The State of the Unions: Youth, The Sheep Market and Hollywood Labor

8/13/2019 The State of the Unions: Youth, The Sheep Market and Hollywood Labor

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Ellen Seiter ([email protected])

Stephen K. Nenno Chair in Television Studies

Professor of Critical Studies

USC School of Cinematic Arts

10 October 2008

The State of the Unions: Youth, The Sheep Market,and

Hollywood Labor

Draft version, not for citation or distribution

Aaron Koblins brilliant art project The Sheep Market

poetically makes the case for why we need to abandon

digital utopianism and take a sober look at the realities

of digital labor market. Koblin used Mechanical Turk,

the online system for outsourcing digital labor created by

Amazon, to hire 10,000 users to create a drawing of a

sheep. Koblin paid each user two pennies per drawing and

then displayed all 10,000 drawings on a website where each

drawing could be viewed individually and also purchased in

an enlarged framed version for about twenty US dollars.


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Koblins work highlights the cottage industry nature of so

much media and artistic production, and the curious

willingness of the young digerati to work for nothing, or

for pennies per task. Koblin reports that over 7,000distinct users made the drawings, that the average time to

complete a drawing was under two minutes, and that the

hourly wage was sixty-nine cents per hour. Mechanical Turk

might seem a far cry from the creative guilds that have

dominated professional Hollywood production since the

1930s, The Screen Actors Guild, IATSE, the WGA, the DGA

the ASC. Admittedly it has the advantage of far greater

access than the notoriously closed world of the guilds (see

Caldwell, 2008). Yet it vividly illustrates what could be

lost in terms of a living wage, health benefits and fair

working conditions if Hollywood were to subvent the guilds

and go the way of Mechanical Turk. Koblins project

highlights the fascination of digital media: each of the


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drawings is quirky different, the interactivity of the site

gratifies the user searching for a favorite: the drawings

vary from the crudest, most hastily done to the clever and

polished. The whole concept is postmodern, witty, ironic.

And for those obsessed with living and working on-line, you

can take your two cents of pay in amazon.com credits,

instead of cash. Mechanical Turk refers to a stage trick

for magic acts, in which a dummy of a Turk (the

orientalism is startling from a PR perspective for a firm

with global ambitions like Amazon, but is in keeping with

the smug display of erudition (digging out a historical

example with its blatant racism) and political

incorrectness. Mechanical Turk is not an operation for

everyday users, but for digital entrepreneurs, who feel

above and beyond the old media, old economy concerns trade

unionists might raise about exporting labor.

Yet the Sheep Market also underscores the potential

ruination of media employment when models of IT outsourcing

are applied to it.


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Hollywood does not necessarily have to look outside

the US to outsource talent to non-union labor. They can

also rely on the infusion of young talent, with advanced

digital skills, who have been heavily influenced by

libertarian cult of the amateur, and who view the unionized

professional as a mere impediment on their path to quick

fame and fortune. into the Hollywood labor pool threatens

to convert a professionalized community with collective

bargaining to what Geert Lovinck calls the creative

(under)class, the virtual intelligentsia, the precariat

(the contemporary worker who faces more job uncertainty

than her proletariat precursor). ( 2008xii).

Educators have perpetuated unrealistic expectations of

the convertibility of digital media skills into employment

in the creative industries, just as city governments have

hastily subscribed to Richard Floridas highly flawed

creative industries argument to envision a new kind of

local economic infrastructure based almost entirely on fun,

stylish media jobs: Web design, fashion, video production,

gaming (Lovinck. 1997) The proliferation of computers inthe lives of youth and the broader availability of desktop

video, animation programs such as Flash, non linear

editing programs such as Final Cut Pro, have accelerated

the numbers of those aspiring to work in the entertainment

industries. In fact, the rapid spread of digital media as

communication technologies and leisure among youth has

encouraged legions of students (and often their parents) to

dream of escaping the dull grind for a cool job.

Of course, tales of the boy wonder tinkering in his

garage with Super 8 film who becomes a Hollywood star

director have been around since the 70s with the phenomenal

success of George Lucas and Steven Spielberg. They are


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potently given new life every time a director gives an

Oscar speech like this one (the Coen Brothers at the 2008

Oscars):

Coen Brothers: Best Director Acceptance Speech 2008

Ethan and I have been making stories with movie

cameras since we were kids. In the late '60s when Ethan was

11 or 12, he got a suit and a briefcase and we went to the

Minneapolis International Airport with a Super 8 camera and

made a movie about shuttle diplomacy called "Henry

Kissinger, Man on the Go." And honestly, what we do now

doesn't feel that much different from what we were doing

then....We're very thankful to all of you out there for

letting us continue to play in our corner of the sandbox,

so thank you very much.

