The Structure of Scientific Revolutions By Thomas S. Kuhn

The Structure of The Structure of Scientific Scientific

RevolutionsRevolutionsByBy

Thomas S. KuhnThomas S. Kuhn

Introduction: A Role for Introduction: A Role for HistoryHistory

This chapter begins with an introduction to This chapter begins with an introduction to various frameworks including:various frameworks including:

- The foundation of the scientific communityThe foundation of the scientific community- The belief development processThe belief development process- The element of arbitrariness – this indicates The element of arbitrariness – this indicates

the importance of a “set of perceive beliefs”the importance of a “set of perceive beliefs”- Scientific Revolutions – this includes “the Scientific Revolutions – this includes “the

community’s rejection of one time-honored community’s rejection of one time-honored scientific theory in favor of another”. Theory scientific theory in favor of another”. Theory and paradigm redevelopment is hindered by and paradigm redevelopment is hindered by resistance or adaptation to change.resistance or adaptation to change.

The Route to Normal The Route to Normal ScienceScience

Normal science is defined as “research Normal science is defined as “research firmly based upon one or more past firmly based upon one or more past scientific achievements, achievements scientific achievements, achievements that some particular scientific that some particular scientific community acknowledges for a time as community acknowledges for a time as supplying the foundation for further supplying the foundation for further practice”practice”

Achievements must be (1) Achievements must be (1) Unprecedented, and (2) Open-EndedUnprecedented, and (2) Open-Ended

These achievements can also be referred These achievements can also be referred to as “paradigms”to as “paradigms”


Paradigms have furthered the Paradigms have furthered the research process by:research process by:

1.1. Creating an inquisitive processCreating an inquisitive process

2.2. Developing alternative Developing alternative methodologiesmethodologies

3.3. Determining the relevance of Determining the relevance of disciplinary functionsdisciplinary functions


How are paradigms developed?How are paradigms developed? - It begins with a “collection of facts”- It begins with a “collection of facts”- A “school” or a “movement” encourages A “school” or a “movement” encourages

collection of these factscollection of these facts- Continuous development leads to the Continuous development leads to the

emergence of one paradigmemergence of one paradigm- The new paradigm “implies a new and The new paradigm “implies a new and

more rigid definition of the field”. It leads more rigid definition of the field”. It leads to “the formation of specialized journals, to “the formation of specialized journals, and the foundation of specialists and the foundation of specialists societies”.societies”.

The Nature of Normal The Nature of Normal ScienceScience

Upon their initial appearance, paradigms are Upon their initial appearance, paradigms are “very limited in both scope and precision”“very limited in both scope and precision”

Paradigms offer “the promise of success”Paradigms offer “the promise of success” ““Normal science consists in the actualization Normal science consists in the actualization

of that promise, an actualization achieved by of that promise, an actualization achieved by extending the knowledge of the facts”extending the knowledge of the facts”

Non-practitioners don’t understand the Non-practitioners don’t understand the “mop-up” work that is required for paradigm “mop-up” work that is required for paradigm redevelopment (although it can “prove to be redevelopment (although it can “prove to be quite fascinating”).quite fascinating”).

The Nature of Normal The Nature of Normal ScienceScience

What are the problems with normal What are the problems with normal science?science?

1.1. Fact-gathering and determinationFact-gathering and determination2.2. Matching paradigm theory with factual Matching paradigm theory with factual

determinationsdeterminations3.3. ““Empirical work undertaken to Empirical work undertaken to

articulate the paradigm theory”articulate the paradigm theory” These problems of normal science These problems of normal science

“exhaust the literature of normal “exhaust the literature of normal science, both empirical and theoretical”science, both empirical and theoretical”

Normal Science as Puzzle-Normal Science as Puzzle-SolvingSolving

How do you differentiate the ‘puzzle’ How do you differentiate the ‘puzzle’ and the ‘puzzle-solver’?and the ‘puzzle-solver’?

Why are problems undertaken “if Why are problems undertaken “if failure to come near the anticipated failure to come near the anticipated result is usually failure as a scientist”?result is usually failure as a scientist”?

This is important for paradigm This is important for paradigm selection, as it is a “criterion for selection, as it is a “criterion for choosing problems that, while the choosing problems that, while the paradigm is taken for granted, can be paradigm is taken for granted, can be assumed to have solutions”assumed to have solutions”


What is the purpose of continued What is the purpose of continued research?research?

