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7/31/2019 THE STORY OF SWITZERLAND BY LINA HUG AND RICHARD STEAD
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THESTORYOFSWITZERLAND
BY
LINAHUGANDRICHARDSTEAD
NEWYORKG.P.PUTNAM'SSONSLondon:T.FISHERUNWIN1890
COPYRIGHT,1890BYG.P.PUTNAM'SSONS
RESPECTFULLYDEDICATEDTOPROFESSORGEORGVONWYSSANDPROFESSORG.MEYERVONKNONAU
PREFACE.
Formanyreasons,someofwhichareobvioustotheleastthoughtful,thehistoryofSwitzerlandispeculiarlyinteresting,andnotleastsotoEnglish-speakingpeoples.Inthefirstplace,the"playgroundofEurope"iseveryyearvisitedbylargenumbersofBritishandAmericans,someofwhomindeedarefamiliarwithalmosteverycornerofit.ThentotheAnglo-Saxonracethegrandspectacleofahandfuloffreemennoblystrugglingforandmaintainingtheirfreedom,oftenamidstenormous
difficulties,andagainstappallingodds,cannotbutbeheart-stirring.TothecitizenofthegreatAmericanrepublicastudyoftheconstitutionofthelittleEuropeanrepublicshouldbringbothinterestandprofit--aconstitutionresemblinginmanypointsthatofhisowncountry,andyetinmanyotherrespectssodifferent.Andfewreaders,ofwhatevernationality,can,wethink,perusethisstorywithoutafeelingofadmirationforagallantpeoplewhohavefoughtagainstoppressionastheSwisshavefought,whohavelovedfreedomastheyhavelovedit,andwhohaveperformedthewell-nighincrediblefeatsofarmstheSwitzershaveperformed.AndasSirFrancisO.AdamsandMr.CunninghamwellpointoutintheirrecentlypublishedworkontheSwissConfederation,asastudyinconstitutionalhistory,thevalueofthestoryofthedevelopmentoftheConfederationcanhardlybe
over-estimated.
FewoftheexistingaccountsofSwisshistorywhichhaveappearedintheEnglishlanguagegobackbeyondtheyear1291A.D.,thedateoftheearliestSwissLeague,andofcourseSwitzerlandasanationcannotboastofanearlierorigin.ButsurelysomeaccountshouldbegivenoftheprevioushistoryofthemenwhofoundedtheLeague.Foracountrywhichhasbeenoccupiedatdifferentperiodsbylakemen,Helvetians,andRomans;whereAlamanni,Burgundians,andFrankshaveplayedtheirparts;whereCharlemagnelivedandruled,andCharlestheBoldfought;where
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thegreatfamiliesoftheZaerings,theKyburgs,andSavoystruggled;andwhencethenowmightyhouseofHabsburgsprang(anddomineered)--allthisbefore1291--acountrywithsuchastorytotellofitsearliertimes,wesay,shouldnothavethatstoryleftuntold.AccordinglyinthisvolumethehistoryoftheperiodbeforetheformationoftheConfederationhasbeendweltuponatsomelittlelength.Itshouldbementioned,too,thatinviewoftheverygeneralinterestcausedbytheremarkablediscoveryoftheSwisslakesettlementsafewyearsago,achapterhasbeendevotedtothesubject.
Mindful,however,ofthesuperiorimportanceoftheformationandprogressoftheConfederation,anendeavourhasbeenmadetotracethatprogressstepbystep,showinghowmendifferinginrace,inlanguage,increed,andinmodeoflife,combinedtoresistthecommonenemy,andtobuildupthecompactlittlestate,wenowseeplayingitspartontheEuropeanstage.ThewholeteachingofthehistoryofthecountrymaybesummedupinMr.Coolidge'swords,inhis"HistoryoftheSwissConfederation"(p.65)."Swisshistoryteachesus,allthewaythrough,thatSwisslibertyhasbeenwonbyacloseunionofmanysmallstates."AndMr.Coolidgeaddsanopinionthat"itwillbebestpreservedbythesamemeans,andnotbyobliteratingalllocalpeculiarities,nowheresostriking,nowheresohistoricallyimportantasinSwitzerland."
Itremainstoaddafewwordsastotheauthoritiesconsultedbythe
writersofthislittlevolume.ThestandardSwisshistorieshavenaturallybeenlargelyused,suchasthoseofDr.CarlDndliker,Dierauer,Vulliemin,Daguet,Strickler,Vgelin,andWeber("UniversalHistory").Amongstotherhistoriesandmiscellaneouswritings--essays,pamphlets,andwhatnot--maybementionedthoseofDr.FerdinandKeller,Wartmann,Heer,Heierli,VonArx,Mommsen,Burkhardt,Morel,Marquardt,Dahn,Bdinger,Secretan,VonWyss,MeyervonKnonau,Schweizer,Finsler,Roget,Bchtold,Marcmonnier,Rambert,Hettner,Scherer,Roquette,Freytag,Pestalozzi,Schulze,andKern.AmongsttheEnglishworksconsultedareFreeman'swritings,theLettersoftheParkerSociety,AdamsandCunningham's"SwissConfederation,"Coolidge'sreprintfromthe"EncyclopdiaBritannica"ofthearticleonthe"HistoryoftheSwissConfederation,"Bryce's"HolyRomanEmpire,"&c.
TheauthorsareindebtedformostkindandvaluableassistancetoseveraleminentSwissscholars.ToProf.GeorgvonWyssandProf.MeyervonKnonauspecialthanksaredue,whilstProf.Kesselring,HerrJ.Heierli,andothers,haveshownmuchhelpfulinterestintheprogressofthework.
ZURICHandFOLKESTONE,July,1890.
CONTENTS.
PAGE
PREFACEix
TABLEOFCANTONSxiii
TABLESHOWINGNAMES,AREAS,ANDPOPULATIONSOFCANTONSxxiv
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I.
THELAKEDWELLERS1-12
DiscoveryofLakeSettlements--Dr.FerdinandKeller'sexplorations--Threedistinctepochs--DailylifeoftheLakemen--LakeSettlementsinEastYorkshire.
II.
THEHELVETIANS13-28
Extentoftheirterritory--Theirgovernmentandmodeoflife--Orgetorix--DivicobeatstheRomanforces--CsarroutsHelvetians--Vercingetorix--Valisians--Rhtians.
III.
HELVETIAUNDERTHEROMANS29-43
Csar'smodeofdealingwithHelvetia--Augustus--HelvetiaincorporatedintoGaul--Vespasian--AlamanniandBurgundians--Christianityintroduced.
IV.
THEANCESTORSOFTHESWISSNATION44-57
TheHunsandtheirravages--Alamanni--Burgundians--"TheNibelungenlied"--TheFrankssubduebothAlamanniandBurgundians--IrishmonkspreachinSwitzerland.
V.
THECAROLINGIANS--CHARLEMAGNE58-70
PepinleBref--Charlemagne--HisconnectionwithZurich.
VI.
THEKINGDOMOFBURGUNDY;THEDUCHYOFSWABIA;ANDTHEGERMANEMPIRE71-82
DivisionofCharlemagne'sterritoryintothree--Rudolfthe
Guelf--SwabianDukes--Genealogicaltables.
VII.
BURGUNDYANDSWABIAUNDERTHEGERMANEMPERORS85-94
Bertha,the"SpinningQueen"--HersonConrad--HelvetiaincloseconnectionwithGermany--HenryIII.--StrugglewiththePapalpower.
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VIII.
THEREIGNOFTHEHOUSEOFZAERINGEN95-100
Theirorigin--Freiburgandothertownsfounded--Bernfounded--DefeatedbySavoy--TheCrusades.
IX.
THEHOUSESOFKYBURG,SAVOY,ANDHABSBURG101-117
FalloftheZaerings--Kyburgdynasty--GrowthofFeudalism--TheHohenstaufen--Savoy--RiseoftheHabsburgs--Rudolf.
X.
THECONFEDERATION,OREIDGENOSSENSCHAFT118-130
TheForestCantons--TheOathontheRtli--RudolfoppressestheWaldsttten--Tellandtheapple--InvestigationastothefactsrelatingtothefoundationoftheLeague.
XI.
THEBATTLEOFMORGARTEN131-137
AttemptonZurichbytheHabsburgs--Albrecht--GatheringoftheWaldpeoples--Austriandefeat.
XII.
THELEAGUEOFTHEEIGHTSTATES139-146
LucernejoinstheLeague--Zurichfollows--WarwithAustria--GlarusattachedtotheLeagueasaninferiororprotectedState--ZugjoinstheUnion--Bern.
XIII.
ZURICHANEXAMPLEOFASWISSTOWNINTHEMIDDLEAGES147-157
AbbeyChurchofourLady--InfluenceoftheLadyAbbess--Citizensinthreeclasses--Theygraduallygainfreedom--Tradeofthecity--Zurichaliterarycentre--Uprisingoftheworkingclasses--Anewconstitution.
XIV.
BERNCRUSHESTHENOBILITY:GREATVICTORYOFLAUPEN158-166
Bernofamilitarybent--FormsaWestSwissUnion--SiegeofSolothurn--BernopposestheHabsburgs--AcquiresLaupen--VictoryatLaupen--LeagueoftheEightStatescompleted.
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XV.
THEBATTLESOFSEMPACHANDNAEFELS167-178
OppositiontoAustria--LeopoldIII.,Characterof--Hisplans--DefeatanddeathatSempach--Winkelried--BattleofNaefels.
XVI.
HOWSWITZERLANDCAMETOHAVESUBJECTLANDS179-189
Acquisitionofsurroundingterritoriesdesirable--Appenzell--Valais--Graubnden--Aargau--QuarrelswithMilan.
XVII.
WARBETWEENZURICHANDSCHWYZ190-199
DisputeconcerningToggenburglands--StssiofZurichandVonRedingofSchwyz--Zurichworsted--Makesalliancewith
Austria--Francejoinsthealliance--BattleofSt.Jacques.
XVIII.
BURGUNDIANWARS200-216
CharlestheBold--LouisXI.ofFrance--Causeswhichledtothewar--PolicyofBern--Commencementofhostilities--BattleofGrandson--Morat--SiegeofNancyanddeathofCharles.
XIX.
MEETINGATSTANZ,&C.217-229
PrestigegainedbytheLeague--DisputesrespectingtheadmissionofFreiburgandSolothurn--DietatStanz--NicolasvonderFle--CovenantofStanz--Waldmann--Hisexecution.
XX.
THELEAGUEOFTHETHIRTEENCANTONSCOMPLETED230-242
Maximilian--SwabianWar--SeparationofSwitzerlandfromthe
Empire--BaseljoinstheLeague--Schaffhausen--Appenzell--Italianwars--SiegeofNovara--BattleofMarignano--St.Gall.
XXI.
THEGREATCOUNCILS,LANDSGEMEINDE,ANDDIET,&C.243-253
TwokindsofCanton--ConstitutionofBernandofZurich--Landsgemeinde--Tagsatzung--Intellectualandliterarylife.
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XXII.
THEREFORMATIONINGERMANSWITZERLAND254-268
Zwingli--Hisearlylife--Hisdesireforareformation--AppointedtoZurich--AnationalReformedChurchestablished--Spreadofthenewfaith--TheKappelerMilchsuppe--DisputesbetweenLutherandZwingli--SecondquarrelwiththeForest--Zwinglikilled.
XXIII.
THEREFORMATIONINWESTSWITZERLAND269-278
PoliticalconditionofVaudandGeneva--CharlesIII.andGeneva--The"LadleSquires"--BonivardthrownintoChillon--ReformedfaithpreachedinFrenchSwitzerlandbyFarel--TreatyofSt.Julien--OperationsinSavoy.
XXIV.
GENEVAANDCALVIN279-290Calvin--His"Institutes"--HisConfessionofFaith--BanishmentfromGeneva--Hisreturn--TheConsistoire--The"ChildrenofGeneva"--Servetusburnt--TheAcademyfounded--Calvin'sdeath.
XXV.
THECATHOLICREACTION291-302
Droitd'asile--Pfyffer--CarloBorromeo,ArchbishopofMilan--BorromeanLeague--Protestantsdrivenfrom
Locarno--Switzerlandanasylumforreligiousrefugees--EffectofSwissReformationonEngland--Revivaloflearning--EscaladeofGeneva.
XXVI.
THEARISTOCRATICPERIOD303-314
ThirtyYears'War--Graubndenanditsdifficulties--MassacreinValtellina--Rohan--Jenatsch--Peasants'Revolt--TreatywithFrance.
XXVII.
POLITICALMATTERSINTHEEIGHTEENTHCENTURY315-323
Aristocracyandplebeians--FrenchLeague--MassacreatGreifensee--Davel'splot--Bern--Itsthreecastes--ConstitutionalstrugglesinGeneva--AffrayinNeuchtel.
XXVIII.
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SWITZERLANDANDTHERENAISSANCE:INFLUENCEOFVOLTAIREANDROUSSEAU324-342
Voltaire--ResidenceatFerney--NospecialinfluenceonGeneva--Rousseau--MadamedeStal--Swisssavants--ZurichaPoets'Corner--Breitinger,Bodmer,Haller,Klopstock,&c.--Pestalozzi--Lavater--TheHelveticSociety.
XXIX.
THEFRENCHREVOLUTIONANDSWITZERLAND343-359
SwissGuardsmassacredinParis--InsurrectionofStfa--TreatyofCampoFormio--TheParisHelveticClub--The"LemanicRepublic"--SurrenderofBern--HelveticRepublicproclaimed--OppositionbySchwyz,Stanz,&c.
XXX.