Speeches of this kind inspire young people everywhere to

envision a magical journey where the schools traditional

boring curriculum is abandoned in favor of digital media

courses and the hope of a lifetime of play in the sandbox

of cool toys that are now largely digital.

Andrew Ross notes the way that the youngest jobcandidates replace more mature workers in the new media

firms he studied.

For those who had spent years in the trenches learning

Web skills, it was a ceaseless struggle to stay ahead

of software upgrades that threatened to render these

skills obsolete. The Web developers trade was

increasingly standardized, as the industry developed

programs and idioms to accomplish Internet work with

the same degree of efficiency as in the software

development sector. Throughout history, elder

artisans had possessed the fullest knowledge of the

trade, and they passed it on to youthful apprentices.


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In the modern technology industries, this order no

longer applied. The newest recruits were often the

most skilled because they were up to date on the

latest technologies. (2003, 263)

The treadmill of computer upgrades and self-learning has

increased rapidly as some skills have been more widely

disseminated. One of the most significant aspects of

digital communication has been its provision of new forms

of social networkinga democratization of access to social

capital, unfettered by the restrictions of physical space

and geography. Although technological determinists

championed these networks as more open than previous forms

of networking, such as church membership, school attendance

or country clubs--- there is a way that digital networks

might increase class cohesion and the exclusion of those

poorer or less educated.

The digital realm appears to be more open to larger

numbers of participants than other fields: a meritocracy

of talent, young people being discovered from their You

Tube posts without bothering with the costs of film school.Stanley Aronowitz has argued that what is hidden in most

discussions of media jobs, is the ways that they impose

tremendous levels of financial risk. These most desirable

kinds of jobs in terms of closeness ofcool media,

informal work environments and flexible schedules are

scarce, and even at that they have evolved to impose far

more risk on individuals than similar white collar jobs.

Young people famously use digital communicationsinstant

messaging, cell phone texting, social networking websites,

texting, to maintain their social capitalat least with

those peers who can afford to keep up with costly

requirements of these technologies. Yet there is nothing


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inherently democratic about the young and the wired. In

fact the libertarian tendencies embedded in the rhetoric of

Wired magazine and the like, directly oppose the

codification of professional standards and the blue-collar

aura of trade unionism. The dilution of any sites

exclusivity threatens the value of the social network.

Social capital is crucial to the convertibility of cultural

capital into employmentfor youth with digital skills; the

school to work transition is as much about connections as

it is about talent or skills. The lack of social capital

screens out working class youth from employment in the

highest income and most challenging jobs in the digital

realm. The lack of economic capital bars them from the

assumption of risk that the new media industries have

foisted on employees by promising stock options and the

hope of vast financial rewards. Good jobs in new media are

jobs for the young, the well-connected, and those with

enough family capital to float them through lengthy

education, long periods of employment-seeking in expensive

housing markets. At the trendy new media firm Razorfishthat Andrew Ross studied, a personnel officer explained

that diversity usually means race and gender, it rarely

means age, background or class. Everyone here has a

similar educational background. (30)

New media jobs are prime examples of the ways that the

intersection of economic, cultural and social capital

function according to some new rules and demands in the new

economy. Gina Neff defines this work as entrepreneurial

labor in her study of workers in Silicon Alley in New York:

These cool jobs are especially attractive to the young.

What is required to pursue entrepreneurial labor is an

acceptance of much higher risk than other industries and a


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greater personal responsibility for ones career through

constant self-training and social networking. In his

interviews with hundreds of workers in the new media

industries, Andrew Ross noted that even in the progressive,

humane workplaces advances in corporate democracy could

turn into trapdoors that opened onto bottomless seventy-

hour-plus workweeks. (18) Besides extended period of

unemployment this also entails the acceptance of jobs with

no benefits, long hours, part-time work, and short-term

contracts. As educators it is important to think through

and to talk about with young people the realities of these

forms of creative work.

Because cultural work is prominently featured in

popular discourse, especially in visual images, and

associated with trendsetters, beautiful people,

hipness and cool, this problematic normalization of

risk serves as a model for how workers in other

industries should also behave under flexible

employment conditionswithout strong stabilizing norms

and regulations of workplace behavior and rewards,media workers develop entrepreneurial labor in the

dual hope that they will be better able to navigate

uncertainty and maintain their association with a

hot industryeven when that industry is marked by a

winner take all inequity in both income and status.