1.1. The “desire to be usefulThe “desire to be useful

2.2. ExplorationExploration

3.3. Finding orderFinding order

4.4. ““Testing established knowledge”Testing established knowledge”


How do you relate puzzle classification How do you relate puzzle classification to a research question?to a research question?

1.1. It must be characterized “by more than It must be characterized “by more than an acceptable solution”an acceptable solution”

2.2. There must be predefined rules that There must be predefined rules that “limit both the nature of acceptable “limit both the nature of acceptable solutions and the steps by which they solutions and the steps by which they are to be obtained”are to be obtained”

3.3. There must be a “strong network of There must be a “strong network of commitments – conceptual, theoretical, commitments – conceptual, theoretical, instrumental, and methodological”.instrumental, and methodological”.

The Priority of The Priority of ParadigmsParadigms

Although paradigms share some Although paradigms share some consensus the reasons can be consensus the reasons can be indeterminate – reasons for this indeterminate – reasons for this include:include:

1.1. Interpretation disagreementInterpretation disagreement

2.2. Lack of rulesLack of rules

3.3. Attributable characteristics may be Attributable characteristics may be differentdifferent

The Priority of The Priority of ParadigmsParadigms

““Paradigms could determine normal Paradigms could determine normal science without the intervention of science without the intervention of discoverable rules”. This is almost discoverable rules”. This is almost conclusive due to:conclusive due to:

1.1. Difficulties discovering “rules that have Difficulties discovering “rules that have guided normal-scientific traditions”guided normal-scientific traditions”

2.2. The ineptitude of scientific educationThe ineptitude of scientific education3.3. The inability to overcome change – i.e. The inability to overcome change – i.e.

process acceptanceprocess acceptance4.4. Paradigm convergence and divergenceParadigm convergence and divergence

Anomaly and the Anomaly and the Emergence of Scientific Emergence of Scientific

DiscoveriesDiscoveries What is the process of paradigm What is the process of paradigm

change?change?

1.1. It begins with the process of It begins with the process of discovery – discovery is a process discovery – discovery is a process that includes the recognition and that includes the recognition and exploration of an anomaly. exploration of an anomaly.

2.2. It continues with the invention It continues with the invention process or “the novelty of theory”process or “the novelty of theory”


DiscoveriesDiscoveries Consequently, “the more precise and Consequently, “the more precise and

far-reaching the paradigm is, the far-reaching the paradigm is, the more sensitive an indicator it more sensitive an indicator it provides of anomaly and hence of provides of anomaly and hence of occasion for paradigm change.occasion for paradigm change.


DiscoveriesDiscoveries For scientific discoveries to emerge, the For scientific discoveries to emerge, the

development of the first paradigm leads to:development of the first paradigm leads to:- ““The construction of elaborate equipment”The construction of elaborate equipment”- ““The development of an esoteric The development of an esoteric

vocabulary and skills”vocabulary and skills”- The reformation of conceptual frameworks The reformation of conceptual frameworks

that are less likely to be related to their that are less likely to be related to their “common-sense prototypes”“common-sense prototypes”

Crisis and Emergence of Crisis and Emergence of Scientific TheoriesScientific Theories

What happens with large shifts that develop What happens with large shifts that develop due to theoretical creation and redesign?due to theoretical creation and redesign?

It is possible that this leads to insecurity It is possible that this leads to insecurity due to “large-scale paradigm destruction” due to “large-scale paradigm destruction” and “failure to abide by existing rules”and “failure to abide by existing rules”

This failure is thought to arise due to:This failure is thought to arise due to:- ““Discrepancies between theory and fact”Discrepancies between theory and fact”- ““Changes in social/cultural climateChanges in social/cultural climate- ““Criticism of preexisting theory”Criticism of preexisting theory”

Crisis and Emergence of Crisis and Emergence of Scientific TheoriesScientific Theories

Data can be used to create multiple Data can be used to create multiple theory setstheory sets

It can be difficult to differentiate the It can be difficult to differentiate the theories that relate to a new theories that relate to a new paradigmparadigm

The Response to CrisisThe Response to Crisis

How do scientists respond to crises How do scientists respond to crises to reformulate the process of to reformulate the process of paradigm change?paradigm change?

To initiate this process, “anomalies To initiate this process, “anomalies must result in crises, that are the must result in crises, that are the essential precondition for paradigm essential precondition for paradigm change.change.