THE"ONEANDUNDIVIDEDHELVETICREPUBLIC"357-368
AlevyorderedbyFrance--Franco-Helveticalliance--Austrian
occupation--Russianoccupation--BattleofZurich--Suwarow'sextraordinarymarches--HeavyFrenchrequisitions--RenggerandStapfer,--CentralistsandFederalists--Napoleonasmediator.
XXXI.
THEMEDIATIONACTANDNAPOLEON369-381
ConferenceinParisonSwissmatters--MediationActsigned--TheBockenkrieg--Sixnewcantonsformed--Materialandintellectualprogress--ExtinctionofDiet--The"LongDiet"--CongressofVienna--Completionoftwenty-twocantons.
XXXII.
SWITZERLANDUNDERTHECONSTITUTIONOF1815-48382-394
DissatisfactionwithresultsofViennaCongress--TheFrenchrevolutionof1830--The"DayofUster"--TheSiebnerConcordat--CatholicLeague--Progressofeducation--PoliticalrefugeesinSwitzerland--LouisPhilippe--LouisNapoleon--DisturbancesinZurichbytheAnti-Nationalists--TheSonderbundWar.
XXXIII.
UNDERTHECONSTITUTIONOF1848395-407
NewFederalConstitution--FederalAssembly--FederalCouncil--FederalTribunal--Powersoftheindividualcantons--Militaryservice--Neuchteltroubles--FederalPactamended--TheInitiative--TheReferendum.
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XXXIV.
INDUSTRY,COMMERCE,RAILWAYS,EDUCATION.THE"RIGHTOFASYLUM"408-421
Extentoftrade--Exportsandimports--Railways--Education--Kellerthepoet--TheGenevaConvention--InternationalPostalUnion--InternationalLabourCongress--Switzerlandasapoliticalasylum--Franco-GermanWar--Summaryofpopulationstatistics.
GENEALOGICALTABLES83,84
INDEX423
LISTOFILLUSTRATIONS.
PAGE
LAKEDWELLINGS,ZURICHLAKE,FROMADESIGNBYDR.FERDINANDKELLERFrontispiece
MAP,SHOWINGLAKESETTLEMENTSAROUNDZURICHLAKE,BYMR.HEIERLI2
(1)DECORATIONONSWORDHILT;(2AND3),STONECELTSFOUNDINSWISSLAKEDWELLINGS(COPIEDBYPERMISSIONFROM"HARPER'SMAGAZINE")4
(1)VESSEL;(2)SPECIMENSOFWOVENFABRICSFOUNDINSWISSLAKEDWELLINGS(COPIEDBYPERMISSIONFROM"HARPER'SMAGAZINE")7
SPECIMENSOFPOTTERYFOUNDINSWISSLAKEDWELLINGS(COPIEDBYPERMISSIONFROM"HARPER'SMAGAZINE")10
JOHANNISSTEIN,WITHRUINSOFCASTLEOF"HOHENRHTIA,"NEARTHUSIS,GRAUBNDEN16
HOUSE(FORMERLYCHAPEL)INROMAUNSHSTYLE,ATSCHULS,LOWERENGADINE,GRAUBNDEN27
SILVERCOIN,VERCINGETORIX(DR.IMHOOF,WINTERTHUR)29
GOLDCOIN,VESPASIAN[VESPASIANUSIMPERATOR-AETERNITAS](DR.IMHOOF)34
GOLDCOINOFSIXTEENTHCENTURY[ST.FELIX,ST.REGULA-SANCTUSCAROLUS](DR.IMHOOF)42
THEEIGER52
GREATMINSTERANDWASSERKIRCHE,ZURICH(APPENZELLER,ZURICH)67
FURKAPASS79
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CATHEDRAL(EXTERIOR),LAUSANNE92
CHTEAUDEVUFFLENS,VAUD(FOURTEENTHCENTURY)102
BRONZEFIGURESFROMMAXIMILIANMONUMENT,INNSBRUCK(ARTHUROFTHEROUNDTABLE,BRITAIN;THEODOBERT,DUKEOFBURGUNDY;ERNEST,DUKEOFAUSTRIA;THEODORIC,KINGOFTHEOSTROGOTHS)106
THEOLDHABSBURGCASTLE,CANTONAARGAU112
THALEROFTHETHREECANTONS(URI,SCHWYZ,ANDUNTERWALDEN)120
MAPOFOLDSWITZERLAND138
UPPERFALLOFTHEREICHENBACH(MEYRINGEN)160
PORCHOFBERNMINSTER,WITHSTATUEOFRUDOLFVONERLACH165
WINKELRIED'SMONUMENT,STANZ174ARMSOFURI189
ST.JACQUESMONUMENT,BASEL,BYSCHLTH196
ARMSOFSCHWYZ198
ELIZABETH,WIFEOFALBERTII.;MARIAOFBURGUNDY;ELEANOROFPORTUGAL;KUNIGUNDE,SISTEROFMAXIMILIAN(FROMMAXIMILIANMONUMENT,INNSBRUCK)201
MAPOFGRANDSON210
OLDWEAPONSANDARMOURINZURICHARSENAL214
INNERCOURTOFTHEABBEYOFOURLADY.LUTHCHAPTEROFZURICH220
ARMSOFUNTERWALDEN229
MARBLERELIEVI,MAXIMILIANMONUMENT,INNSBRUCK231
CITYWALLSOFMURTEN235
CUSTOM-HOUSE,FREIBURG240
SARNEN,BERN244
CITYWALLS,LUCERNE246
ULRICHZWINGLI256
MINSTER,BERN270
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THALEROF1564(ST.GALL)289
HIGHALTAR,CHURCATHEDRAL306
ROUSSEAU329
PESTALOZZI330
HALLER333
LAVATER340
THELIONOFLUCERNE344
LAHARPE348
REDING354
DILIGENCECROSSINGTHESIMPLONPASS362
INTERLAKEN,FROMTHEFELSENEGG386
POLYTECHNIKUMATZURICH397
VIEWOFSION404LAWCOURTSATLAUSANNE407
"VICTIMSOFTHEWORK,"ST.GOTHARDTUNNEL,FROMABAS-RELIEFBYVELA(BYSPECIALPERMISSIONOFSCULPTOR)411
PORTRAITOFGOTFRIEDKELLER,THEPOET413
INTERIOROFLAUSANNECATHEDRAL419
TABLE
SHOWINGNAMES(GERMANANDFRENCH),AREAS,ANDPOPULATIONSOFCANTONS.
----------------------------+------------------------+---------+-------------||Areain|PopulationGermanName.|FrenchName.|Square|(approximate)||Miles.|Dec.1,1888.----------------------------+------------------------+---------+-------------1.Aargau|Argovie|543|193,000
2.Appenzell|Appenzell||{AusserRhoden|{RhodesExtrieures|100|54,000{InnerRhoden|{RhodesIntrieures|60|13,0003.BaselStadt|Ble-Ville|14|74,000"Land|"Campagne|163|62,0004.Bern|Berne|2,660|539,0005.Freiburg|Fribourg|644|119,0006.St.Gallen|St.Gall|779|229,0007.Genf|Genve(Geneva)|109|107,0008.Glarus|Glaris|267|33,000
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9.Graubnden|Grisons|2,774|96,00010.Luzern|Lucerne|579|135,00011.Neuenburg|Neuchtel|312|109,00012.Schaffhausen|Schaffhouse|116|37,00013.Schwyz|Schwyz(Schwytz)|351|50,00014.Solothurn|Soleure|303|85,00015.Tessin|Tessin(Italian,Ticino)|1,095|127,00016.Thurgau|Thurgovie|381|105,00017.Unterwalden{ObdemWald|Unterwalden{LeHaut|183|15,000{Middem"|{LeBas|112|12,00018.Uri|Uri|415|17,00019.Wallis|Valais|2,026|102,00020.Waadt|Vaud|1,244|251,00021.Zug|Zoug|92|23,00022.Zrich|Zurich|665|332,000----------------------------+------------------------+---------+-------------Total|15,987|2,920,723[1]+---------+-------------
FOOTNOTES:
[1]Thisgrandtotalofthepopulation,onDec.1,1888,istakenfromtheprovisionalCensusTablesissuedbytheSwissGovernmentin1889.
THESTORYOFSWITZERLAND.
I.
THELAKEDWELLERS.
Whofirstlivedinthiscountryofours?Whatandwhatmannerofmenweretheywhofirstsettledonitsvirginsoilandmadeit"home"?Thesequestionsnaturallypresentthemselveseverynowandthentomostthoughtfulpeople.Andthemanwithanypretensionstoculturefeelsaninterestinthehistoryofothercountriesbesideshisown.
Buthoweverinterestingthesequestionsastoprimarycolonizationsmaybe,theyareusuallyexactlythemostdifficultofanswerthatthehistoryofacountrypresents.NowandthenindeedwemayknowtolerablywellthestoryofsomeearlyGreekimmigration,orwemaypossessfullaccountsofthemodernsettlementofaPitcairnIsland;butinfarthegreaternumberofinstanceswecanbutdimlysurmiseorrashlyguesswhoandwhatweretheearliestinhabitantsofanygivenregion.
MAPSHOWINGTHECHIEFLAKESETTLEMENTSINORNEARLAKEZURICH,ByProf.T.Heierli,Zurich.
InthecaseofSwitzerland,however,weareparticularlyfortunate."Everyschoolboy"hasheardofthewonderfuldiscoveriesmadeontheshoresofthebeautifulSwisslakesduringthelastfewyears,andthesameschoolboyevenunderstands,ifsomewhathazily,theimportanceattachingtothesediscoveries.Nevertheless,someshortaccountoftheearliestinhabitantsoftheruggedHelvetiamustoccupythisfirst
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chapter.Andtothegeneralreadersomelittleinformationastowhatwasfound,andhowitwasfound,onthelakeshores,maynotcomeamiss.
Inthewinterof1853,thewatersofZurichlakesanksolowthatawidestretchofmudwaslaidbarealongtheshores.ThepeopleofMeilen,alargevillagesometwelvemilesfromthetownofZurich,tookadvantageofthisunusualstateofthingstoeffectcertainimprovements,andduringtheoperationstheworkmen'stoolsstruckagainstsomeobstacles,whichprovedtobegreatwoodenprops,orpiles.Thesepiles,thetopsofwhichwerebutafewinchesbelowthesurfaceofthemud,werefoundtobeplantedinrowsandsquares,andthenumberofthemseemedtobeenormous.Andthentherewerepickedoutofthemudlargenumbersofbones,antlers,weapons,implementsofvariouskinds,andwhatnot.Dr.FerdinandKeller,agreatauthorityonHelvetianantiquities,wassentfromZurichtoexaminethespot,andhepronouncedittobealakesettlement,probablyofsomeveryancientCeltictribe.Manymarksofaprehistoricoccupationhadpreviouslybeenfound,buthithertonotracesofdwellings.Naturallythenewsofthisimportantdiscoveryoflakehabitationscausedagreatsensation,andgaveagreatimpulsetoarchologicalstudies.Dr.KellercalledtheseearlysettlersPfahl-bauer,orpile-builders,fromtheirpeculiarmodeofbuildingtheirhouses.
[Illustration:(1)DECORATIONONSWORDHILT;(2AND3)STONECELTS,
FOUNDINSWISSLAKEDWELLINGS.(Copiedbypermissionfrom"Harper'sMagazine.")]
Duringthecourseofthelastthirtyyears,overtwohundredoftheseaquaticvillageshavebeendiscovered--ontheshoresofthelakesofConstance,Geneva,Zurich,Neuchtel,Bienne,Morat,andothersmallerlakes,andoncertainriversandswampyspotswhichhadoncebeenlakesorquasi-lakes.TheAlpinelakes,however,withtheirsteepandofteninaccessiblebanks,shownotraceoflakesettlements.
Thelakedwellingsaremostly[2]placedonpilesdrivensome10feetintothebedofthelake,andasmanyasthirtyorfortythousandof
thesepileshavebeenfoundinasinglesettlement.Thehousesthemselvesweremadeofhurdlework,andthatchedwithstraworrushes.Layersofwattlesandclayalternatingformedthefloors,andthewallsseemtohavebeenrenderedmoreweather-proofbyacoveringofclay,orelseofbulrushesorstraw.Arailingofwickerworkranroundeachhut,partlynodoubttokeepoffthewashofthelake,andpartlyasaprotectiontothechildren.Lightbridges,organgwayseasilymoved,connectedthehutswitheachotherandwiththeshore.Eachhousecontainedtworoomsatleast,andsomeofthedwellingsmeasuredasmuchas27feetby22feet.Hearthstonesblackenedbyfireoftenremaintoshowwherethekitchenshadbeen.Matsofbast,straw,andreedsaboundinthesettlements,andshowthatthelakemenhadtheirnotionsofcosinessandcomfort.Largecrescent-shapedtalismans,carvedonone
side,werehungovertheentrancestothehuts,showingprettyclearlythatthemoon-goddesswasworshipped.TheprehistoriccollectionsinthepublicmuseumsatZurich,Berne,Bienne,Neuchtel,andGeneva,nottospeakofprivatecollections,areveryextensiveandveryfine,containingtools,handsomeweapons,knivesofmostexquisiteshapeandcarving,women'sornaments,someofthemofthemostelegantkind.A"ladyofthelake"infulldresswouldseemtohavemadeanimposingshow.Anundergarmentoffinelinenwasgirdedatthewaistbyabroadbeltofinlaidorembossedbronzework.Overtheshoulderswasthrownawoollencloakfastenedwithbronzeclasps,orpins,whilstneck,arms,
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andanklesweredeckedwithagreatstoreoftrinkets--necklaces,anklets,bracelets,rings,spangles,andsoforth.Thewholewassetoffbyadiademoflongpinswithlargeheadsbeautifullychiselled,andinlaidwithbeadsofmetalorglass,thesepinsbeingstuckthroughasortofleathernfilletwhichboundupthehair.Sobeautifularesomeofthetrinkets,thatimitationsofthemingoldareinrequestbytheladiesofto-day.
