TheStageLightingHandbook

FRANCISREID

TheStageLightingHandbook

Routledge•NewYork

SixtheditionpublishedinNorthAmericain2001byRoutledge

711ThirdAvenueNewYork,NY10017www.routledge-ny.com

RoutledgeisanimprintoftheTaylor&FrancisGroup

ISBN0-87830-147-XISBN978-0-87830-147-8Originallypublishedby

A&CBlack(Publishers)Limited37SohoSquare,LondonW1D3QZ

©2001,1976,1982,1987,1992,1996FrancisReid

Frontcover:WYSIWYGimagesandrendersbyMikeFalconerofA.C.LightingLtd

Backcoverphotograph:ETC

Firstedition1976:PitmanPublishingLimitedSecondedition1982,thirdedition1987,fourthedition1992andfifthedition1996:

A&CBlack(Publishers)Limited.

Cataloguing-in-PublicationdataisavailablefromtheLibraryofCongress.

Allrightsreserved.Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproducedinanyformorbyanymeans—graphic,electronicormechanical,includingphotocopying,

recording,tapingorinformationstorageandretrievalsystems—withoutthewrittenpermissionofRoutledge.

CONTENTS

Prologue1 AimsinLighting2 LightingInstruments3 AutomatedLightingInstruments4 LightingControl5 RiggingandWiring6 DirectionandFocus7 Colour8 FirstStepsinLightingDesign9 TheLightingDesignProcess10 ImplementingtheLightingDesign11 LightingPlays12 LightingDance13 LightingMusicals14 LightingOpera15 LightingThrustStages16 LightinginRepertoire17 Computer-AidedLightingDesign18 SquareOne19 ProjectionandEffects20 ComfortandConfidence21 AgendaforaPost-Mortem22 LightEducation

GlossaryIndex

Websites

PROLOGUE

Itiseasytobepoeticaboutlightinthetheatre,andagreatdealoflipserviceispaidtoitspossibilities.Certainly,lightingtechniqueshaveshownatremendousdevelopment in the last thirty-fiveyears, and there arenowa largenumberoflighting specialists. But no theatre,whether it be amateur or professional, canthriveonover-specialisation.Totwistanoldphrase,everytheatrepersonmustbea‘Jackofalltradesandamasterofone’.

A jackofall tradesshouldnotdabble inelectricitybutevery theatrepersonshould know something about light. Therefore, this is not a book aboutelectricity,itisabookaboutlight.

If light is an actor’s environment, then every actor should have a basicunderstandingof light in the theatre, should thinkabouthow theproduction istryingtouselightandhowthatlightcanhelptoprojectscriptandactortotheaudience.Everydesigner,whetherofscenery,costumesorproperties,shouldbeabletovisualisethefinishedproductunderstagelightingconditions.

ButtheoriesabouttheArtoflightingareuselesswithoutsomeknowledgeoftheCraft: theway inwhich thedesirable becomes thepossible.Everyuser oflight,everydirector,everydesigner,everyactor,shouldhavesomeknowledgeofwhatistechnicallypossible—notintermsofelectricity,butintermsoflight.

Intheatre,thereisnopositive,clear-cut,goodorbad,rightorwrong.It isaverysubjectiveart—who,forexample,shallbeboldenoughtodefineagoodactor? The lighting designer, in the midst of rehearsal pressures, might betempted toequategoodactingwith theability to find light.Hardlyauniversaldefinitionofgoodacting!

Thisbookcannot, anddoesnot, setout to laydownobjective standards forgoodlighting.Itmerelydiscussessomeofthepossibilitiesoflightingandhowthesecanbeturnedintorealityunderpracticalstageconditions.

In the twenty-five years since the first edition of this book was published,therehavebeenconsiderabledevelopmentsinlightinginstruments,colourfiltersandcontrolsystems. In littleoveradecade,automatedspotlightshavebecome

commonplace. The fifth edition prediction that, ‘It is not difficult to foreseedesigncomputers talkingdirectly tocontroldesks—and focusing lights!’hasalreadybecomeestablishedreality.