(Neff p. 308)

Thus a new industry and a new form of social networking

reproduce the old class advantages of a pre-digital

generation.

------------------------

Digital Content Creation has shaken the media

industries by providing new distribution outlets for


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creative work and a demand for new skill sets among

creative workers, something that has exacerbated its

favoritism of the young. Two important effects are the

expansion of dreams of making it in the creative

industries and the promotion of a new model of training in

which young people are encouraged to invest enormous

resources in training, self-promotion, technology, and

unpaid content creationwhat is called entrepreneurial

labor. Entrepreneurial labor may not be new to

Hollywood--schmoozing of all kinds, unremunerated work, and

vast investments in self improvement--- have been a staple

for a century. Digital labor has the potential to vastly

increase the degree to which media corporations can manage

to off-load the costs of media production and entice

potential employees to invest huge amounts of time on

unremunerated tasks. Fan activities are one example of

this: in the realm of television, fans now provide free

focus groups, publicity and advertising on a vast scale

(Seiter, 1999). Digital content creation has been

exploited by studios, talent agencies and televisionnetworks to undermine the creative and craft guilds in

Hollywood. This can be seen, for example, in the flurry of

activity at talent agencies to establish divisions devoted

to web 2.0 content who signed up web talent in the months

before the strike began. Those efforts have produced a few

examples of on-screen talent being discoveredand bypassing

SAGmuch the same way that reality show contestants

sometimes transition into being celebrities. Relatively

few writers, directors or producers made the transition,

however, although many were briefly dazzled by stories of

webcasts striking lucrative deals. In retrospect, it is

clear that most of the digital content creation that was


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signed by traditional talent agencies was either on screen

or the kind of person who was familiar enough with the

technical and sociological properties of web 2.0 to be able

to assist in the design of viral marketing campaigns, such

as those that now dominate the music industries.

Labor statistics indicate that the most likely job to

be found for young digital wizards is in the sphere of

marketing. That is the only growth area in media jobs

(especially those linked to television) today, and most of

those are in consulting. Consulting jobs are those most

likely to resemble the kinds of casualized work offered on

Mechanical Turk: the employee pays for the digital set up,

work is contracted on a free lance basis, no benefits and

no office space are provided.

The digital divide as it separates creative workers along

generational lines is a matter not merely of ability and


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innovation with new technologies, but also a matter of

experiences in the labor market. Does the model of

entrepreneurial labor common to the web, online video,

and video gaming, threaten to unravel decades of union

struggles in the creative industries in the US? Young

aspirants to film and television understand little about

labor market forces, compared to their elders, and this has

been fostered by the rampant digital utopianism of the last

decade.

The easy availability of desktop media production and

distribution through YouTube and Facebook, has increased

the ranks of students aspiring to be Hollywood directors.

Enrollments in production courses and applications for film

school are booming: at the USC School of Cinematic Arts

about twenty-four applicants vie for each undergraduate

place in production each fall. Most of them want to

direct, rather than work in media in any other capacity;

and most of them want to work in film, not tv. In truth, it

is far more likely that they will end up working in

television, not film, and in some role other thanwriter/director. Of course, for decades the young have

headed to Hollywood with dreams of making it. For this

reason alone, it is amazing that creative workers in

film/tv enjoy collective bargaining and union

representation, when union membership nationwide is at an

all-time low and white collar professionals in all lines of

work an extremely difficult group to organize. The issue

in this strike revolves around compensation for work

distributed on-line. Fear of the young informed

discussions during the writers guild in two important ways.

The current generation of film school students eagerly

gives their work away for free in hopes of being


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discovered. Student complaints at all the major film

schoolswhere copyright for creative work produced in

classes is held by the school, not the student-- center on

restrictions about posting creative work online. Second,

students are accustomed to using the Internet for

entertainment to such an extent that no one is sure they

will miss (especially network) television if it goes away.

As one tv showrunner put it "Kids today, you take TV away,

they'll say, 'Big deal,' and they'll click on the

computer."