[Illustration:(1)VESSEL;(2)SPECIMENSOFWOVENFABRICSFOUNDINSWISSLAKEDWELLINGS.
(Copiedbypermissionfrom"Harper'sMagazine.")]
ItiscurioustofindthatoneofthemostextensivelakecoloniesinSwitzerlandissituatedinandspreadoverthevastmarshesofRobenhausen(Zurich)whichonceformedpartofLakePfffikon.Thevisitorwhoisnotdeterredbytheinconvenienceofadescentintoadampandmuddypitsome11feetdeep,whereexcavationsarestillbeingcarriedon,findshimselffacingthreesuccessivesettlements,oneaboveanother,andallbelongingtotheremotestoneage.Betweenthesuccessivesettlementsarelayersofturf,some3feetthick,thegrowthofmanycenturies.Theturfitselfiscoveredbyastratumofstickymatter,4inchesthick.Inthisarenumbersofrelicsembedded,bothdestructibleandindestructibleobjectsbeingperfectlywellpreserved,
theformerkeptfromdecaythroughhavingbeencharredbyfire.ThelateProfessorHeerdiscoveredandanalysedremainsofmorethanahundreddifferentkindsofplants.Grains,andevenwholeearsofwheatandbarley,seedsofstrawberriesandraspberries,driedapples,textilefabrics,implements,hatchetsofnephrite--thismineralandtheOrientalcerealsshowclearlyenoughthatthelakementradedwiththeEast,thoughnodoubtthroughtheMediterraneanpeoples--spinning-wheels,corn-squeezers,floorings,fragmentarywalls--allthesearefoundinplenty,ineachofthethreelayers.Thetopmostsettlement,however,containsnodestructiblematters,suchascorn,fruits,&c.Thisistobeaccountedforbythefactthatthetwolowersettlementsweredestroyedbyfire,andtheuppermostonebythegrowthoftheturf,orbytherisingmarshes.Inthelattercasetherewasnofriendlyaction
offiretopreservethevariousobjects.
Thescholar'smindisatoncecarriedbacktotheaccountgivenbyHerodotusofThrakianlake-dwellers.[3]Thepeopleofthistribe,hetellsus,builttheirhousesoverwater,soastogainfacilitiesforfishing.Theyusedtoletdownbasketsthroughtrapdoorsinthefloorsoftheirhuts,andthesebasketsrapidlyfilledwithallkindsoffishthathadgatheredaround,temptedbythedroppingsoffood.
Thoughthelakemendependedchieflyonthewaterfortheirsupplyoffood,yettheywerehunters,andgreattillersofthegroundaswellasfishermen.Theygrewwheatandbarley,andkepthorses,cattle,sheep,andgoats.Thewomenspunflaxandwool,andwovethemintofabricsfor
clothing.Theircrockerywasatfirstofaveryprimitivedescription,beingmadeofblackclay,andshowingbutlittlefinishorartisticdesign.Butthechildrenwerenotforgotten,fortheyweresuppliedwithtinymugsandcups.[4]
[Illustration:SPECIMENSOFPOTTERYFOUNDINSWISSLAKEDWELLINGS.
(Copiedbypermissionfrom"Harper'sMagazine.")]
Withregardtothedatewhentheimmigrationoflakemenbeganthe
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savantsarehopelesslyatvariance.Nordotheyagreeanybetterastothedatesofthestoneandbronzeepochsintowhichthehistoryofthelakesettlementsdividesitself.Butasinsomeofthemarshystationsthesetwoepochsreachontotheageofiron,itisassumedbymanyauthoritiesthatthelakedwellerslivedontohistoricaltimes.ThisisparticularlyshowninthealluvialsoilandmarshesbetweenthelakesofNeuchtelandBienne,Prfargierbeingoneofthechiefstations,wheresettlementsbelongingtothestone,bronze,andironagesarefoundrangedoneaboveanotherinchronologicalorder.Inthetopmoststratumorcolony,thelakemen'swaresarefoundminglingpell-mellwithironandbronzeobjectsofHelvetianandRomanmake,afactsufficient,probably,toshowthatthelakedwellersassociatedwithhistoricalpeoples.Itwouldbeuselessaswellastedioustosetforthatlengthallthetheoriesprevailingastotheoriginandageofthelakedwellings.Sufficeittosaythat,bysomeauthorities,thecommencementofthestoneperiodisplacedatsixthousand,andbyothersatthreethousandyearsbeforetheChristianera,thelatterbeingprobablynearestthetruth.Astotheageofbronze,wemaysafelyassignitto1100-1000B.C.,forProfessorHeerprovesconclusivelythatthetimeofHomer--theGreekageofbronze--wascontemporarywiththebronzeepochofthelakemen.[5]
TheLakeperiodwouldseemtohavedrawntoacloseabout600-700B.C.,whentheageofbronzewassupersededbythatofiron.Accordingtothe
mostpainstakinginvestigationsmadebyMr.Heierli,ofZurich,nowthegreatestauthorityonthesubjectinSwitzerland,thelakemenlefttheirwaterysettlementsaboutthedatejustgiven,andbegantofixtheirhabitationsonterrafirma.Varioustombsalreadyfoundonlandwouldbearwitnesstothischange.Whenthesepeculiarpeoplehadoncecomeonshoretolivetheywouldbegraduallyabsorbedintoneighbouringandsucceedingraces,nodoubtintosomeoftheCeltictribes,andmostlikelyintotheHelvetianpeoples.Thustheyhavetheirpart,howeversmallitmaybe,inthehistoryoftheSwissnation.ItmustbeaddedthatthePfahl-bauerarenolongerheldtohavebeenaCelticpeople,butarethoughttohavebelongedtosomepreviousrace,thoughwhichhasnotasyetbeenascertained.
Butenoughhasbeenwrittenonthesubject,perhaps.Yet,ontheotherhand,itwouldhavebeenimpossibletopassoverthelakemeninsilence,especiallynowwhentheimportantdiscoveriesofsimilarlakesettlementsinEastYorkshirehavedrawntothesubjecttheattentionofallintelligentEnglish-speakingpeople.[6]
FOOTNOTES:
[2]Therearetwodistinctkindsofsettlement,butweareheredealingwiththefirstorearlierkind.
[3]Herod,v.16.
[4]Thelaketribesofthebronzeage,however,notonlyunderstoodtheuseofcopperandbronze,butwerefarmoreproficientintheartsthantheirpredecessors.Someofthetextilefabricsfoundareofthemostcomplicatedweaving,andsomeofthebronzearticlesareofmostexquisitechiselling,thoughthesewereprobablyimportedfromItaly,withwhichcountrythelakedwellerswouldseemtohavehadconsiderabletraffic.Theearliestspecimensofpotteryareusuallyornamentedbymererudenailscratchings,butthoseofthebronzeperiodhavehadtheirstraightlinesandcurvesmadebyagravingtool.Infact,thelatertribeshadbecomeloversofartforitsownsake,andeventhe
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smallestarticlesofmanufactureweredecoratedwithdesignsofmoreorlesselaborationandfinish.
[5]TheproductsofthesoilseemtohavebeenthesameamongstthelakemenasamongstHomer'speople.Bothknewbarleyandwheat,andneitherofthemknewrye.Intheirmodeofdressingandpreparingbarleyforfoodthetwopeoplesconcurred.Itwasnotmadeintobread,butroastedtobringoffthehusk.AndroastedbarleyisstillafavouritearticleofdietintheLowerEngadine.TheGreeksateitattheirsacrifices,andalwaystooksuppliesofitwhenstartingonajourney.SoTelemachusaskshisoldnurseEurykleiatofillhisgoatskinwithroastedbarleywhenhesetsoutinsearchofhisfather.AndyoungGreekbrideswererequiredtocompletethestockofhouseholdbelongingsbyprovidingontheirmarriagedayaroastingvesselforbarley.
[6]ThosewhowishtoseeprettywellallthatcanbesaidonthemattershouldreadthevaluablearticleinTheWestminsterReview,forJune,1887.
II.
THEHELVETIANS.
Thehistoryofacountryoftenincludesthehistoryofmanypeoples,forhistoryisastageonwhichnationsandpeoplesfigurelikeindividualcharacters,playingtheirpartsandmakingtheirexits,otherssteppingintotheirplaces.AndsotheSwisssoilhasbeentroddenbymanypossessors--Celts,Rhtians,Alamanni,Burgundians,Franks.ThesehaveallmadetheirmarkuponandcontributedtothehistoryoftheSwissnation,andmustallfigureintheearlierportionsofourstory.
DimaretheglimpseswecatchoftheearlyconditionoftheHelvetians,butthemistthatenshroudsthispeopleclears,thoughslowly,atthe
endofthesecondcenturybeforeChrist,whentheycameintoclosecontactwiththeRomanswhochronicledtheirdeeds.TheHelvetiansthemselves,indeed,thoughnotignorantoftheartofwriting,werefartoomuchoccupiedinwarfaretobepainstakingannalists.AttheCelto-Romanperiodofwhichwearetreating,HelvetiacomprisedalltheterritorylyingbetweenMountJura,LakeGeneva,andLakeConstance,withtheexceptionofBasle,whichincludedGraubnden,andreachedintoSt.GallandGlarus.Itwasparcelledoutamongstmanytribes,evenasitisinourownday.TheHelvetians,whohadpreviouslyoccupiedallthelandbetweentheRhineandtheMain,hadbeendrivensouthbytheadvancingGermans,andhadcolonizedthefertileplainsandthelowerhillgroundsofSwitzerland,leavingtoothersthemoredifficultAlpineregions.Theysplitintofourtribes,ofwhichweknowthenamesof
three--theTigurini,Toygeni,andVerbigeni.ThefirstnamedseemtohavesettledaboutLakeMorat,withAventicum(Avenches)astheircapital.BaslewastheseatoftheRauraci;tothewestofNeuchtelwasthatoftheSequani;whilstGenevabelongedtothewildAllobroges.TheValais[7]districtwasinhabitedbyfourdifferentclans,andwasknownasthe"Poeninevalley,"onaccountoftheworshipofPoeninusontheGreatSt.Bernard,wherewasatempletothedeity.IntheTicinoweretheLepontines,aLiguriantribewhosenamestilllingersin"LepontineAlps."ThemountainfastnessesoftheGrisons(Graubnden)wereheldbythehardyRhtians,aTuscantribe,who,onceovercomeby
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theRomans,speedilyadoptedtheirspeechandcustoms.Romansh,acorruptLatin,holdsitsowntothisdayinthehigherandremotervalleysofthatcanton.
Allthesetribes,exceptthetwolastmentioned,belongedtothegreatandmartialfamilyoftheCelts,andofthemallthewealthiest,themostvaliant,andthemostconspicuousweretheHelvetians.[8]OfthelifeanddispositionoftheseHelvetiansweknowbutlittle,butnodoubttheyborethegeneralstampoftheCelts.Theymanagedthejavelinmoreskilfullythantheplough,andtotheirpersonalcourageitisratherthantotheirskillintacticsthattheyowetheirreputationasgreatwarriors.Butincourseoftimetheircharacterwasgreatlymodified,and,owingprobablytotheirsecludedposition,theysettleddownintomorepeacefulhabits,androsetowealthandhonour,combiningwiththeirgreatpowersacertainamountofculture.Theypractisedtheartofwriting,havingadoptedtheGreekalphabet,andgold,whichwaspossiblyfoundintheirrivers,circulatedfreelyamongstthem.TojudgefromtherelicsfoundinHelvetiantumulitheHelvetianswerefondofluxuriesinthewayofornamentsandfinearmour,andtheyexcelledintheartofworkingmetals,especiallybronze.Theyhadmadesomeprogressinagriculture,andintheconstructionoftheirhouses,andmoreespeciallyofthewallsthatguardedtheirtowns,whichstrucktheRomansbytheirneatnessandpracticalness.Norwouldthisbetobewonderedatiftheoldlegendscouldbetrusted,whichtellusthat
HerculeshimselftaughttheHelvetianstobuild,andlikewisegavethemtheirlaws;anallusion,nodoubt,tothefactthatculturecametothemfromtheeast,fromthepeoplesaroundtheMediterranean.Besidesmanyhamlets,theyhadfoundednofewerthanfourhundredvillagesandtwelvetowns,andseemtohavebeenwellabletoselectfortheirsettlementsthemostpicturesqueandconvenientspots.Formanyoftheirplace-nameshavecomedowntous,insomecasesbutlittlechanged.ThusofcolonieswehaveZuricum(Zurich),Salodurum(Soleure),Vindonissa(Windisch),Lousonium(Lausanne),andGeneva;ofriversnavigableorotherwiseuseful,Rhine,Rhone,Aar,Reuss,Thur;ofmountains,JuraandperhapsCamor.DislikingthehardshipsofAlpinelifetheHelvetiansleftthegiantmountainstoasturdierrace.
[Illustration:JOHANNISSTEIN,WITHRUINSOFCASTLEOF"HOHENRHTIA,"NEARTHUSIS,GRAUBNDEN.
(FromaPhotograph.)]
Thenatureoftheirpoliticalcodewasrepublican,yetitwaslargelytincturedwithelementsofanaristocratickind.Theirnobleswerewealthylandedproprietors,withnumerousvassals,attendants,andslaves.Incasetheirlordwasimpeachedtheseretainerswouldtakehispartbeforethepopulartribunal.ThecaseofOrgetorixmaybecited.Hewasadynasticleader,andheadoveronehundredvalleysettlements;hisnameappearsonHelvetiansilvercoinsasOrcitrix.Hewasbroughttotrialonachargeofaspiringtothekingship,andnofewerthana
thousandfollowersappearedatthecourttoclearhim,butvoxpopulivoxdei,andthepopularvoteprevailed.Orgetorixwassentencedtodiebyfire,apunishmentawardedtoallwhoencroacheduponthepopularrights.