But the basic facts of lighting do not change. The underlying philosophyremains the same: it ain’t what you put, it’s the where that you put it.Improvementsinthetoolsofthelightingdesigntradedonotautomaticallyleadtoimprovementsinthequalityofthelightingdesign.Efficientrobustspotlightsand sophisticatedmicro-processor controlsmay speed up the lighting process.They may reduce or even eliminate some of the old problems, so that thelighting designer is free to concentrate on visual ends rather than technicalmeans. But unless the right type of lighting instrument, with the right colourfilter,ishungintherightpositionandpointedattherightpartofthestage,anyexpenditureonthelatestspotlightsandcomputercontroldeskswillbeinvain.

Consequently, the equipment chapters in subsequent editions have beenamendedtotakeaccountofnewdevelopments,whilethechaptersdealingwiththeprinciplesof lightingdesignand lightingmanagementhavebeenexpandedandclarified.

The author, in his continued attempts to find ways of expressing a visualmediuminwords,hasbeenhelpedbyhiscolleaguesintheprofessionaltheatreandbythemanystudentswithwhomhehasexploredlighting’scontributiontotheperformanceenvironment.Toallhis studentsover theyears at theCentralSchool of Art and Design (now Central St Martin’s), the Royal Academy ofDramaticArt, theNationalTheatreSchoolofCanadaandinmanypartsof theworld (particularlyAustralia,Cyprus,Germany,HongKong, India, Indonesia,Korea, Malaysia, Pakistan, Singapore, Spain, Sweden, Thailand and NewZealand)heonceagainoffershissincerethanksforthecontinuingwayinwhichtheyhavesharpenedhiswitsbyaskingsearchingquestions.

For the illustrations, the author is indebted to Strand Lighting and theirmagazineTABS,thetechnicaltheatrereviewCUE,ACLighting.Arri,Avolites,CastLighting,ClayPaky,DHA,ETC,MikeFalconer,NigelHollowell-Howard,JEM, Lighting Innovation, Lightworks, Optikinetics, Ludwig Pani, Martin,NorthernLight,Rosco,Selecon,SkyhighStageFX,JamesThomasEngineering,Vari-Lite,WhiteLight,NormanAdamsofAberdeenDistrictCouncilPublicityDepartment, W.G. Crisp, James Twynam, Barrie West, Wybron and all thetechnicianswhoallowedtheirworktobeinvadedbytheauthor’scamera.

The lighting imageon thecoverwascomputer-generatedbyMikeFalconer,

usingWYSIWYGsoftware.

1____________________

AIMSINLIGHTING

Stage lighting is not an exact science. Rules are few, if indeed there are any.Provided that the lightingworks with the other elements in the production toenableauthorandactorstocommunicatewiththeiraudience,virtuallyanythinggoes.Butevenwhenthatgoingisdonebyaparticularlyextremeanything,theresultantlightingwillusuallybeaspecificcombinationofcertainpossiblerolesthatlightcanplayinaproduction.

What can lighting contribute to a production?What are our aimswhenweemploylightonthestage?

IlluminationCommunicationbetweenactorandaudiencedependsonsoundandsight.Actors'complete bodies, but especially eyes and mouth, are their means ofcommunication and must be clearly visible if a character is to be projected.Everythingin theatre interactsandlight iscloselyrelated tosound:actorswhoaredifficulttoseewillusuallybedifficulttohear.