The season of labor negotiations shone light on the

dual and interlinked threats of the young and digital

distribution to the old media system of professional

guilds. One of the lessons of the last season of labor

negotiations in Hollywood is that the writers, those with

the least digital and most traditionally academic skills,

ended up with the greatest pull in negotiating to secure

their ability to receive a decent wage in return for

handing over the copyright for their creative labors to the

production companies and studios they work for. Since thewriters contract was settled in the spring, enormous

anxiety settled on creative workers in Los Angeles. Would

there be a TV season? Would the traditional fall schedule

be wall-to-wall reality shows? These fears were

underscored by relatively few orders for dramatic series, a

gigantic boost in reality shows on cable, and short orders

even for those series that were contracted. By

comparison, the Directors Guild of America settled quickly

and prior to the WGA with few demands for digital residuals

(the terms give the networks free use of any television

programs on line for nearly a month before any residuals

kick in). The Screen Actors Guild fought hard for terms


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similar to the writers, and insisted on payment for on line

streaming. As a result, the leadership was ever more

stridently redbaited in the Hollywood press, AFTRA poached

significant segments of its membership (covering background

actors), and a new slate of leadership was voted in last

month. IATSE negotiations are up next, but because that

union has been dominated for years by the corrupt

leadership of Tom Shortdespite challenges from notables

such as Haskell Wexlernot much is expected of the

negotiations.

------------------------

Recently, networks I learned of a new means of

bringing outsourcing models into weekly network TV

production. While this has long been the practice in the

animation industries, television production, because of its

demanding schedules, has remained clustered around Los

Angeles and New York. So this makes the remake Knight

Rideran interesting example of one of the shows that was

greenlit for production in the spring despite the labor

uncertainty. Knight Rider was an 80s fantasy series about acar K.I.T.T. (loosely based on HAL from Kubricks 2001) who

guides and comically speaks to the star. The lead was

played by David Hasselhoff in the original version.

The show was a favorite of fans of sci-fi and television

kitsch. (Of course, Hasselhoff gained unparalleled YouTube


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celebrity after his drunken burger-eatingoff the floor

incident was videotaped and posted. Hasselhoff has found

new life on network television as a judge on Americas Got

Talent, and his Baywatch episodes have assured his

energetic fan base in Germany.) The new production

benefited from significant external funding through product

placement of a Ford Mustang as the series car (formerly a

Pontiac Transam). The importance for my argument of Knight

Rider is that the show is very special effects heavy.

Special effects promise to be tremendously cost saving for

tv productionone of the most viable options besides

reality programs, daily news shows, and animation that can

be quickly produced in Flash or Maya. The program hired two

young, non-union effects wizards straight out of film

school who had backgrounds in software writing. These two

design all of the special effects for the show on

computers. After they are designed, they are outsourced to

South Africa and then returned within a week for the final

cut of the show (see Anand 2001, 2006). Knight Rider has

performed dismally in the ratings, and the show is besetwith problems meeting its production timeline: apparently

waiting for hard drives to be returned from South Africa

with special effects is slowing down the post-production

process, and the show is running several weeks behind its

target airdates on completing episodes.

So for now, the Screen Actors Guild, the Directors

Guild, the Writers Guild, AFTRA and IATSE still dominate

Network television, and television is the medium, moreso

than film, that can coordinate labor actions most

effectively, less of these creative workers are needed the

more a show can be filled with special effects. Even

while the talents of middle-aged workers, still expecting a


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family wage with benefits, have been downgraded, deskilled

and forced to work back-breaking schedules due to just-in-

time post-production modes. Yet union members are are

still not cheap enough. A great deal of film production

has moved to right to work states such as Louisiana and

Georgia that eagerly court film and television production

but employ local talent mostly at lower skill levels.

Young computer wizards, however, with advanced software

skills, are eager to step in and devise new and cheaper

ways of producing special effects, computer graphics,

archiving of digital material, flash animation -- talents

learned from their youthful practice on the world wide web.

To return to the WGA and the lessons to be learned

from their negotiations this year. The WGA employed

several classic tactics of trade unionism. Their chief

organizer had come from a background in the Ladies Garment

Worker Union. The WGA made a key alliance with the

Teamsters in the years before the strike, honoring their

picket lines at the studios and thus able to call upon the

Teamsters to return the favor and help the WGA shut downstudio televisoin production during the strike. The

leadership prepared the membership through over a year of

internal organizing lengthy educational seminars designed

to give members the larger economic picture on digital

media and the impact of conglomeration on film and

television.

The strike itself produced proclamations from the

digerati about the demise of the old guild model and the

need for the writers to switch to the silicon valley model:

Marc Andreessen, founder of Netscape, suggested in his blog

that writers turn to the Silicon Valley model: talent

attracts venture capital, artists shares ownership with


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venture capital shareholders, everyone makes a fortune, and

the quality of the media created is better than before.iIn

this scenario, unions are an inconvenient feature of an

anachronistic system where talent must band together and

engage in adversarial collective bargaining to try to

extract a share of the ongoing economics of their output.