TheirformofreligionwasmostprobablythatcommontoalltheCelts,Druidicalworship.Investedwithpower,civilandspiritual,theDruidsheldabsoluteswayoverthesuperstitiousCeltictribes.ProudastheCeltswereoftheirindependence,theyyetwereincapableofgoverningthemselvesbecauseoftheperpetualdissensionsamongstthetribes;and
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theywereoverawedbytheintellectualsuperiorityofapriesthoodthatprofessedallthesciencesoftheage--medicine,astrology,soothsaying,necromancy--andhadtakenintoitshandstheeducationoftheyoung.Thecommonpeopleweremereblinddevotees,andrenderedunquestioningobediencetothedecreesoftheDruids.Druidismwas,infact,theonlypowerwhichcouldmovethewholeCelticrace,andcouldknittogethertheCeltsoftheThamesandthoseoftheGaronneandRhone,whentheymetatthegreatyearlyconvocationatChartres,thenthe"MetropolisoftheEarth."HumansacrificewasoneofthemostcruelandrevoltingfeaturesoftheDruidicalreligion.
TheCeltswereapeculiarlygiftedpeople,thoughdifferinggreatlyfromthecontemporaryGreeksandRomans.TheyhadbeenagoverningracebeforetheRomansappearedonthestage,andwrestedfromthemtheleadingpart.Theyhadoverrunthewholeworld,sotospeak,castingaboutforafixedhome,andspreadasfarastheBritishIsles,makingGaultheirreligiousandpoliticalcentre,andsettleddownintomorepeacefulhabits.Drivenbyexcessofpopulation,ortheirunquenchablethirstforwar,orsimplytheirnomadichabits--onecannototherwiseaccountfortheirretrogression--theymigratedeastwardswhencetheycame--toItaly,Greece,andAsiaMinor--demandingterritory,andstrikingterrorintoeverynationtheyapproachedbytheirwarlikehabits.TheyknockedatthegatesofRome,andtheGalatianswereconspicuousbytheiratrocities.[9]Brilliantqualitiesandgreat
nationalfaultshadbeentheirpeculiarcharacteristics.Quick-wittedtheywere,highlyintelligent,ingenious,frank,versatile;attachingmuchvaluetogloire,andesprit;susceptibleofandaccessibletoeveryimpression,skilledhandicraftsmen;butinclinedtobevain,boastful,andfickle-minded,aversetoorderanddiscipline,andlackinginperseveranceandmoralenergy.This,accordingtobothancientandmodernwriters,wastheircharacter.Theyfailedtocreateaunitedempire,andtoresisttheirdeadlyenemy,Rome.
Whattheydidexcelinwasfighting.Dressedingaudycostume--widetunic,brightplaid,andtogaembroideredwithsilverandgold--theCelticnoblewouldfightbypreferenceinsinglecombat,toshowofftopersonaladvantage,butinthebruntofbattlehethrewawayhis
clothingtofightunimpeded.Bituitus,kingoftheArverni,attiredinmagnificentstyle,mountshissilverchariot,and,precededbyaharperandapackofhounds,goestomeetCsarinbattle,andwinhisrespectandadmiration.
TheHelvetianswerepeacefulneighbourstoItalysolongastheydidnotcomeintodirectcontactwiththeRomans,butontheRhinetheywereengagedindailyfeudswiththeGermantribes,whohaddriventhemfromtheirsettlementsintheBlackForest,andhadcontinuedtheirraidsbeyondtheriver.Forthesakeofplunder,orfrommererestlesshabits,theGermanshadlefttheirnorthernhomesontheBalticandNorthSeas,theCimbri,andtheirbrethren,theTeutonsandothers,andwereslowlymovingsouthward,repellingorbeinginturnrepelled.Themostdaring
crossedtheRhine,andmadetheirwaystraightthroughthelandsoftheBelgiansandHelvetianstowardstheSouth,therebyanticipatingthegreatdislocationofpeopleswhichwastotakeplacebutfivehundredyearslater,whentheRomanEmpire,sappedattheroot,crumbledtopieces,unablelongertoresistthetideofbarbarianinvasion.
OnoneoftheseexpeditionstheCimbri,givingaglowingaccountofsunnyGaul,andthebootytobeobtainedthere,werejoinedbytheHelvetianTigurini,whoseleaderwastheyoungandfieryDivico(B.C.107).Theystartedwiththeintentionoffoundinganewhomeinthe
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provinceoftheNitiobrogesinSouthernGaul;butwhentheyhadreachedthatterritorytheyweresuddenlystoppedonthebanksoftheGaronnebyaRomanarmyundertheconsulCassiusandhislieutenantPiso.But,littleimpressedbythemilitaryfameoftheRomans,theTigurini,lyinginambush,gavebattletotheforcesofgreatRome,andutterlyroutedthematAgen,ontheGaronne,betweenBordeauxandToulouse.Itwasabrilliantvictory;boththeRomanleadersandthegreaterpartoftheirmenwereslain,andtherestbeggedfortheirlives.TheproudRomanswereunderthehumiliatingnecessityofgivinghostagesandpassingundertheyoke--astainontheRomanhonournottobeforgotten;butthevictors,beinganythingbutdiplomats,knewnobetterusetomakeoftheirsplendidvictorythantowanderaboutforatimeandthengohomeagain.
Afewyearslater(102and101B.C.)theTigurini,Toygeni,Cimbri,andTeutonsjoinedtheirforcesonalastexpeditionsouthwards.TheexpeditionendedinthedestructionoftheseGermantribes.TheToygeniperishedinthefearfulcarnageatAquSexti,andtheCimbrilateronatVercell.WhentheTiguriniheardofthislast-mentioneddisastertheyreturnedhome.
CsarhadbeenappointedgovernoroftheProvince(Provence)whichextendedtoGeneva,theverydoorofHelvetia;ontheRhinetheGermanscontinuedtomaketheirterribleinroads.Thustherewasbutlittle
scopeforthestirringHelvetians,andthesoilaffordedbutascantysupplyoffood;sotheyturnedtheireyeswistfullyinthedirectionoffairGaul.Meetingincounciltheydecidedonageneralmigration,leavingtheircountrytowhoevermightliketotakeit.ThenroseupOrgetorix,oneoftheirwealthiestnobles,andsupportedtheplan,volunteeringtosecureafreepassagethroughtheneighbouringprovincesoftheAllobrogesanddui.The28thofMarch,B.C.58,wasthedayfixedforthedeparture,andGenevawastobethemeeting-place;thencetheyweretoproceedthroughtheterritoryoftheAllobroges.Fortwoyearspreviouslytheyweretogetreadytheirprovisions,andtocollectcarts,horses,andoxen,butbeforetheperiodhadexpiredOrgetorixwasaccusedoftreason,andbeingunabletoclearhimself,putanendtohisownlifetoescapepublicobloquy.Thisepisodemadenodifferencein
thegeneralplan.TheHelvetians,indeed,insistedonitsbeingcarriedout.Settingfiretotheirtownsandvillagestopreventmenfromreturning,theystartedontheiradventurousjourneyonthatspringmornof58B.C.Csar'sfiguresseemverylarge,but,ifheistobetrusted,thetribesnumberedsome368,000men,ofwhich263,000wereHelvetians,therestbeingneighboursoftheirs.But93,000werecapableofbearingarms.
Acuriousyetthrillingsightmusthavebeenthatmotleycaravanofprodigiousproportions--tenthousandcartsdrawnbyfortythousandoxen,carryingwomen,children,andtheoldmen;ridersandarmour-bearersalongside,toilingpainfullythroughwoodsandfords,andupanddownruggedhills;behindtheemigrantsthesmokingandsmoulderingruinsof
thehomestheywereleavingwithbutlittleregret.Yettheywerenomereadventurers,butlookedforwardwithswellingheartstoabrightertimeandamoreprosperoushome.ArrivingatGenevatheyfoundthebridgeovertheRhonebrokenupbyCsar'sorder.Csarwas,intruth,afactortheyhadnotreckonedupon,and,afteruselessattemptstomakeheadway,theyturnedtheirstepstowardsMountJura,andwhilsttheyweretoilingoverthesteepandruggedPasdel'Ecluse,CsarreturnedtoItalytogathertogetherhislegions.ReturningtoGaulhearrivedjustintimetoseetheHelvetianscrosstheArar(Sane)withtheutmostdifficulty.TheTiguriniwerethelasttocross.Andonthem
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Csarfellandcutthemdown,thusavengingthedeathofPiso--thegreat-grandfatherofCsar'swife--andwipingoutthestainonthehonouroftheRomanarms.HislegionscrossedtheSaneintwenty-fourhours,andthisperformancesoexcitedtheadmirationoftheHelvetians,whohadthemselvestakentwentydaystocross,thattheycondescendedtosendlegatestotreatwithCsarforafreepassage.Theypromisedhimthattheywoulddonoharmtoanyoneifhewouldcomplywiththerequest,butthreatenedthatifheshouldinterceptthemhemighthavetoseesomethingoftheirancientbravery.Nothreatsorentreatieswereofavail,however,withsuchamanasCsar,who,smilingattheirnavesimplicity,askedthemtogiveshostagesasasignofconfirmationoftheirpromise."Hostages!"criedDivico,theheroofofAgen,inarage,"theHelvetiansarenotaccustomedtogivehostages;theyhavebeentaughtbytheirfatherstoreceivehostages,andthistheRomansmustwellremember."Sosayinghewalkedaway.
TheHelvetianscontinuedtheirmarch,Csarfollowingatadistance,watchingforanopportunityofattackingthem.AtBibracte,animportantcityofGaul(nowMontBeuvray),westofAutuninBurgundy,theopportunityoffereditself.Csarseizedahillandpostedhistroopsthere,andchargedtheenemywithhiscavalry.TheHelvetiansfiercelyrepulsedtheattack,andpouredontheRomanfront,butwerequiteunabletostandagainsttheshowersoftheRomanpila,whichoftenpenetratedseveralshieldsatonce,andthusfastenedthemtogetherso
thattheycouldnotbedisentangled.Disconcertedbythisunexpectedresult,theHelvetiansweresoondiscomfitedbythesharpattackwithswordswhichinstantlyfollowed.Retiringforawhiletoahillcloseby,thebarbariansagaindrewupinbattleorder,andagaindescendedtocombat.Longandfiercewasthestrugglewhichfollowed;theHelvetiansfightinglikelionstilltheevening,neveronceturningtheirbacksontheenemy.ThisisCsar'sownreport.Butbarbarianheroismwasnomatchfortheregular,well-organized,andhighly-trainedRomanarmy,andoncemoredrivenback,theywithdrewtothehillwherehadbeenlefttheirwivesandchildrenwiththebaggage.Fromthisplacetheyventuredtomakealastresistance,andtheydrewuptheircartsintheformofadeepsquare,leavingroominthemiddleforthenon-combatantsandthebaggage.Thenmountingtheirextemporizedfort--theso-called
Wagenburg--theHelvetianmencommencedthefray,eventheirwomenandchildrenhurlingjavelinsattheenemy.NottillmidnightdidtheRomansseizeandenterontheruderampart,andwhentheydidtheclashingofarmshadceased.Allthevaliantdefenderslayslainattheirfeet,andthespiritofboldindependenceoftheHelvetianswascrushedforever.
Afterthisfearfuldisastertherestoftheemigrants,tothenumberof110,000,continuedtheirmarchthroughGaul,butlackingbothfoodandcapableleaders,andbeingmoreoverill-usedbytheGauls,theysenttoCsarforhelp.Hedemandedhostages,andorderedthemtoreturnhomeandrebuildtheirtownsandvillages.And,further,hesuppliedthemwithfoodforthejourney,andrequestedtheAllobrogestodothesamewhentheHelvetiansshouldarriveintheirprovince.Csaradmitsthat
thisapparentgenerosityonhispartwasdictatednotbycompassion,butbypolicy.Itwastohisinterestthatthesebarbariansshouldre-occupyHelvetia,becausetheywouldkeepwatchontheRhine,andpreventtheirruptionoftheGermansintothecountry.Intheirconditionnow,hecallstheHelvetiansASSOCIATES(foederati),andnotSUBJECTS,andleavesthemtheirownconstitution,and,tosomeextent,theirfreedom.Buttheydidnotrelishthisforcedfriendship,whichwasindeedmorelikebondage;andwhentheCeltsofGaulroseinrevoltunderthenobleandbelovedVercingetorix,whohadbeenafriendofCsar,theyjoinedtheirbrethren(52B.C.),andwereagainvanquished.Onthedefeatof
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theHelvetiansatBibractefollowedthatoftheValisians,in57B.C.ToestablishadirectcommunicationbetweenCentralGaulandItaly,CsartookthosesamemeasureswhichNapoleonI.employedlongafterwards;heconqueredtheValais(byhislieutenantGalba),thathemightsecurethepassageoftheGreatSt.Bernard.AsplendidroadwasformedoverMountPoeninus,andatempleerectedtoJupiterPoeninus,wherethetravellerleftvotivetabletsasathanksgivingofferingafterafortunateascent.