So the first basic requirement of stage lighting is sufficient illumination toachievepositivevisibility.Buthowbrightisthat?Lightisameasurablequantitybut photometric measurements have little place on the stage: one of theindicationsof theapproachof theatricaldoomsdaywillbe theappearanceofalightingdesignerwithaphotometer.Theatreismuchtoomuchofaninterplayofmindandmattertobereducedtoprecisephysicalmeasurements.Wemusthaveconfidenceinthejudgmentsofoursenses:ifitlooksrightthenitisright.Unlesstheauditoriumisverysmall,perhapsuptoabouttenrows,theamount

of lightcannotbe ideal forall seats. If there isenough light for the front row,therewillbeinsufficientfortheback;iftheamountiscorrectforthebackrow,itwillbeover-brightatthefront.Thisassumesthatallmembersoftheaudiencehaveidenticaleyesight:whichtheycertainlydonot!The amount of light required will vary with the brightness that has gone

before.Thehumaneyecontainsamechanism,theiris,toadjusteyesensitivitytovaryinglightconditions.Thisirismechanismisnotimmediateinresponseandso the amount of light needed when the curtain goes up will vary with thebrightness of the auditorium lights that have just gone out: the stronger thehouselighting,thenthestrongermustbetheopeningstagelighting.Anovertureplayedwiththehouselightsloworoutandsomelighttodressthecurtain—ordressthestageifthereisnocurtain—givesanopportunitynotonlytoprepareaudiencesoundsensitivitybut toadjust their lightresponsestothescaleof theproduction’saudio-visualpalette.

Oncetheperformancegetsunderway,therequiredquantityoflightremainsrelated towhat has gone before.A change from relative brightness to relativedarknessmusttakeintoaccountthetime-scaleofthechange.Adarknightscenewhichtheaudiencehavebeenwatchingforseveralminutesmaybequitevisible,but plunge them into such a night from a bright sunny scene and they willrequire a positive measure of time to readjust — and in that time,communicationmaybelostandthemagictheatricalspellbroken.

Withineachstagepicture,theamountoflightisalsorelative.Ifoneactorisbrighterthananother,itmustbeforadramaticpurpose.The7-foottenorinthechoruswhoalwaysgetshisheadinthelightbecomestheunfortunatebrightnessreferencepointforthewholestage.Theusualsolutionisnotanincreaseoftheoverall stage intensity tomatch the bright point, but a reduction of this over-brightparttobalancewiththerestofthestage.Inatwo-actorscene,itisoftenbettertobalancebyreducingAratherthanbyincreasingB.

Balance is the key to the amount of light required; brightness is relativerather than absolute.If the balance is good, plotting the lighting from a mid-point in theauditoriumwillensureanacceptable level forboth frontandbackrows;but thewise lightingdesignerwillusedress rehearsals to tryseats inallpartsofthehouse.

Lightquantityisonlytheverybeginningofthestagelightingstory.After(butonlyafter)basicilluminationhasbeenprovided, lightcanstart tofulfilamoreexcitingroleasadramatictool.

SculptureInaconventionalprosceniumtheatrewheretheaudiencesitinablockfacingapicture-framed stage, there is a tendency for the stage picture to appear ratherflatwithonlytwodominantdimensions(widthandheight).Thethirddimension(depth) is,ofcourse,presentbut lessobvious.This tendency towardsapparentflatnessincreasesasthesizeoftheauditoriumincreasesandalargerproportionof the audience is seated further away from the stage. Indeed this is a majorreasonforenthusiasmforalternative theatre formswhere thestage thrusts intothe audience or even, as in theatre-in-the-round, becomes surrounded by theaudience.

Director,designerandactorusemanytechniquestostressthethirddimensionand restore apparent depth to the production. The spacing of scenic piecesrelative tooneanotherand theuseofexaggeratedperspectiveare fundamentaldesign techniques. Directors, often using several levels, group the actors toemphasise stagedepth.But lightingdesigners cankill all such effortwithonetinywaveof theirmagicwand.Bypumping light flat onto the stage from thefront—particularlyfromalow,nearhorizontal,angle—thestagepicturecanbegivenanappearanceoftotalflatness.

Under flat lighting, actors' noses will not stick out and their eyes will notrecede;dancers' limbswill pirouette in squashedovals rather than truecircles.But,withsympatheticallyangledlight,actorscanbepresentedasnaturalthree-dimensionalhumansratherthanasthepasteboardcut-outfigureswhichcanbethe inevitable product of proscenium staging. So we must strive for asculpturallylitactor.If the lighting is flat, there is little point in designing sculptural scenery.

