o~tm~ twa- L.iwfbDt-Liwf'Jrht!

District Wards

I Shampooker, Koomartooly, Burtolla, Sukea's Street, Jorabagan, Jorasanko, Belgachia, ~ Satpukur and Cossipur.

II Burra Bazaar, Collootola, Moocheepara, Bow Bazaar, Puddopooker, Waterloo Street, ., Beliaghata and Manicktola.

Ill Fenwick Bazaar, Taltolla, Collinga, Park Street, Baman Bustee, Tengra, Entally, Beniapukur, Ballygunge.

IV Bhowanipore, Alipore, Ekbalpur, Watgunge-Hastings, Garden Reach, Tollygunge and Kalighat.

2.9 Conclusions

• The English East India Company established the city during the last decade of

the seventeenth century. The main purpose for the establishment of a

settlement on the eastern part of India was to control the rich natural resource

of the Bengal, Bihar, Orissa and Assam plains.

65

o The site chosen by the Company consisted of three small hamlets or villages

on the left bank of river Hooghly. These were located on a comparatively

higher level than its surrounding areas.

o The English settlement known as Calcutta, gradually expanded on the eastern

side of the original site along the riverbank. This led to the clearing of the

jungles, uplifting of the marshy areas and filling up of the ponds and ditches.

o Physiographically, this site was low lying and was traversed by numerous

rivers and channels like the Hooghly, Bidyadhari and their tributaries. The

general slope of the land was to the eastern side towards the Salt Lake area

instead of the river in the west.

o Geologically, the city rested on a clay bed deposited by rivers forming the

lower plains of the Gangetic delta overlying a thick pile of alluvial sediments.

The subsurface consisted of a thick layer of sandy soil that trapped huge

quantity of water and served as a water reservoir.

o Climatologically, the area lies within the tropical zone and experiences a hot

and humid climate for most parts of the year. Rains are heavy and

temperatures are very high. Winter is mild and short.

o The process of Calcutta's growth had been more or less continuous from the

seventeenth century. The area of the town increased from 1692 acres in 1717

to 20,714 acres in 1941 and the population increased from 12000 in 1717 to

2108891 persons in 1941. Thereby, the density of population also increased

over time. The main or the core area of the town was the area in and around

the Fort William and Burra Bazaar- that included the wards ofBurra Bazaar,

Waterloo Street, Fenwick Bazaar, Park Street, Hastings and Alipore.

o With the establishment of the city, people from different parts of Bengal as

well as from other parts of the country moved into Calcutta mainly in search of

a livelihood. Most of the migrants into Calcutta during the early part of the

nineteenth century hailed from Bihar, Orissa, Punjab and Rajputana. The

migration stream was male selective.

o The sex ratio was 500 females per 1000 male population in the city. It was

lowest in the Port-Fort-Canal areas, followed by the wards that formed the

main business town i.e. in the wards of Waterloo Street, Baman Bustee, Park

66

Street, Fenwick Bazaar and Burra Bazaar inhabited by the White population.

The outer wards had a comparatively higher sex ratio than the above­

mentioned wards in the town.

o Hindus were the dominant religious community in the city followed by the

Muslims, Christians and Others who were Jewish, Parsis, Sikhs, Buddhists,

Jains etc. The foreigners, who inhabited the city during the period under

study, were English, but also Irish, Scots, Armenians, Chineese, Africans, and

many others.

o The city was clearly divided into three major zones based on the pattern of

settlement of the people of different communities. The northern zone i.e. the

'Native Town', the southern zone i.e. the 'White Town' and in between, the

'Intermediate Town' accommodating the Armenians, and other Eurasians who

served the English East India Company.

o The density of population was high and went on increasing in the original

town area comprising of the main 18 wards.

o The housing situation also underwent major changes. Initially most of the

houses consisted of small huts. Later the 'White Town' was planned and

palatial brick houses were constructed. The 'Native Town' also had multi­

storeyed brick buildings but the poor people, both native and foreigners, lived

in small-congested huts. The housing density was high in the non-European

wards of the city. In most of these houses, the average number of people

residing were more than five. The number of people per house in the European

Town was much more than the city average but the houses in the 'white town'

were huge and could conveniently accommodate a large number of people. It

is difficult to calculate the 'crowding index' in the city because systematic data

is not available for the period under study.

Thus, within two centuries, the City of Calcutta grew into a major port town of British

India. This rapid growth, however, made it a very unhealthy city.

67