ThesubjugationofRhtiawasdelayedformorethanageneration.ToguardtheempireagainsttheEasternhordes;againstthemountainrobbersofGraubndenandtheTyrol,whodescendedintothevalleysofthePo,ravagingthecountryasfarasMilan,andnodoubtliberallypayingbackintheirowncoin,theRomanswhohadmadefromtimetotimesuchhavocintheAlpinehomes--toguardagainstthese,andthewildVindeliciansofBavaria,Augustussentthetwoimperialprincestoreducethemtosubjection.DrususmarchedintotheTyrol,whilstTiberiusadvancedonLakeConstance,whereeventheRhtianwomenengagedintheconflict,and,indefaultofmissiles,hurledtheirsuckingchildrenintothefaceoftheconquerors,throughsheerexasperation.Theirsavagecourageavailedthemnothing,however;theincursionsfromtheEastwererepressed;andoncetheRhtianswereovercome,theybecamethemostusefulofauxiliariestotheRomanarmy.Horace'sodetoDrususalludestotheRhtiancampaign.
TheRhto-RomaninhabitantsofGraubnden--fortheystilloccupythehighvalleysoftheEngadineandoftheVorder-Rhine--presentmuchinterestinpointoflanguageandantiquities.ThesturdyRhtiansbelongedtotheart-lovingEtruscanrace,whoseproficiencyintheamphora-technicwesohighlyvalue.AnoldlegendcallstheirancestorRtusaTuscan.Andnotwithoutshowofreason,saysMommsen,fortheearlydwellersofGraubndenandtheTyrolwereTuscans,andspokeadialectagreeingwiththatofthedistrictofMantua,aTuscancolonyinthetimeofLivy.InGraubndenandTicinowerefound,somethirtyyearsago,stonesbearinginscriptionsinthatdialect.TheRhtiansmayhavedroppedbehindintheseAlpineregionsontheimmigrationofEtruscansintothevalleysofthePo;or,theymayjustaslikelyhavefledthere
ontheadventoftheCelts,whenthatwarlikeraceseizedonthefertileplainsoftheriver,anddrovetheEtruscansfromtheirhomesouthwardandnorthward.Bethatasitmay,however,itiscertainthattheRhtians,onceblendedwiththeRomans,havepreservedtheLatintongueandcustomstothisday,forRomaunshacorruptLatin,withnodoubtsomeadmixtureofTuscan,isstillspokenbymorethanone-thirdofthepopulationoftheGrisons.
[Illustration:HOUSE(FORMERLYCHAPLE)INTHEROMAUNSHSTYLE,ATSCHULS,LOWERENGADINE,GRAUBNDEN.
(AfteraPhotographbyGuler.)]
FOOTNOTES:
[7]Valais(German,Wallis)meansvalley,andissocalledfromitsbeingalongnarrowdaleorvalehemmedinbyloftymountains.
[8]Mommsen,"RomanHistory,"vol.ii.p.166.
[9]"StoryofAlexander'sEmpire,"byMahaffy,p.79.
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III.
HELVETIAUNDERTHEROMANS.
[Illustration:SILVERCOIN,VERCINGETORIX.
(Dr.Imhoof,Winterthur.)]
OnthesurrenderofthenobleVercingetorix,avaliantknight,butnostatesman--hedeliveredhimselfuptoCsar,trustinginhisgenerosityonthepleaofformerfriendship,anddiedaprisonerofRome--thewarwithGaulwasvirtuallyatanend.Thesporadicrisingsthatfollowedlackedthespiritofunion,andledtonoresultsofanyconsequence.DuringthesevenyearsofhisgovernorshipinGaul(58-51B.C.),Csarhadcompletedthesubjectionoftheentirecountry,withtheexceptionoftheprovinceofNarbonensis,whoseconquestwasofmoreancientdate.Hefolloweduphisvictories,andsecuredtheirresultsbyorganizingalineofsecuredefencesonthenorthernboundaryofGaul,alongtheRhine,creatingtherebyanewsystemofopendefences--defencesoffensive,sotospeak--whichhesketchedoutwithfulldetails,andmadeGaulherselfabulwarkagainsttheinroadsoftheaggressive
Germans.Tosecurepeaceandvoluntarysubmission,healsoregulatedtheinternalaffairsofthenewprovince,leavingher,however,mostofheroldnationalinstitutions,hopingbyconciliatorymeasurestograduallybringherunderRomaninfluences,andwinhertosidewithRome.Butitwaslefttootherstocarryouthisplans,theEmperorAugustusbeingthefirsttoputthemintopractice;forcivilwarwasagainthreateningItaly,andCsarreturnedhometocarryonhisgreatcontestwithPompeyforsupremacyintheState.
AlthoughCsar'splanswerebutasketchtheywerefaithfullycarriedout,andtheGallicconquestprovedtobemore,andaimedhigher,thanthemeresubjectionoftheCelts.Csarwasnotonlyagreatgeneral,butalsoafar-seeingpolitician.Hehadclearlyunderstoodthatthe
barbarianGermansmightwellprovemorethanamatchfortheGreek-Latinworldiftheycameintoclosecontactwithit.HisdefeatofAriovistus,whowasonthepointofformingaGermankingdominGaul,andhiswisemeasuresofdefence,keptthebarbarianhordesatbayforcenturies,andthustherewasampletimegivenfortheGreek-LatinculturetotakerootthroughouttheWest.IthappenedconsequentlythatwhenRomecouldnolongerofferanyseriousresistance,andtheGermanspouredintoherlands,thepeopleoftheWestwerealreadyRomanized,andthoseofGaul,Britain,andSpain,becamethemediumoftransmittingtotheGermansthespiritofclassicism,bywhichtheywouldotherwisehavehardlybeenaffected;andthosenationsbecametheconnectinglinkbetweentheclassicalageandtheGermanerawhichabsorbeditshigh-wroughtculture.IfAlexandermaybesaidtohavespreadHellenism
overtheEast;Csarmaybetakentohavedoneasmuch,andindeedvastlymorefortheWest,foritisowingtohim,thoughwecanscarcelyrealizethefactinourday,thattheGermanraceisimbuedwiththespiritofclassicalantiquity.
ThefallofCsar,andthestateofanarchythatfollowedagain,delayedtheworkofpacification,andHelvetiawaslefttotakecareofherself.ButwhenAugustuswasfirmlyseatedontheimperialthrone,heresumedthetaskwhichhadbeenbequeathedtohim.TheorganizationofGaulwaschieflyhiswork,anditrequiredanenergeticyetmoderatepolicy.The
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oldNarbonensisdistrict,whichhadlongbeenmouldedintoaRomanprovince,wasplacedundersenatorialcontrol.NewGaul,orGalliaComata(GauleChevelue),asthewholeterritorywascalledwhichCsarhadconquered,wassubmittedtoimperialauthority,andtreatedmoreadequatelyinaccordancewiththeancientconstitutionsofthevarioustribes.TofacilitatetaxationandadministrationNewGaulwasdividedintothreeprovinces,eachruledbyaRomangovernor.Ofthesethreeprovinces,onewasBelgica,extendingfromtheSeineandthemouthoftheRhinetoLakeConstance,thusincludingHelvetiaproper.Belgica,onaccountofitssize,wassubdividedintothreecommands,inoneofwhich,thatofUpperGermany,Helvetiafounditselfplaced.ThuswefindHelvetiaincorporatedwithGaul.
ThepoliticalcapitaloftheTresGalli,orThreeGauls,wasLugdunum(Lyons),owingtoitscentralposition,anditseemstohavebeenaveryimportantcity.HereDrusushadraisedanaltartohisimperialfather,Augustus,andtheGeniusoftheCity.Heremettherepresentativesofthesixty-fourGallicstates(includingthoseoftheHelvetiansandtheRauraci)ontheanniversaryoftheemperor.Here,too,wastheseatoftheGallicDiet;andhere,intheamphitheatre,tookplacerhetoricalcontests,theCeltsholdingeloquenceinhighhonour.
EasternSwitzerland,thatis,Graubnden,andthelandaroundLakeWallenstatt,asfarasLakeConstance,wasjoinedwithRhtia,which
likewiseincluded,amongstotherdistricts,theTyrolandSouthernBavaria.ThewholeofthisterritorywasruledbyagovernorresidingatAugustaVindelicorum(Augsburg).TheValaisdistrictwasjoinedtosomepartofSavoy,andruledbytheprocuratorofthePoenineAlps.Ticinodoesnotconcernushere,asitremainedaportionofItalydowntothesixteenthcentury.
YetthoughthusarbitrarilymadeapartofGaul,Helvetiaformedaprovinceofitself,andhaditsownhistoryandkeptitsownconstitution,thankstoCsar'swiseandgenerouspolicy,bywhichheprovidedthattheCeltsshouldnotbeinterferedwithintheirmethodofgoverningbytribes(pagiorcivitates),norintheirconstitution,solongasitdidnotclashwiththeRomanlaws.WhenCsarhaddefeated
theHelvetianshesentthembacktorebuildtheiroldhomes,andtheyre-occupiedtheirancientterritory,withtheexceptionofthatportionwhichstretchesfromFortl'EclusetoGenevaandAubonne,andbordersonMountJura.ThisportionwaswrenchedawayandgiventotheEquestrianJuliancolonysettledatNoviodunum(Nyon)onGenevalake,tokeepthepassesofthemountain(43B.C.).TheJurarangeseparatedHelvetiafromtheterritoryoftheRauraci,whereanotherveterancolonywasaboutthesametimeestablishedasasafeguardfortheRhine,tochecktheincursionsoftheGermans.TheColoniaRauracorumwasafterwardscalledAugustaRauracoruminhonouroftheemperor.ThecolonistsofthesetwosettlementsweremostlyRomans,orhadbeenadmittedtoRomancitizenship,andoccupiedadifferentpositionfromtheinhabitantsofthecountrygenerally,fortheywereallowedRomanprivilegesand
favours--exemptionfromtaxationmostlikelyamongstothers--but,ontheotherhand,theywereentirelydependentontheRomanGovernment.
ThelaboriousinvestigationsofthelearnedMommsenandCharlesMorelgotoshowthattheHelvetiansweremildlytreatedbytheirmasters.TheyhadbeenreceivedintotheRomanpaleasfriends(foederati),andassuchlivedonfavourabletermswiththese,andenjoyedashighadegreeoflibertyandautonomyaswascompatiblewiththeirpositionasRomansubjects.TheRhtianshadbeentakenfromtheircountry;theHelvetii,onthecontrary,hadbeensentbackhomeandentrustedwiththe
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guardianshipoftheRhine,merelybeingrequiredtofurnishacontingentforserviceabroad.Theywereallowedtomaintaingarrisonsoftheirown--thatofTenedoontheRhine,forinstance--tobuildforts,toraisemilitiaincaseofwar.And,ashasbeforebeenmentioned,theirreligiousworshipwasnotinterferedwith,northeirtraditionaldivisionintopagi,ortribes,andtheywereallowedanationalrepresentativeattheGalliccapital,Lyons.Helvetiatooktherankofastate(CivitasHelvetiorum),itschiefseat(chef-lieu)beingAventicum,whichwasalsothecentreofgovernment.SolongasHelvetiaconformedtotheregulationsimposedbytheimperialgovernmentshewasallowedtomanageherownlocalaffairs.Latinwasmadetheofficiallanguage,thoughthenativetonguewasnotprohibited.
[Illustration:GOLDCOIN,VESPASIAN(VESPASIANUSIMPERATOR-AETERNITAS).
(ByDr.Imhoof,Winterthur.)]
A.D.69-79.UnderVespasian,however,agreatchangetookplace.Thankstothemunificenceofthatemperor,whohadagreatlikingforAventicum,thiscitylostitsCelticcharacter,andwasmadeasplendidcityaftertheItaliantype.HehadsenttherehisbefriendedandfaithfulFlaviancolonyoftheHelvetianstolive,givingherthelengthytitleofColoniaPiaFlaviaConstansEmeritaHelvetiorumFoederatainreturnforservices,forshehadstaunchlysupportedhis
partyagainstVitelliuswhenthelattercontendedwithGalbafortheimperialthrone.TheinhabitantsmostlikelyreceivedtheLatinRight(DroitLatin),orwereconsideredRomancitizens,andassuchweremoreintimatelyconnectedwithRome,andhadtosubmittoclosercontrol.HerinstitutionswereassimilatedtothoseofItaliantowns.Shehadasenate,acouncilofdecuriones,citymagistrates,aprfectusoperumpublicorum(orspecialofficertoattendtotheconstructionofpublicbuildings),Augustanflamens,orpriests,andsoforth.
NotwithstandingtheoverwhelmingimportanceofAventicum,acertainamountofself-governmentwaslefttothecountrydistricts,towns,andvillages(vici).TheinhabitantsofVindonissa(Windisch),Aqu
(Baden),Eburodunum(Yverdon),Salodurum(Soleure),erectedpublicbuildingsoftheirownaccord.ThetownsoftheValais,Octodurum(Martigny),Sedunum(Sion),&c.,hadtheirowncitycouncilandmunicipalofficers,andreceivedtheLatinRight.InthecaseoftheHelvetians,thoseofthecapitalandthoseoftheprovincesequallyenjoyedthatRight;whereas,withAugustaRauracorum,thecasewasdifferent,onlythecolonistswithinthewalledcitiesbeinggrantedthelikestandingandliberties.Onthewholeitmaybesaidthat,thoughHelvetiakeptmanyofherownpeculiarities,andsomeofherancientliberties,shesubmittedtoRome,andwasgreatlyinfluencedbytheadvancedcivilizationoftheempire.TheHelvetians,indeed,underwentthatchangeofspeechandcharacter,whichsplitthemintotwonations,FrenchandGermans.
OneofthechieffactorscontributingtotheRomancolonizationofHelvetiawasthemilitaryoccupationofitsnorthernfrontier,thoughthisoccupationweighedheavilyonthecountry.ThegreatobjectofRomewastokeepbacktheGermans,whowereforeverthreateningtobreakintotheempire.Vindonissawasoneofthemilitaryheadquarters,anditsselectionforthepurposewasjustifiedbyitsexcellentposition,situatedasitwasonanelevatedneckofland,washedbythreenavigablerivers,theAare,Reuss,andLimmat,andatthejunctionofthetwogreatroadsconnectingEastandWestHelvetiawithItaly.A
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capitalsystemofroads,too,wasplannedalloverthecountry.