Scenic wings receiving equal frontal light will appear to run together, solidchunkswillappearflatandlumpsofphysicaltexturingwilljustnotbevisible.Solidityonlybecomesapparentwhencontrastsoflightandshadearecreatedbydirectionallighting.Sowemuststriveforasculpturallylitscene.But a sculpturallymodelled actor in a sculpturallymodelled environment is

not theendof thedimensionalstory.Therecanstillbea tendencyforsuchanactor tomergewith thebackground.Byuseof light,partly from the sidesbutespecially from theback, it is possible to enhance the illusionofdepth in thisrelationshipofactortobackground.Itisatechniquemuchusedinthetelevisionstudio where lighting makes a major contribution to restoring picture depthwithin the two-dimensionalscreen.Theuseofbacklightstreamingoveractors'

shouldersmaybedifficulttojustifyonsmallerstageswherethereisashortageof equipment for themore basic requirements.Nevertheless, one chunkybacklightinginstrumentcanmakeallthedifferencetotheillusionofstagedepth.Sowemuststriveforadimensionalrelationshipbetweenactorandscene.

SelectivityFilmand televisiondirectorsusecameras to select theexactpartof theactionthat they wish the audience to concentrate upon at any given moment. Byzoomingorcuttingfromonecameratoanother, theycanselectanybreadthofvisionfromawidepanoramatoaclose-upofaporeonanindividual’sskin.Intheatre,theaudiencenormallyhavethewholestagewithintheirangleofvisionall the time.To focus attentiononaparticular area, thedirector canuse light.Theobvious technique is to lightonly the selected areaof the stagewhile therest is blacked out.However, it is also possible tomake a subtle but positiveselectionofvisionbybalancingtheselectedareatoabrighterlevelthantherestof thestage. It issurprisinghoweven thesmallest light re-balancecanhelp toconcentrateaudienceattentionontheappropriateactionarea.

AtmospherePerhaps the most fascinating and rewarding use of light is the possibility ofinfluencingthementalstateoftheaudience.Thewordatmospherecancoverawiderangeofsituations.Itcanmeansomethingasbasicasusinglighttotelltheaudiencewhether the action is takingplaceon anOctober afternoonor a Julymorning. But it can also mean something more subtle than mere weatherforecasting: light can help to control whether the audience feel happy or sad,extrovertorwithdrawn,aggressiveorsubmissive.

Oneoftheprincipalwaysofcontrollingsuchatmosphereisbymixingwarmandcoollight.Warm,gold,sunny,happyandcosyatoneendofthescale;cool,steel, sad, bleak and miserable at the other — but with a whole range ofintermediate tonessupportingacontinuous rangeofemotional response.Otherpossibilitiesincludethebalancingoflightandshade;exaggeratedcontrastscaninducefeelingsofclaustrophobia,apprehension,eventerror.

Butlightcanonlyhelptocreateatmosphere.Lightneverworksbyitselfandisonlyoneofapackageofintegratedstagingdeviceswhichtheproductionteam

usetocontroltheemotionalstateofanaudience.

InteractionThese stage lighting aims — illumination, sculpture, area selection andatmospherecreation—arenotunrelated.Theyinteractwithoneanothertothepointofpositiveconflict.

Atmosphereisoftenachievedbyapartiallackofillumination.Selectionofatightlycontrolledareaissimplestwithasinglespotlight;yetsculpturallightingrequires a seriesof angles fromseveral spotlightswhosebeams, endinguponthefloor,willincreasethesizeoftheareaselected.Lightingtoenhancethethirddimension can also lead to some loss of visibility unless the balance is verydelicatelycontrolled.Andsoon.

Adjustinglightintermsofoneaimusuallyaffectstheothersandsolightingdesignershavelittlethink-loopswhizzingaroundintheirheadswhiletheyplanandexecutetheirlightingdesigns.