Presumably the adversarial nature of labor management

relations vanished in Silicon Valley, when all talent

became owners. In the Los Angeles Times, Patrick

Goldstein criticized the WGA for not understanding that

classic union organizing no longer works in the digital

age.

The WGA is fighting the good fight. But the glory days

of Norma Raeare gone. Real change in today's world

comes from the energy and ideas of entrepreneurs, not

from labor negotiations. To take control of their

work, writers have to cut out the middleman.ii

Digital utopianism threatens decades of union

struggles in the television industries, that have fought

the endless lines of eager young people (especially those

with parents who can support them indefinitely) who are

willing to do anything to make it.iiiThe WGA radically

threatens the cybertarian view of new media that has

dominated the discourse of DIY, user-generated content,

blogging and all things Web 2.0., by pointing out that all

this media production for the Internet is unremunerated

all the videos, photos, and blogs posted on the web (and

thereafter the property of the website owners).

Of course, silicon Valley could learn a thing or two

from the WGA. Jaron Lanier argued in an editorial for the

New York Times(Pay Me For My Content!) that designing the

Internet so that content is always free was a mistake. A


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computer scientist, Lanier has defected from the Internet

idealist position because, he argues, business

opportunities for writers and artists have decreased and

the only business plan in sight is ever more advertising.

One might ask what will be left to advertise once everyone

is aggregated.Lanier plainly critiqued the YouTube model

in December 2006: The Web 2.0 notion is that an

entrepreneur comes up with some scheme that attracts huge

numbers of people to participate in an activity online .

What is amazing about this idea is that the people are the

value and they also pay for the value they provide

instead of being paid for it.ivMaybe giving it away isnt

such a good idea after allv. It brings the concerns of the

middle aged, health insurance, mortgages, etc., to spoil

the party of convergence media as a dazzling route to self-

expression unfettered by material or economic constraints.


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When the strike began in 2007, the undergraduates and

graduate students in the cinema school had to be told what

scabbing meant. They had to be sternly warned that if they

took the places of their professors in the writing division

on television shows or film re-writes, they would not be

greeted with warmth and friendship in the future. They had

to be informed that rules existed barring future membership

in the WGA for those who cross picket lines and accept

writing jobs replacing union writers. What surprised me

about this, was that despite nearly universal membership in

the WGA among the faculty, the subject of unionism, and

employment had not yet been broached. In fact, when

Miranda Banks and I attempted to host a panel with WGA

president Patrick Verrone, our dean hesitated on the

grounds that the school could not be viewed as taking a

side in the strike.

Conclusion

The favorite theme of charter schools in the US is digital

media. And every charter school in the US that specializesin digital media encourages students to dream of making it

in the creative industries. The best education that could

be provided to students and digital artists is the one that

exposes them to the dangers of a Sheep Market future,

allows them to evaluate critically the neo liberal euphoria

of digital entrepreneurship, and places labor relations at

the center of the new media curriculum. In my book, The

Internet Playground, I laid out the negative impact that an

emphasis on computer learning has had on elementary school

education (see also Berliner, Cuban). More recently, I

have used the analogy of digital learning and classical

music training, following closely on Bourdieus work on


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social stratification as expressed in cultural familiarity,

to expose the irrationalities of investing in digital

literacy on a large scale at the primary education level.

Now, in my work at a university that is expensive,

exclusive and promises to jump start careers in film and

television, my reservations grow.

In the field of digital media education, it pays to be

optimistic. The government, and the many business

interests that have targeted education as a field for the

sales of hardware and software, like to hear that digital

media is a superior delivery system. In other words,

there are powerful economic interests behind the promotion

of the digital in education. As Menchnik has notes, this

has made the line that separates benevolent, authentic

concern for student learning enrichment from self-

interested entrepreneurship [can be] difficult to

ascertain The rise of digital technologies has coincided

with the blockage of educational opportunity, intensified

anti-immigrant policies, and a disturbing increase in the

numbers of children living below the poverty line.The economic crisis may finish off expensive

educational experiments that require constant hardware and

software upgrades and have weakened the influence of

teachers over curricular priorities. But technology firms

have already won the battle: by influencing advanced

students everywhere to invest heavily in prosumer

equipment, by successfully advancing the expectation that

every student will purchase her own lap top, digital camera

and editing software, storage space, and fast connections.