TherewouldnodoubtoftenbebutlittlelovelostbetweentheHelvetiansandthesoldieryinoccupation.Tacitus("Annals")tellsofonebloodyepisode.Afterthedeathofthemadmanhero,thetwenty-firstlegion,surnamedRapax,orRapacious,nodoubtforgoodreasons,wasquarteredatVindonissa.Ccina,aviolentman,lieutenantofVitellius,thencommanderoftheRhinearmy,marchedintoHelvetiatoproclaimVitelliusemperor.ButtheHelvetianssupportedhisopponentGalba,notknowingthathehadjustbeenmurdered,andfelluponthemessengersofCcina,andputtheminprison,afterfirstseizingtheirletters.ThelieutenantenragedatthisaffrontlaidwastetheneighbouringAqu(BadennearZurich),aflourishingwatering-placemuchfrequentedforitsamusements,Tacitustellsus.CallingintheRhtiancohorts,hedrovethemtotheBoetzberg,andcutthemdownbythousandsinthewoodsandfastnessesofMountJura;then,ravagingthecountryashewent,CcinamarchedontoAventicum,whichatoncesurrendered.Alpinus,anotableleader,wasputtodeath,andtherestwerelefttotheclemencyofVitellius.However,theRomansoldierydemandedthedestructionofthenation,butClaudiusCossus,aHelvetianofgreateloquence,movingthemtotearsbyhistouchingwords,theychangedtheirminds,andbeggedthattheHelvetiansmightbesetatliberty.
Howeverthismilitaryoccupationwas,aftersixtyyearsofduration,
drawingtoaclose.UnderDomitianandTrajanallthelandbetweenStrasburgandAugsburg,asfarastheMain,wasconqueredandannexedtotheRomanEmpire.AnartificialrampartwasformedacrosscountryfromthemouthoftheMaintoRegensburgontheDanube,andthemilitarycordonwasremovedfromtheSwissfrontiertothenewboundaryline.Helvetia,nownolongertherendezvousoftheRomanlegionaries,quietlysettledintoaRomanprovince,wherethelanguage,customs,art,andlearningofRomeweresoontobeadopted.
Ifthemilitarystationswerestarting-pointsofthenewculture,itwasthemorepeacefulimmigrantswhointroducedagriculture,commerce,andwealth,or,atanyrate,causedittomakeprogress.GraduallytheHelvetiansamalgamatedwiththeRomans,adoptingeventheirreligion.
Horticultureandvine-culturewereintroduced.ARomanfarmergrewvinesonapatchofgroundnearCully,onLakeGeneva,andonaninscribedstone(dugupatSt.Prex)begsBacchus(LiberPaterCocliensis)toblessthevintage.Helittleanticipatedthathisplantationwouldbetheancestor,asitwere,ofthefamousLaCte,nowsohighlyvalued.
Wherevertheart-lovingRomanfixedhisabodehebuilthishouse,withthewonderfulRomanmasonry,andfurnisheditwithalltheluxuryandarthisrefinedtastesuggested.ThusthecountrygraduallyassumedaRomanaspect.Manytownsandvici,orvillagesettlements,spranguporincreasedinimportanceunderRomaninfluence--Zurich,Aqu(BadennearZurich),Kloten,Vindonissa,andothers.[10]Yettheeasternportionofthecountrycouldnotcompeteinthematteroffinebuildings
withthewesterncantons.Indeed,intheeasterndistrictstheHelvetianinfluencewasneverpredominatedoverbytheLatininfluence,andtheHelvetiansclungtotheirnativespeechdespitetheLatintonguebeingtheofficiallanguage.
Butitwasthemildandsunnywestwhichmostattractedtheforeigner,asitstilldoes.WealthyRomanssettledingreatnumbersbetweenMountJuraandthePennineranges.EverynookandcorneroftheCantonVaudbearsevendowntoourdaysthestampofRomancivilization.TheshoresandsunnyslopesofGenevalakewerestrewnwithvillas,andthewoody
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stripoflandbetweenVilleneuveandLausanneandGenevawasalmostasmuchinrequestforcountryseatsbythegreatamongsttheRomansasthatdelightfulstretchofcoastontheBayofNaples,fromPosilippotoPozzuoliandBai,whereCiceroandVirgil,andmanyRomansoflessermark,hadtheirvillegiatures.
Butthemostremarkableplace,whetherforart,learning,oropulence,wasAventicum,theHelvetiancapital.Ofthistownsomementionhasbeenmadeabove,and,didspacepermit,afulldescriptionmightwellbegivenofthistrulymagnificentandtrulyRomancity.Itstheatre,academy,senate-house,courts,palaces,baths,triumphalarches,andprivatebuildingswerewonderful.Am.Marcellinus,theRomanwriter,whosawAventicumshortlyafteritspartialdestructionbytheAlamanni,greatlyadmireditspalace'sandtemples,evenintheirsemi-ruinouscondition.ThecitynextinbeautyandsizewasAugustaRauracorum(BaselAugst),wheretheruinsofavastamphitheatrestillcommandourwonderingadmiration.
Butthisperiodofgrandeurwasfollowedbythegradualdownfalloftheempire,whichwasalreadyrottenatthecore.ThedegenerateRomansofthelatertimeswereunabletostandagainsttheattacksofthemorevigorousGermans.Thestoryistoolongtotellindetail,butafewpointsmaybebrieflynoted.In264A.D.theAlamannisweptthroughthecountryontheirwaytoGaul,levellingAugustaRauracorumwiththe
ground,andconsiderablyinjuringAventicum.AttheendofthethirdcenturytheRomansrelinquishedtheirrampartbetweentheRhineandtheDanube,andfellbackupontheoldmilitaryfrontierofthefirstcentury.Helvetiathusunderwentasecondmilitaryoccupation.YettheprestigeofRomewasgone.In305A.D.theAlamanniagainoverranHelvetia,andcompletedtheruinofAventicum.WeakerandweakergrewtheRomanpower,andwhentheGothspressedintoItalytheimperialtroopswereentirelywithdrawnfromHelvetia.AsfortheHelvetiansthemselves,theywerequiteunabletoofferanyresistance,andwhentheAlamannioncemoreburstintotheland(406A.D.),theywereabletosecureentirepossessionoftheeasternportions.TheBurgundians,anotherGermantribe,followedsuit,andin443A.D.fixedthemselvesinWestHelvetia.TheinaccessiblefastnessesofGraubndenaloneremained
untouchedbythetideofGermaninvasion,whicheffectedsuchchangesintheneighbouringdistricts.
Atthisperiodofworldlygrandeurandinternaldecay,occursanotherhistoricaleventofthegreatestimportance,theriseofChristianity,containingthevitalelementsnecessaryforbringingaboutthespiritualregenerationoftheworld.Thesocialandpoliticaldecompositionthroughouttheempire,thecrueltyrannyofthesovereigns,thedecrepitudeofthestateanditsinstitutions,thegrowingindifferencetothenationalreligion,whichshoweditselfinthefacileadoptionof,orratheradaptationto,theEasternformsofworship--theadoptionofthedeitiesIsisandMithra,forexample--alltheseandmanyotherthingsunnecessarytomention,wereunmistakablesignsthatRomanrule
wasdrawingtoitsclose,andtheyalsopreparedthewayforthereceptionofthenewdoctrine.ThebeliefinoneGodofmercyandlove;ofoneSaviour,theRedeemeroftheworld;ofafuturelife,--werestartlingbutgoodtidingstothepoorandoppressed,andmadetheirinfluencefeltalsoontherichandcultivated,whosawinChristianityatolerance,benevolence,humanlove,loftinessofprincipleandmoralperfectionwhichhadnotbeenattainedbythecreedsofantiquity.ThepassionateardourandforceofconvictionamongsttheChristianswassuchthattheyfacedsufferinganddeathratherthanabjuretheirtenetsordesistfrompreachingthemtoothers.
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TheaccountsoftheintroductionofChristianityintoSwitzerlandaremostlylegendary,yetitisgenerallybelievedthatitwasnottheworkofspecialmissionaries.ItismorelikelythatthenewfaithcametothelandaspartandparceloftheRomanculture.Indeedthisisnowtheopinionmostgenerallyreceived.Themilitaryoperationsoftheempirerequiredcontinualchangesoflocalityonthepartofthetroops;thuswefindEgyptian,Numidian,andSpanishsoldiersquarteredontheRhineandtheDanube,andsuchastheywouldmostprobablybethefirsttobringinthenewfaith.
AtfirsttheRomanauthoritieslookeduponChristiansasstaterebels,andfiercepersecutionsfollowed.TheoldestChristianlegendofthiscountrytellsofsuchaconflictbetweenthestateofficialsandtheChristians,andnodoubtcontainssomeadmixtureoftruth,asmanyofthesestoriesdo.AlegionleviedatThebesinEgypt--hencecalledtheThebade--wassenttoColognetotaketheplaceoftroopsrequiredtoquellarisinginBritain.ComingtotheValais,theywererequiredbytheEmperorMaximiantosacrificetotheheathengods(A.D.280-300),butbeingmostlyChristianstheyrefused,andweremassacredwiththeirchief,Mauritius.Some,however,escapedforthetime,butwerecalledupontoreceivethemartyr'scrownlateron,andinotherplaces.Twosuch,UrsusandVictor,cametoSoleurewithsixty-sixcompanions,andwereputtodeathbyorderofHirtus,theRomangovernor.Twoothers,
FelixandhissisterRegula,reachedZurich,wheretheirsuccessfulconversionsirritatedDecius,whoputthemtotherack,andthenbeheadedthem.Yet,wonderfultotell,thelegendgoeson,theyseizedtheirheadsthathadfallen,and,walkingwiththemtothetopofahillcloseby,buriedthemselves,bodiesandheadstoo.ThiswonderfulfeatwasanexactcounterpartofthatreportedtohavebeenperformedalsobyUrsusandVictoratSoleure.FelixandRegulabecamethepatronsaintsofZurich,andplayaconspicuouspartinitslocalhistory.TraditionsaysthatCharlemagnehimselfinlaterdayserectedaminsterontheirburialspot.Thus,asever,thebloodofmartyrsbecametheseedoftheChurch.
[Illustration:GOLDCOINOFSIXTEENTHCENTURY(ST.FELIX,ST.
REGULA-SANCTUSCAROLUS).(ByDr.Imhoof,Winterthur.)]
TheRomantownsGeneva,StMaurice,AugustaRauracorum,Aventicum,Vindonissa,andCuriahadbeenepiscopalseessincethethirdcentury,thoughsomeoftheseseeswereinprocessoftimeremovedtootherplaces.Thus,Augusta,Vindonissa,andSt.MauricewereremovedtoBasel,Constance,andSionrespectively.
FOOTNOTES:
[10]Weknowlittleofthem,mostlikelytheywerebutvici(villagesettlements).AqualoneweknowfromTacituswasacity-likewatering-place;Klotenhadhandsomevillas,butwhatitwaswedonot
know.
IV.
THEANCESTORSOFTHESWISSNATION.
THEALAMANNI;BURGUNDIANS;FRANKS;MEROVINGIANS.
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ThefifthcenturywasremarkableforwhatmaybecalledthedislocationofthepeoplesofEurope--themigrationsoftheGermansintotheRomanEmpire,and,mightiestmovementofall,theirruptionoftheHunsundertheirterriblekingAttila,the"ScourgeofGod."ThemeresightofthehideousAsiaticsfilledmenwithhorror.Neverafoot,buteverontheirill-shapedbutrapidsteeds,towhosebackstheyseemedasiftheywereglued,andonwhichtheylivedwell-nighdayandnight,itseemedasifmanandhorsehadgrownintoonebeing.Theirlargeheadsill-matchedtheirmeagrebodies;theirtawnyfaceswithdeep-seteyesandhigh,protrudingcheek-bonesmadethemresemblerough-cutfiguresinstoneratherthanhumanbeings.TheGothsregardedthemastheoffspringofspiritsofthedesertandofwitches.ThesemassesofAsiaticbarbarism,whichhadburstintoEurope,stayedforawhileinHungary,butsoonrolledtowardstheWest,dislodgingallthepeopleswithwhomtheycameincontact.MarchingtotheRhine,theydrovetheBurgundiansfromtheirsettlementsinthedistrictofWorms,alandsorichinsongandsaga,andenteredGaultofoundanewkingdom.ButthedoomoftheHunswasathand,forAtiustheRomangeneral,andthelastdefenderoftheempire,defeatedthem,A.D.451,inatrulygiganticbattleontheCatalaunianPlain,intheChampagnecountry.Theslaughterwassoterriblethatthesayingwentabroadthattheriverranhighwiththebloodof300,000men.
Butitwasclearthatthetotteringempirecouldnotdefenditselfagainstawholeworldincommotion.ThetimehadcomewhenRomewastoleavethestageofhistory.ThegreatGermannationwasforming.ItwouldbetediousandprofitlesstomentionalltheGermantribesbeyondtheRhineandDanube,awell-nighendlesslistofnames,impossibletoremember.Besides,thepettytribesandclansgraduallyformedallianceswitheachotherforgreatersecurity,and,droppingtheirancientnames,tookcollectiveonesmorefamiliartoourears--Saxons,Franks,Thuringi,Burgundians,Alamanni,andBavarians.