Crisis are not possible without Crisis are not possible without tension and “counterinstances” tension and “counterinstances”

The Response to CrisisThe Response to Crisis

How do scientists respond to crises?How do scientists respond to crises?

1.1. They may consider alternativesThey may consider alternatives

2.2. They may create derivations that reduce They may create derivations that reduce or eliminate conflictor eliminate conflict

3.3. They may consider a new profession (due They may consider a new profession (due to their inability to handle ambiguities)to their inability to handle ambiguities)

4.4. Their inability to formulate a solution Their inability to formulate a solution could lead to skepticism and/or could lead to skepticism and/or increased scrutinyincreased scrutiny

The Response to CrisisThe Response to Crisis Attributes of an anomalyAttributes of an anomaly1.1. An anomaly must come to fruitionAn anomaly must come to fruition2.2. All anomalous problems cannot by All anomalous problems cannot by

scrutinized due lack of resourcesscrutinized due lack of resources3.3. An anomaly can “question the fundamental An anomaly can “question the fundamental

generalizations of a paradigm”generalizations of a paradigm”4.4. An anomaly must exceed scientific An anomaly must exceed scientific

expectations (i.e. it must be viewed as expectations (i.e. it must be viewed as more than a puzzle)more than a puzzle)

5.5. It is essential for anomalies to resisted It is essential for anomalies to resisted preordained expectationspreordained expectations

The Response to a CrisisThe Response to a Crisis

The Evolution of a Crisis– as a crisis becomes The Evolution of a Crisis– as a crisis becomes “blurred” anomalies develop a unique “blurred” anomalies develop a unique pattern. During this process:pattern. During this process:

1.1. The paradigm diverges into different The paradigm diverges into different “articulations”“articulations”

2.2. The anomaly develops more structureThe anomaly develops more structure

3.3. ““Scientists express their discontent” – this is Scientists express their discontent” – this is furthered with greater interest in the furthered with greater interest in the anomaly.anomaly.

4.4. The crisis leads to the eventuality of “new The crisis leads to the eventuality of “new discoveries”discoveries”

The Response to a CrisisThe Response to a Crisis The End of a Crisis – crises can end with different The End of a Crisis – crises can end with different

possibilities:possibilities:1.1. Scientific thought and strategy leads to successful Scientific thought and strategy leads to successful

crisis responsecrisis response2.2. The crises is reformulated, and left for “more The crises is reformulated, and left for “more

developed tools”developed tools”3.3. Paradigm candidacy – a variety of candidates is Paradigm candidacy – a variety of candidates is

reviewed to determine if there are alternatives – if reviewed to determine if there are alternatives – if there is an alternative available then a paradigm will there is an alternative available then a paradigm will be considered invalid.be considered invalid.

4.4. Paradigm Emergence – paradigms can emerge at Paradigm Emergence – paradigms can emerge at any time, and may carry come permeance.any time, and may carry come permeance.

The eventual transition from a primary to an The eventual transition from a primary to an alternative paradigm leads to a Scientific Revolution alternative paradigm leads to a Scientific Revolution – “and this is the transition from normal to – “and this is the transition from normal to extraordinary research”.extraordinary research”.

The Nature and Necessity The Nature and Necessity of Scientific Revolutionsof Scientific Revolutions

How does a paradigm lead to a How does a paradigm lead to a scientific revolution?scientific revolution?

What is a scientific revolution?What is a scientific revolution? Both of these concepts are related – Both of these concepts are related –

paradigm replacement leads to an paradigm replacement leads to an eventual scientific revolutioneventual scientific revolution


There are striking similarities between There are striking similarities between political and scientific revolutions – political and scientific revolutions – particularly:particularly:

1.1. Inception due to “an anomaly and a crisis”Inception due to “an anomaly and a crisis”2.2. Constituent or member dissatisfactionConstituent or member dissatisfaction3.3. New institutional frameworks are developedNew institutional frameworks are developed4.4. Party formation – parties align themselves Party formation – parties align themselves

based upon ideologiesbased upon ideologies5.5. ““Parties to a revolutionary conflict resort to Parties to a revolutionary conflict resort to

techniques of mass persuasion”techniques of mass persuasion”


Paradigmatic Differences – “these Paradigmatic Differences – “these are impossible to reconcile”, are impossible to reconcile”, however, eventual adoption of however, eventual adoption of alternative paradigm acceptance alternative paradigm acceptance may be affected by “the impact of may be affected by “the impact of nature and logic”, and by using “the nature and logic”, and by using “the techniques of persuasive techniques of persuasive argumentation”.argumentation”.