Now that media making is disseminated on such a broad

scale, it is fascinating how many pedagogical principles

considered radical in the 70s have now been pushed down to


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the lowest levels of the curriculum. YouTube provides

thousands of examples of what was once considered radical,

Brechtian, experimental filmmaking in burgeoning film and

art school programs in the 70s. But the curriculum posits

a universe of user/consumers without providing any

information about the economics of media. As Lovinck puts

it The ontology of the user mirrors the logic of capital

in so many ways. The user is the identity par excellence

of capital that seeks to extract itself from rigid systems

of regulation and control..the user is the empty vessel

awaiting the spectral allure of digital commodity cultures

and their promise of mobility and openness. (2008, 240).

discussions of topics such as media conglomeration or labor

practices find no place in digital literacy that takes the

user as its starting point: Representation and culture

dominate.

Media education is an expensive business, and whether

it is the charter high school franchise High Tech High run

by the Gates Foundation, or the USC film school with its

175 million gift from George Lucas, the direct influence oflarge corporations on the curriculum can be keenly felt.

The digitization of media work has made costs even more

prohibitive. While the overall costs of production have

famously been lowered due to desktop video, the planned

obsolescence of so much hardware and software, the

treadmill of upgrades and replacements, and the soaring

costs of technical support, cause digital production to

strainif not breakthe budgets of educational institutions

at all levels. At the high end of elite private education,

the costs are increasingly passed on to the students.

Besides paying tuition costs of nearly $30,000 US per

year, the students tend to provide their own cameras,


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laptops, digital storage and software. At the low end,

the same pressures make domestic access to high end DSL

connections, computers and software a near necessity for

top students, thus skewing the enrollment at even public

schools originaly designed to serve low-income families

towards those who can afford new laptops (Seiter 2007) .

As the economic crisis worsens, the wisdom of putting

educational standards such as economics, history and

regulation back in the curriculum, and increasing

skepticism about the legacy that the last decade of

corporate intervention into the public school systems

becomes evident. As the consequences of media deregulation

are highlighted by the global economic crisis, a shift from

cyberlibertarianism to citizenship education, labor history

and economicsand at the risk of sounding hopelessly

stodgyliteracy rather than digital literacy-- is long

overdue. The Writers Guild membership, after all, have the

lowest levels of digital literacy and the best education in

traditional subjects such as history and literature of all

creative laborers in Hollywood. We need to develop anideal of strong digital literacy that would encompass both

the capacity to author in ways that might impact civil

society and an understanding of the political economy of

new media, that includes not only challenges to

intellectual property and copyright, but also an analysis

of wealth distribution and the potential for exploitation

in digital labor involving computers

Aneesh, A. (2001) Skill Saturation: Rationalization and

post-industrial work Theory and Society Vol. 30 no. 3

(pp. 363-396)


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Capitalism. Lanham Maryland: Rowman and Littlefield.

Schofield, Janet Ward, and Ann Locke Davidson. 2002.

Bringing the Internet to School: Lessons from an Urban

District. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Seiter, Ellen. 2008 Practicing at Home: Computers, Pianos

and Cultural Capital in Tara McPherson, Ed. Digital Youth,

Innovation and the Unexpected (Cambridge, Mass.: The MIT

Press).

Seiter, Ellen. 2005. The Internet Playground: Childrens

Access, Entertainment and Mis-Education. New York: Peter

Lang.


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Seiter, Ellen. 1999. Television and New Media Audiences.

Cambridge: Oxford University Press

Warschauer, Mark. 2003. Technology and Social Inclusion:

Rethinking the Digital Divide.Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

iMarc Andreessen, Rebuilding Hollywood in Silicon Valleys Image, blog.pmarca.com(12 November 2007). See also Marc Andreessen, Suicide by Strike, blog.pmarca.com

(4 November 2007). http://blog.pmarca.comiiPatrick Goldstein, Come on, writers, script your futures,Los Angeles Times(20

November 2007). http://www.latimes.com/entertainment/news/la-et-gold20nov20,0,3720809.storyiii

David Hesmondhalgh, Television, Film and Creative Labor,Flowv.7.http://flowtv.org/?p=938iv

Jaron Lanier, Beware the Online Collective Edge 12/25/2006http://www.edge.org/3rd_culture/lanier06/lanier06.2_index.htmlLaniers unusual

position among computer scientist is compatible with his work as a for Linden Labs(Second Life), which has a stake in promoting ways to monetize content.

Documents

The State of the Unions: Youth, The Sheep Market and Hollywood Labor