OfthesetheAlamanniandtheBurgundiansarethosefromwhomtheSwissaredescended,andthusSwitzerland,likeEngland,hastolookbackto
Germanyasitsancestralhome.Thetall,fair-haired,true-heartedAlamanniforwhomCaracallahadsuchanadmirationthattobelikethemheworearedwig,aresaidtohavebeendescendantsoftheSemnones,whohadmigratedfromLusatiaontheSpree(inSilesia)totheMain.ThenameAlamanniisgenerallyheldbythelearnedtobederivedfromalah,atemple-grove,andimpliesacombinationofvarioustribes,"thepeopleoftheDivinegrove."TheSuevi,ofwhomtheSemnoneswerethemostconspicuoustribe,hadasacredgroveinthedistrictoftheSpree,wheretheymetforworship.InthefifthcenturywefindtheAlamannioccupyingthedistrictfromtheMaintotheBlackForest,EastHelvetia,andAlsatiaasfarastheVosges.
WhenthisformidablehordetookpossessionofEasternHelvetiathey
foundbutlittletroublefromtheCelto-Romanpopulation,who,thinnedbypreviousinvasions,andunaccustomedtofighting,couldoffernoseriousresistance,andsankintoslavesandservants.Thetownswerelaidinruins,thecountryravaged,andallculturetroddenunderfoot.Itseemedasif"thehandonthedialofhistoryhadbeenputbackbycenturies,"[11]andcivilizationhadoncemoretobeginherwork.Theyoutnumberedthenatives,andwerenotabsorbedbythem,butonthecontraryonthehalf-decayedstockoftheRomanprovincetheAlamanniweregraftedasatrueGermanpeople,retainingtheiroldlanguage,institutions,andmodeofliving.
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TheAlamannididnotatoncedevelopintoacivilizedandcultivatedpeople,butretainedtheirfondnessforwarandhunting,andothercharacteristicsoftheirancientlife.Theirgrandandmajesticwoodshadstampedthemselvesontheintrepid,dauntlessspirits,whosedeepsubjectivenessandtruthfulnaturescontrastsstronglywiththepolishedartfulnessoftheRomans.Forthemightyaspectsofnature--forest,mountain,sea--playtheirpartinmouldingthecharacterofanation.AndtheirimpenetrablewoodshadinfluencedthedestiniesoftheGermansintheearlyperiodsoftheirhistory--hadsavedthemfromtheRomanyoke,thelabyrinthsofswampandriver,defyingeventheforcesofthewell-nighall-powerfulempire.Then,too,whenhardfightingwasafoot,andmenhadburnttheirhomesteadsbeforetheadvanceofthefoe,thevastforestformedasaferetreatforwomenandchildren.Theoriginalhouse,bytheway,wasamerewoodententonfourposts,andcouldbecarriedoffoncartsthatfittedunderneath.ThenextstagewasahutinthestyleoftheSwissmountain-shed,butitwasstillmovable--was,infact,achattelthemoretobetakenalongontheirwanderings.[12]
Theirmodeofsettlingintheirnewcountrywascuriousenough,thoughtheearlysettlementofEnglandwasverysimilarincharacter.DislikingwalledtownsoftheRomanfashion,theGermansfelttheirfreedomofmovementimpededandtheirmindsoppressedbylivingwithintheprison-likefortificationsofstrongcities.Butlovingseclusionand
independence,nevertheless,theybuiltextensivefarmsteads,whereeachmanwashisownmaster.Tothehomesteadwereaddedfields,meadows,andanextensivefarmyard;thewholehedgedaboutsoastokeeptheowneralooffromhisneighbours.Eachfarmerpitchedhistentwherever"springormead,orsylvanwoodtemptedhim,"reportsTacitus.ThislikingforseclusiononthepartoftheGermansiswellshowninthecaseofZurich,foratonetimethecantonhadthreethousandfarmhomesteads,asagainstahundredhamletsandtwelvevillages.
Themodeofpartitioningthelandshowsdemocraticfeatures.Itwasdividedamongstthecommunityaccordingtothesizeoffamiliesandherdsofcattle,butonelargeplotwasleftforthecommonuse.ThelargeAllmend,orcommon,suppliedwoodforthecommunity,andthere,
too,mightfeedeveryman'sflocksandherds.Thenoblemanassuchhadnodomainsspeciallysetapartforhim,hispositionandprivilegeswerehonorary.Hemightbechosenasahighofficerofadistrict,orevenaduke,orleaderofthearmy,intimeofwar.Paymentforsuchserviceswasunknown.Moneywasscarce,andindeeditsusewasmainlytaughtthembytheRomans.Notonlydidflocksandherdsformtheirchiefwealth,butwerethestandardofvalue,eacharticlebeingestimatedasworthsomuchincattle.
Societywasfromtheveryfirstsharplyandclearlydividedintotwogreatclasses--thelandownersandthebondsmen--the"freeandtheunfree."Theformerclasswasagainsplitinto"lessermen,""middlemen,"and"firstmen,"orAthelinge(Adelige),theselastnamedbeingof
nobleblood,andownersofmostlandandthegreatestnumberofslavesandcattle.The"unfree"wereeitherHoerigethatbelongedtotheestatetheytilled,andmightbesoldwithit,orslaveswhocouldcallnothingtheirown,forwhatevertheysavedfelltotheirlordattheirdeath,ifhesowilled.Ashireorlargedistrictwassubdividedintohundreds.Thewholeofthefreemenmetonsomehallowedspot,undersomesacredtree,withtheirpriestsandleaders.Here,besidesperformingreligiousexercises,theydiscussedwarandpeace,dispensedjustice,chosetheirofficersofstate,andtheirleaderifwarwasimminent.Warandjurisdictionwerethewhole,orwell-nighthewhole,
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ofpubliclifeatthatearlystage.Thepopularassemblies,doneawaywithbythefeudalsystem,revivedlateronintheformofthefamous"Landsgemeinde"oftheforestdistrict,whicharestillinuseinsomeofthecantons.Bloodmoney,orwergild,wasexactedfromwrong-doersasinSaxontimesinEngland.Thetariffdrawnupforbodilyinjuriesrevealsthemercenaryandbrawlingtemperofasemi-civilizedpeople.
AtthetimetheysettledinSwitzerlandtheAlamanniwereheathens,andworshippednature-deities--ingroves,nearsprings,ormountains--thenamesofsomeofwhichwestilltraceinthenamesofthedaysoftheweek.Theirreligion,whichwasthatcommontoallGermany,revealstheGermanmind--fullofreverie,deepthoughtfulness,andwildromanticfancythatleadstoatragicalissue.LikemostheathenpeopletheAlamanniclothedtheirgodsintheirownfleshandblood.Wodenandhisattendantdeities,shield-maidens--FreyrandFreya,thekingandqueenoftheelves--dwarfs,giants,spirits--allthesearewellknowntous,andareindeedthecharmofthefairytalesofouryouth.Thebrightspirits,theAsen,waragainstthespiritofdarkness,thegiants,andloseground,fortheyhavebrokenthetreatiesmadewiththem.TheAsenarethebenevolentpowersofnature,springsunshine,andfertilizingrain,andliveinbrightpalaces,inWalhalla,andreceivethedead;theevilspiritsarethesterilerock,theicywinter,theragingsea,thedestructivefire.ThordestroystherockswithhisHammer,poundingthemtoearththatmanmaygrowcorn.Thegiantsscaletheskytodefythe
godsforassistingmankind,butHeimdallrstandswatchingontherainbow-bridgethatleadstoAsgard--thegardenoftheAsen--andpreventstheirentrance.Butthegodsthemselvesarestainedwithguilt,andinafightwiththeGiantsbeforethegatesofWalhalla,theyutterlydestroyeachother.Thecolumnsofheavenandtherainbow-bridgebreakdown,theuniverseisdestroyedandthedownfallofthegodsiscomplete.ButtheheathenGermanscouldnotbearthenotionofentireannihilation,soinasortofepiloguethegreattragedyisfollowedbythedawnofbrighterandbettertimes,thegodsrecovertheirformerinnocence,whentheyusedtoplaywithgoldendicewithoutknowingthevalueofgold.[13]TheGtterdmmerung,theDivineDawn,hasbroken,andanewepochhassetinforgodsandmen.OneofWagner'smusicaldramasis,asiswellknown,foundedonthesemyths..Toturntothe
Burgundians.TheybecametheneighboursoftheAlamanniinHelvetiaabout443A.D.,afteraseveredefeatbytheHuns.Thisgreatbattleispicturedwithgreatpowerinthe"Nibelungenlied."TheBurgundiansplayaconspicuouspartinthatgrandoldepic.Awonderfulblendingitisofheroicmyth,beautifulromance,andhistoricsagasattachingtothegreatheroesoftheearlyMiddleAges--TheodorictheGreat,GuntherofBurgundy,Attila,KingoftheHuns.Ifspacepermitted,thewholestorymightwellbetold,butinthisplaceletonefeatbecitedasanexample.Siegfried,theDragon-slayer,ademigod,invulnerable,likeAchilles,exceptinoneplace,andwhocouldmakehimselfinvisible,woosthesweetandlovelymaidofWorms.As"invisiblechampion,"heassistsherbrotherGuntherinhiscombatwiththewarlikeBrunhilde,QueenoftheNorth,whomGuntherwishestoobtaintowife.Afteryears
ofhappymarriedlifetheQueenofWormsfelltoaquarrelwiththeQueenofXantenonaquestionofprecedence,andthegallantSiegfriedfallsavictimtoBrunhilde'shatred,andherintriguewithHagen.Toavengehisdeath,thedisconsolatewidowmarriesthepowerfulAttila,andengagesinaterriblebattlewiththeBurgundians.Inthisbattlesheandherownkindredwereslain.AttilaandDietrichofVerona(TheodorictheGreat)aresaved,however.
AtiusgavetotheBurgundiansasasettlementSabaudia(Savoy),onconditionthattheyshouldprotectGaulandItalyfromtheincursionsof
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theAlamanni.One-thirdofthelandsandhomesteadsweremadeovertothembytheRomans,andlatertwo-thirdswereyielded.GraduallytheBurgundiansadvancedintheinteriorofHelvetia,Vaud,Valais,andFribourg,andintoSouthernGaul.TheyoccupiedindeedalltheterritoryfromtheVosgestotheAlpsandtheMediterranean.Theylivedonfriendlytermswiththeprevioussettlers,differingconsiderablyincharacterfromtheAlamanni.Lessnumerous,lessvigorous,andmorepliant,theywereunabletoGermanizetheWest,astheAlamannididtheEast,yetwerestrongenoughtoinfusenewvitalforceintotheenervatedRomanpopulations.AreadilycultivableracetheBurgundiansavailedthemselvesoftheRomancivilizationandadvancement,andgraduallyblendedwiththeprevioussettlers--chieflyofLatinorigin--toformanewpeople.ThusthroughRomaninfluenceandGermangrafting--withtwodistinctGermangrafts--twonationalitiessprangupinSwitzerland,andwefind,asinourownday,theGermansinthenorth-east,andtheFrenchinthesouth-west.
[Illustration:EIGERINTHEBERNESEOBERLAND.]
TheRomaninfluenceovertheBurgundianswasgreatlyincreasedbythepolicyofKingGundobad(A.D.500).HehadvisitedItaly,andhadbeengreatlytakenwithRomaninstitutions.ThereisstillextantaletterofhisinwhichhebegsofTheodorictheGreatasun-orwater-dialwhichhehadseenathisCourt.Gundobad'scodeoflawswasablendingof
RomanlegislationwithGermanjurisdiction.HeintroducedtheLatinspeechandchronologyofficially,andgavetheRomansequalrightsandanequalstandingwiththeGermanpopulation.Religiousdifferencesarising--theBurgundianswereArians--andconflictsensuingbetweenkingandpeople,theFrankstookadvantageoftheturmoilstobringthesubjectsofGundobadundertheirsway.
TherewasnolovelostbetweentheAlamanniandtheirneighbours,theBurgundians;indeedthenationalantipathyforeachotherwasgreat,buttheFrankishdominationdidmorethananythingelsetowardsbringingaboutaunionbetweenthehostilepeoples.ThereportstheyhaveleftastothecharacteroftheFranksarenotflattering.TheysaidthattheFrankswerecapableofbreakinganoathwithasmilingface,anda
sayingran,"TakeaFrankforafriend,butneverforaneighbour."Clovis,theFrankishking,hadwadedtothethronethroughthebloodofhisownkin.Hewas,however,thefirsttotakemoreextendedviewsinpolitics,andplannedaunitedGermankingdomafterthetypeoftheRomanEmpire.TohisvastschemetheAlamannifellthefirstvictims.Agreatbattlewasfoughtinwhichtheysuffereddefeat.ClovishadvowedthathewouldembraceChristianityifheshouldprevailagainsttheAlamannicOdin.Victoryfallingtohisside,Clovisandhisnobleswerebaptized.HisconversionwasagreattriumphfortheChurch,andfurnishedtheMerovingiankingswithapretextfortheconquestoftheArianGermans,whohadbeenledastrayfromtheorthodoxfaith.TocrowntheworkandenhancehisgreatnessintheeyesofhisRomanandGermansubjects,theimperialpurple,andthetitleofRomanPatriciuswas
bestowedonClovisbytheGreekemperor.
ThesubjectionofBurgundywasbroughtaboutinthefollowingreign,underSigismund,whohadbeenguiltyofthemurderofhissonbythedesireofthestepmother.HefledtoSt.Maurice,whichheendowedsorichlythatitgavesheltertoupwardsoffivehundredmonks.However,hispietydidnotbringhimvictory,fortheBurgundiansweredefeatedbytheFranksatAutunin532,andSigismundandhisfamilywerehurleddownawell.