CanIsee?—doIseeasculpturedactorinasculpturedenvironment?-doIsee the correct part of the stage action? — do I sense the appropriateatmosphere?—canIstillsee?—isitstillsculptural?—andsoon.

Atfirstonedoesthisconsciously,almostaskingoneselfverbalquestions.Butafter a little experience the loop starts to accelerate and very soon it whizzesaroundatsomethingapproachingcomputerspeedwithacontinuousassessmentofalltheinteractingvariables.

FluidityStage lighting is not static. Throughout the time span of a performance, theselectivityandatmosphereofthelightisfluid,withchangesoftwobasictypes:consciousandsubconscious.

Typicalconsciousselectivechangesincludeanactorswitchingonalightorarapid crossfade from one side of the stage to the other. A typical consciousatmospherechangeisaquickfadetoblueforasentimentalsong.Theaudienceknowsthatsuchchangeshavehappenedandindeedmayevenmentallyverbalisealongthelinesof,‘Thelightsarechanging,thesunmustbesetting.’

Subconscious changes are ones of which the audience are not aware, butwhichneverthelessinfluencetheirinvolvementintheproduction.Anexampleofasubconsciousselectivitychangeisthesubtleshiftinbalanceastheintensityiscreptupacoupleofpointsononeparticularareaanddownalittleontherestofthe stage; attention will be concentrated on the brighter area without theaudiencerealisingthatanythinghashappened.Similarly,althoughtheaudiencemay not be aware of a smoothly slow increase of cool tone and decrease ofwarm,suchanatmosphericshiftwillcontributesubconsciouslytotheemotionaleffectthatauthor,directorandactorareseeking.

Cynicshavebeenknown tomutterabout thestupidityofhavingahun-dredinvisible cues. But these very cues are part of the greatest excitement of truetheatre:theintegrationofactingandrelatedstagingdevicestocommunicateatasubconsciouslevel.

Pauseforamomenttoconsiderourroleasaudience.Itistheonemomentinourliveswhenwesitdown,laybareoursouls,andauthorisesomeonetotamperwith our subconscious and to programme our thinking.We even pay for theprivilege! In our offices, factories and shops, our daily work patterns andemotional responses couldbe controlledby similarmethods including light. Ifthisweredonewewouldcomplain.Toputitmildly!

In a theatre, the difficulty with light changes is that individual audiencemembers differ in their sensitivity: not just in their response to the physicaloptics of light, but in their general sensitivity— artistic, aesthetic, emotional,call itwhatyouwill.Thusasubconsciouslightmovementmustbeveryfinelyjudged.Itcanneverbejustrightforanentireaudience:tosomeitwillregisterconsciously and to others it will penetrate not at all. This fine balance is aproblem not merely for lighting; it is a basic problem of all theatricalcommunication.

StyleThere is a danger that these lighting aims could become a rigid definition of

stage lighting. But theatre is not a rigid medium: there are almost as manydifferentpossibleproductionstylesasthereareproductions.Inanaturalisticproductionaimingforaccuratelydetailedrealism,thelighting

islikelytotrytomaintainalogicintermsofsun,moonandchandeliers.Ifitisaromantic play, there may be much juggling with sunset, moonrise and theswitching of delicately shaded lamps in an attempt to create a selectiveatmospherewhichislogicalintermsoftheselightsources.Iftheplayisafarcewithacomplexplotofmislaid trousers,high illumination for totalvisibility islikelytobetheprimeconsideration,withtheonlydifferencebetweenmidnightandhighnoonbeingthatthewindowcurtainswillbeclosedandtheroomablazewith wall brackets, table and standard lamps — or perhaps just one huge,probablyimaginary,centrechandelier.

A play performed on black rostra against a cyclorama will probably treatselectivityastoppriorityattherelativeexpenseofotheraims.Iftheproductionisconceivedintermsofgauzes,smokeandelectronicmusic,thenitislikelythatthelightingstylewillemphasiseatmosphere.