Assimilation of New Theory – “new theory must Assimilation of New Theory – “new theory must demand rejection of an older paradigm”. demand rejection of an older paradigm”. Furthermore, “new paradigms arise with destructive Furthermore, “new paradigms arise with destructive changes in beliefs about nature”. Based upon this changes in beliefs about nature”. Based upon this analysis, the author believes in the antecedent of analysis, the author believes in the antecedent of the logical positivist view. He believes that:the logical positivist view. He believes that:

1.1. Use of theories by competent scientists “are Use of theories by competent scientists “are immune from criticism”immune from criticism”

2.2. Science cannot make progress without errorsScience cannot make progress without errors3.3. Paradigm acceptance can recreate or “redefine the Paradigm acceptance can recreate or “redefine the

corresponding science”corresponding science”4.4. Based upon the author’s views, “the normal-Based upon the author’s views, “the normal-

scientific tradition that emerges from a scientific scientific tradition that emerges from a scientific revolution is not only incompatible but often revolution is not only incompatible but often actually incommensurable with that which has gone actually incommensurable with that which has gone before”.before”.


Paradigm Development – As new Paradigm Development – As new paradigms are adopted, standards paradigms are adopted, standards adapt themselves to the new thought adapt themselves to the new thought or idea that becomes commonplace. or idea that becomes commonplace. Furthermore, “when paradigms Furthermore, “when paradigms change, there are usually significant change, there are usually significant shifts in the criteria determining the shifts in the criteria determining the legitimacy both of problems and of legitimacy both of problems and of proposed solutions” proposed solutions”

Revolutions as Changes of Revolutions as Changes of World ViewWorld View

How do paradigms change the world? How do paradigms change the world? Do scientific revolutions assist in the Do scientific revolutions assist in the evolution of human thought?evolution of human thought?

These are questions that are thought to These are questions that are thought to have possible answers, including:have possible answers, including:

1.1. The view of scientists The view of scientists does does change change during periods of scientary revolution. during periods of scientary revolution.

2.2. This change in perception is known as a This change in perception is known as a “gestalt shift”, or a “perceptual “gestalt shift”, or a “perceptual transformation”transformation”


There are differences between a There are differences between a gestalt and a paradigm shift:gestalt and a paradigm shift:

1.1. ““A paradigm is a prerequisite to A paradigm is a prerequisite to perception itself”perception itself”

2.2. A gestalt shift requires personal A gestalt shift requires personal recognizance, and may require recognizance, and may require acceptance of an earlier perceptionacceptance of an earlier perception

3.3. A paradigm shift requires A paradigm shift requires acceptance of new ideas or beliefsacceptance of new ideas or beliefs


What causes these shifts?What causes these shifts?

1.1. ““Genius”? “Intuition”?Genius”? “Intuition”?

2.2. Subjectivity in observations?Subjectivity in observations?

3.3. Initial paradigm failure?Initial paradigm failure?

4.4. The relationship between the The relationship between the scientist and the paradigm?scientist and the paradigm?

The Invisibility of The Invisibility of RevolutionsRevolutions

What assists scientific revolutions? What assists scientific revolutions? It is apparent that textbooks support It is apparent that textbooks support

the “emergence of a first paradigm the “emergence of a first paradigm in any field of science”in any field of science”

Textbooks assist in this process by:Textbooks assist in this process by:- ““Being pedagogic vehicles for the Being pedagogic vehicles for the

perpetuation of normal science”perpetuation of normal science”- Solidifying the relationship between Solidifying the relationship between

the academician and the practitionerthe academician and the practitioner


Textbook Revisions – they must Textbook Revisions – they must include “the significance of the include “the significance of the revolutions that produced them”. revolutions that produced them”. They must supplement lost material They must supplement lost material – and they need to determine “what – and they need to determine “what science's best and most persistent science's best and most persistent efforts have made it possible to efforts have made it possible to discard”discard”


The Role of Current Textbooks – The Role of Current Textbooks – scientific textbooks have misled scientific textbooks have misled students to believe “that science has students to believe “that science has reached its present state by a series reached its present state by a series of individual discoveries and of individual discoveries and inventions that, when gathered inventions that, when gathered together, constitute the modern together, constitute the modern body of technical knowledge—body of technical knowledge—the the addition of bricks to a buildingaddition of bricks to a building”.”.