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InthesameyearChur-RhtiawasyieldedtotheFranksbytheGoths,whorequiredtheirhelpagainsttheEast.Rhtia,whichhadescapedtheGermaninvasion,hadfallentotheshareoftheGothsofItaly,andhadenjoyedtheprotectionandmunificenceoftheirgloriousking,TheodorictheGreat.HedefendedheragainstherneighboursasaforepostofItaly,butleftintacttheRomaninstitutions.
ThushadHelvetiabeenformedintoaFrankishdependency;notavestigewasleftoftheverynameHelvetia.YettheFrankishrulewasmorenominalthanreal.Countswereappointedtogovernshiresandhundreds,and,beingroyalgovernors,wereelectedby,anddependenton,theFrankishkings.Jurisdiction,militarycommand,summoningtowar,raisingoftaxes--fishing,hunting,coinage,hadbecomeroyalprerogatives--andthefarmerskickedagainsttheimpositions--thesewerethefunctionsofthegoverningcounts.NonethelesstheBurgundiansretainedtheirkingorpatricius,andtheAlamanniremainedundertheswayoftheirownduke,towhomalonetheygaveallegiance.Chur-Rhtiawasparticularlyprivileged.Itwasruledbyaroyalgovernor,whowassupremejudge,count,andprses,andthedignityremainedforonehundredandfiftyyearsinonepowerfulandwealthynativefamilycalledtheVictoriden,whoheldlikewisetheecclesiasticallivings.Onitsextinctionin766,BishopTello,thelastofthefamily,bestowedtheimmensewealthonthereligious-housesofDisentisandChur.
ThepromotionofChristianity,andthestaunchsupportgivenbytheMerovingiankingstotheChurch,wereperhapsthegreatestbenefitsresultingfromtheFrankishrule.KnowingtheChurchtobethesolemeansbywhichinthatbenightedageculturecouldbespreadandcivilizationextended,thosemonarchsavailedthemselvesofherservices,andbestoweduponherinreturngreatwealthandhighprerogatives.Churchesandreligious-housesspranguponecouldhardlytellhow.InFrenchSwitzerlandtherewerefoundedthebishopricsofGeneva,Lausanne,andSion;andintheeasternhalfofthecountrythoseofBasel,Vindonissa(removedtoConstanceinthesixthcentury),andChur.St.Maurice,benefited,aswehaveseen,bySigismund,wasaflourishingabbeytown.YetmanyoftheAlamanniheldtenaciouslytotheiroldgods,andtheirholyshrinesandidolsstoodsidebysidewith
theCross;evenChristiansinvokedWoden,forfearheshouldbeoffendedbytheirneglect.
ThefurtheramalgamationofheathenismandChristianitywasmosteffectuallystoppedby--curioustosay--acaravanofIrishmonks.Infact,latertraditionattributedtothesemonksthefoundationofreligious-houses,toanumberwhichmoderninvestigationhasshowntohavebeengreatlyexaggerated.Ireland,whichhadsofarescapedthestrugglewiththegreatTeutonicrace,hadgivenallherenergiestothepromotionofthenewfaith,andeversincethefourthcenturyChristianityhadwonderfullyflourishedintheisland.Filledwithmissionaryardour,theIrishColumbanconceivedanintensedesiretoconquerGaulandGermany,andin610setoutonhiswanderingswitha
staffoftwelvecompanions.Equippedwith"knottysticks,"aleathervial,atravellingpouch,areliccase,andwithasparepairofbootshungroundtheneck,"tatooed,"wearinglongwavinghair,[14]theadventurousbandarrivedinGaul,andfoundedmonasteriesintheVosgesdistrict.However,theyoffendedQueenBrunhildebytheirfrankness,andhadtodepart.ProceedingtoEasternHelvetia,theyarrivedatZurich,butatlengthfindingnothingmoretodothere,aswemaysuppose,theyproceededtoTuggen,ontheUpperZurichlake.Heretheysawpeopleengagedinanoblationofbeertothenationalgods.Movedwithholyanger,themonksupsetthevessel,andflungtheidolsintothelake,
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andwonmanytoChristianity.Wecannotherefollowthemintheirdevotedlabours.ColumbanpassedonintoItaly,butlefthisdiscipleGallusintheneighbourhoodofLakeConstance.Hencesprangupthefamousmonasterybearinghisname.
FOOTNOTES:
[11]Green's"SmallerHistoryofEngland,"p.42.
[12]Dahn,"UrgeschichtederRmanish-germanischenVlker."
[13]Dahn
[14]ProfessorRahn.
V.
THECAROLINGIANS--CHARLEMAGNE.
UnderthelastMerovingiankings,whosecharacterissufficiently
attestedbythenameofFainants--sluggards--AlamanniaandBurgundystruggledtoshakeofftheFrankishyoke.Nowthewealthandpowerofthoseweakkingswerepassingfromthemtotheir"MayorsofthePalace."CharlesMartel,oneofthese"Mayors,"defeatedtheAlamanniinagreatbattle(A.D.730),andCarlomann,Charlemagne'sbrother,hadanumberofAlamannicgrandeesputtothesword,andtheirlandsconfiscated(A.D.746).
CharlesMartelremainedsimple"MayorofthePalace,"butPepinleBrefhadhimselfcrownedking,atSt.Denis,byStephenII.,in751,rewardingthePopeforthisgreatservicebythegiftofatractoflandaroundtheHolyCity.Bythiscoupd'tatwereestablishedboththeCarolingiandynastyandthetemporalpowerofthePope--well-nigh
convertibleterms.Thenewdynastygreatlyfosteredreligion,andfurtheredtheworkbegunbytheIrishandAnglo-Saxonmonks.St.Gall'scellbecameanabbeychurchandmonasticschool;St.Leodegar'satLucernewasincorporatedwiththeabbeyofMurbachinAlsatia;andonthebankoftheLimmatatZuricharoseacollegeofprebends.
PepinleBrefwassucceededbyhisson,CharlestheGreat,orCharlemagne,asheisusuallycalled(768-814).Fornearlyhalfacenturythistalented,powerful,andlofty-mindedsovereignswayedthedestiniesofEuropewithunflaggingzeal,everbearinginmindtheresponsibilitiesofhisexaltedposition.Heruledoveravastdomain,stretchingfromtheEbroinSpaintotheTheissinHungary,andfromDenmarktotheTiber.Saxons,Sclavonians,Avars,Lombards,andArabs,
weresubjecttohisrule.HisCourtwasagreatintellectualcentre,whenceenlightenmentspreadtoeverypartofhisdominions.Charlemagnewasgreatasageneral,asastatesman,asapolitician;hewasapainstakingeconomist,andhishumanity,andhisothervirtuessecuredforhimthenobletitleof"FatherofEurope."Abrilliantfigureinabenightedage,whichsheditslightonaftertimes.Nowondermedivalfancylingeredfondlyonhismemory;andaroundhisnamegatheredsongandsagaandlegend.CharlemagneisaspecialfavouritewiththeSwiss;indeed,ofalltheGermanrulerswhohaveheldswayoverthem,heistheonewhosememoryismostdear;andSwitzerlandhasdoneatleasther
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shareinhelpingtoswellthemassoflegendandfictionrespectinghim.TheimpulsehegavetoeducationinthiscountrywasalonesufficienttoendearhismemorytotheSwiss.Basel,Geneva,Chur,andSion,benefitedbyhiswiseadministration,andZurichquiteparticularlyexaltshim,callinghimthe"Fountainofherintellectuallife,"duringtheMiddleAges.Itisimpossibleasitisunnecessarytogiveatlengthinthisvolume,thehistoryofthislongandbrilliantreign.AfewpointsmaysufficetoindicatethecharacterofCharlemagne,andtothrowsomelightonthetimes,andtheconditionofthecountry.
TheambitionoftheFrankstofoundanempireafterthefashionofRomewaspracticallyrealizedwhenCharlemagnewascrownedEmperoroftheWestbyHadrianinA.D.800.YetCharlesaimedlessatmereoutwardgrandeurthanattheestablishmentofaspiritualkingdomonearth,andakingdomthatshouldembraceallhispeopleinoneChristianChurch,upheldbyastrongandwell-organizedstate-commonwealth.TheunionofChurchandState,yetgivingthepreponderancetothelatter,wasCharlemagne'sleadingidea,andwell-nighsummeduphisreligiousandpoliticalcreed.Thestrongreligiousbentofthis"priestlyking"wasrevealedattheverybeginningofhisreign,whenhetookuponhimselfthemissionof"DefenderoftheHolyChurch,andCoadjutoroftheApostolicSee"[15]thusclaiming,withtheconcurrenceofthePrimate,thespiritualguidanceofhisrealm.Hadrian'scongenialnatureandtendencieshelpedtobringaboutthisunion.YetinthismatterCharles
butconformedtothepolicyofhisancestors,andtothespiritoftheage,anageremarkableforactsofpietyanddevotion.AndthehistoryofSwitzerlandisforthatperiodratherahistoryofthereligiousmovementsofthetimethanapoliticalchronicle.ForinthoseearlystagestheChurchwasproportionallyfarmoreimportantthaninourowntimes.Thenshewasthesole,oralmostthesole,centreofintellect,ofart,ofletters,andrepresentedtheidealsideoflifeinanilliterateage.DespiteherdefectstheChurchwasablessingtomankind.
Helvetianlandshadentirelylosttheirpoliticalindependence.Duringthisreign,thevigorousgovernmentofthemonarchfrustratedeveryattemptatinsurrection,andintheendbothAlamanniandBurgundians
begantofeelthebenefitsarisingfromtheexistenceofawiseandfirmadministration.Tocurbtheirpowerthesovereignabolishedthedignitiesofthemightydukes,andparcelledoutthelandintosmallershires(thantheoldcountydivisions),andplacedoverthesecountsasroyalgovernorswithjudicialpower.Thepeoplenolongerappearedincorporeattheshire-motes,butwererepresentedatthelessercourtbySchoeffen,orreeves.Thesereeveshadtobringintheverdict;iftheycouldnotagree,trial-by-ordealwasresortedto.TwiceayearCharlesassembledhisnoblesandbishopstoreceivetheirreports,andtoframelaws,whichwere,however,submittedtothepeople,thatis,the"freeholders"atthe"realthing,"whentheymetinMay.Forthecontroloftheshireadministration,andtogivethepeopleameansofappealingmoredirectlytotheking'sjustice,heappointedaspecial
commissionofspiritualandtemporalofficers(missidominici).
Charlemagne'slegislation,ithardlyneedstobesaid,washighlyfavourabletotheChurch,andtendedtoincreaseherwealthlargely.Heallottedtohertithesoftheproduceofthesoil,andthepeopleoftheirownfreewilloverwhelmedtheecclesiasticalandmonasticinstitutionswithofferingsoflandsandmoney.IntheeighthcenturythemonasteryofSt.Gallalreadypossessed160,000acresofland,whichhadbeenbestowedbypiousdonors,whilstthetwelvehundreddeeds-of-giftfoundamongsttheoldabbeydocumentstestifytothezeal
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ofthegivers.Religiousestablishmentsbecamethelargestlandownersinthecountry,andvassalageandthefeudalsystemsprangup.
UndertheterritorialsubdivisionSwitzerlandfellintotheshiresofThurgau,Aargau,Genevagau,Waldgau(Vaud),&c.,farlargerthanatpresent,whencearederivedthenamesofvariouscantonsaswehavethemnow.SomeoftheSwisswouldseemtohavesharedinCharlemagne'smilitaryglory.The"MonkofSt.Gall,"[16]recentlyidentifiedwithNotkerBalbulus(theStammerer),thepopularbiographerofCharlemagne,tellsinbombasticstylethefeatsofanAlamannicherofromThurgau.ThismedivalHercules--EisheretheGiantbyname--hadaccompaniedtheemperoragainsttheAvars,andafterhisreturn,reportedthattheyhad"moweddowntheenemylikegrass,"andthathehimselfhad"strungonhislancesomesixoreightpigmytoadsofBohemiansasiftheywerelarks,thencarriedthemhitherandthither,notknowingwhattheyweregrumblingout"!Notker,thechronicler,hadinhisyouthheardthestoryofthemilitaryexploitsofCharlemagne,fromanoldThurgausoldierwhohadfollowedtheemperorinhiswars.AndwhenCharlesIII.wasonavisittoSt.Gallin883,hewassodelightedwiththemonk'slivelychataboutthematchlessemperor,thatherequestedhimtowritedownhisrecollectionsofhisillustriousancestor.TothismonkishchroniclerweowesomanyofthepleasantstoriesofCharlemagnecurrentamongus.[17]
InterestingandtouchingarethetraitsweconstantlymeetwithintheglimpseswegetoftheCourtandprivatelifeoftheemperor.Hisdaughterswerenotallowedtomarrybecausehecouldnotbearseparationfromthem.HattoofBasel,themostillustriousofhiselderbishops,ofteninveighedagainstthemonarch'sweaknesses,yetCharlemagnenotonlyborethebishop'scensures,butsenthimonahighlyhonourablemissiontotheCourtofConstantinople,andchosehimasoneofthewitnessestohislastwill.Theemperor'sfriendshipwithPopeHadrianwasquiteremarkable,and,inspiteofmanydifferences,wasdeepandlasting.OnhearingthenewsofHadrian'sdeath,Charlemagneburstintotears,andeulogizedhiminthemostflatteringterms.Theemperor'smanagementofhisroyalestateswasinthehighestdegreeprudent,skilful,energetic,andineverywayadmirable.Tohispropertyhegave
theclosestandmostconstantinspection,downtotheveryeggsproducedonhisfarms.
Hegatheredroundhimscholars,artists,andteachers,fromItalyandGreece,andaCourtschoolwasopenedbyAlcuin,theAnglo-Saxonscholar--theEnglishwerethenthemostculturedoftheGermanpeoples--andabodyofEnglishpupilsfollowe