The Resolution of The Resolution of RevolutionsRevolutions

How are scientific revolutions defined? How are scientific revolutions defined? What factors make paradigms What factors make paradigms replaceable?replaceable?

How do scientific theories become How do scientific theories become verifiable?verifiable?

1.1. They must have inherent characteristics They must have inherent characteristics that are probabilisticthat are probabilistic

2.2. The testing of theories must be developed The testing of theories must be developed through falsificationthrough falsification

Does verification include a relationship Does verification include a relationship between “fact and theory”?between “fact and theory”?


What is the cause of paradigm conversion?What is the cause of paradigm conversion?

1.1. The evolutionary cycle of competing elements The evolutionary cycle of competing elements (according to Max Plank)(according to Max Plank)

2.2. According to Kuhn “conversion cannot be According to Kuhn “conversion cannot be forced”forced”

3.3. Conversions occur because of “humanistic Conversions occur because of “humanistic nature”nature”

4.4. There is “quantitative precision strikingly There is “quantitative precision strikingly better than its older competitor.”better than its older competitor.”

5.5. There must be “faith” in the newly accepted There must be “faith” in the newly accepted paradigm.paradigm.


How does a paradigm attain candidacy?How does a paradigm attain candidacy?

1.1. It must gain support from the scientific It must gain support from the scientific communitycommunity

2.2. It will develop a “persuasive argument”It will develop a “persuasive argument”

3.3. It’s exploratory nature will continue to It’s exploratory nature will continue to increaseincrease

4.4. ““The number of experiments, The number of experiments, instruments, articles, and books based instruments, articles, and books based on the paradigm will multiply”on the paradigm will multiply”

Progress Through Progress Through RevolutionsRevolutions

What is progress and how is it defined?What is progress and how is it defined? Progress is an inherent function within the field of scienceProgress is an inherent function within the field of science ““Normal science progresses because the enterprise Normal science progresses because the enterprise

shares certain salient characteristics”shares certain salient characteristics” In other words progress can be seen from a multitude of In other words progress can be seen from a multitude of

perspectives:perspectives:1.1. Progress is subjectiveProgress is subjective2.2. This can be viewed from a social and a natural This can be viewed from a social and a natural

perspective. Which method is more conducive for perspective. Which method is more conducive for effective problem solving? What are the differences in effective problem solving? What are the differences in these fields?these fields?- Social scientists believe in the use of “original sources”, - Social scientists believe in the use of “original sources”, the proper evaluation of alternative solutions, and the the proper evaluation of alternative solutions, and the “selection of competing paradigms”“selection of competing paradigms”- Natural scientists believe in the effectiveness of - Natural scientists believe in the effectiveness of textbooks, and they “are systematically substituted for the textbooks, and they “are systematically substituted for the creative scientific literature that made them possible”creative scientific literature that made them possible”

Progress Through Progress Through RevolutionsRevolutions

Progress also exists due “to the power to select between Progress also exists due “to the power to select between paradigms that reside in the members of the community”paradigms that reside in the members of the community”

““What are the characteristics of a scientific community”?What are the characteristics of a scientific community”?1.1. Individual solutions must satisfy the needs of the Individual solutions must satisfy the needs of the

communitycommunity2.2. ““The community must see paradigm change as progress”The community must see paradigm change as progress”3.3. The paradigm is “embraced” when the scientific The paradigm is “embraced” when the scientific

community sees the need for a problem to be solved community sees the need for a problem to be solved

““We may have to relinquish the notion, explicit or We may have to relinquish the notion, explicit or implicit, that changes of paradigm carry scientists and implicit, that changes of paradigm carry scientists and those who learn from them closer and closer to the those who learn from them closer and closer to the truthtruth ““

ReferencesReferences

Kuhn, T. (1996). Kuhn, T. (1996). The Structure of The Structure of Scientific RevolutionsScientific Revolutions. The . The University of Chicago Press: University of Chicago Press: Chicago, IL.Chicago, IL.

Pajares, F. (n.d.). Pajares, F. (n.d.). Kuhn’s Structure Kuhn’s Structure of Scientific Revolutionsof Scientific Revolutions. Retrieved . Retrieved January 21, 2008, from January 21, 2008, from http://www.des.emory.edu/mfp/Kuhnhttp://www.des.emory.edu/mfp/Kuhn.html.html

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The Structure of Scientific Revolutions By Thomas S. Kuhn