In an opera where there are lots of notes to the bar, singers' faces will gothroughmotionsnotunlikethoseofspeechandareasonablynaturalisticqualityofilluminationwillhelpthemtoproject.However,whentherearelotsofbarstothenoteamoreeffectiveapproachmaybetouseaveryatmosphericlightwhichdoes not illuminate the faces too clearly: the facial contortions required toproducesustainedvocaltonearenotalwayshelpfulinprojectingcharacter.

Similarlyinmostdancesituations,itisnecessarytoconcentrateonsculpturallighting of the body as this is the dancer’s principal means of dramaticexpression.

Oneschoolofcontemporarytheatrethinkingbelievesthattheaudiencemustbe consciously, even painfully, involved in the drama; to such believers,anything savouring of a subconscious romantic atmosphere is out. Lightingbecomes a continuous all-revealing blaze of white clarity. This, like all otherstyles,isjustanotherpossiblewayofapproachingtheconversionofascriptintocommunicative staging. The tragedy for the theatre is when any single stylebecomesobligatorytothepointofbeingamatterofdoctrine.

Thus, different productionswill use differentmixes of the standard lightingaims,andthemixforanyparticularproductionwillarisefromthestyleofthatproduction.

ADEFINITIONOFSTAGELIGHTING

The ideas discussed in this chapter have evolved into a possible definition ofstagelightingandthewordsformausefulchecklistofaims:stagelightingisafluidselectiveatmosphericsculptural illuminationappropriate to thestyleofaparticularproduction.

2____________________

LIGHTINGINSTRUMENTS

Theartistoconceivehowtheproductionshoulduselightintermsoftheaimsthatwehaveestablished.Thecraftistodevelopthisconceptintermsoflightinghardware:apaletteofindividuallightsfocusedandcolouredinsuchawaythattheywill combine in a series of permutations to give all the required lightingpictures.

Whatcontroldowehaveoverthelightonanypartofthestage?

Wecancontroltheintensity.Thelightingcontrolsystemisoftenreferredtoasthe‘board’,shortfor‘switchboard’ormorecorrectly‘dimmerboard’,sinceitallowsusnotonlytoselectwhichlightsareon,buttocontrolthebrightnessofeachoneoveracontinuousrangefrommaximumdowntozero.

We can control the colour. On the front of every stage lighting instrumenttherearerunnerstotakeaframedfilterchosenfromavastselectionofavailablecolours.

We can control the direction. Choice of an appropriate physical mountingpositioninthetheatredeterminestheangleatwhichthelightbeamwillhittheactorand/orscene.

Wecancontrol thebeamsize,shapeandquality.Different typesof lightinginstrument allowvarying adjustments of the light beam.Choice of the correcttype of instrument will give the appropriate beam control required at anyparticularpointonthestage.

Wecancontrol theflow.Theboardenablesselectionof thecolouredbeamspaintingthelightpictureatanygivenmoment.Byvaryingthisselectionduringthetimespanoftheproduction,wecanproducethefluidlightingofouraims.

Thus the craft of stage lighting is the conversion of fluid, selective,atmospheric, sculptural illumination into a palette of beams from lightinginstruments selected, positioned and adjusted for control of intensity, colour,direction,beamandflow.

TerminologyThesourceofstagelightisalampplussomesortofopticalsystemcontainedinahousingwhichincorporatesamechanismforangling.Theinternationalwordfor such apieceofhardware is ‘luminaire’.A stage luminaireis often called a‘lantern’ and indeed a lantern has been defined, semiofficially, as a luminairedesignedoradoptedoradaptedforstageuse.IpreferthetermwhichoriginatedinNorthAmerica:instrument.

AdjustmentsAll instruments have several features in common. They all have runners toaccept a colour frame and they all have a means of adjusting and fixing theverticalangle(tilt)andhorizontalangle(pan).Buttheydifferinthecontrolthatthevarioustypesgiveoverbeamsize,beamshapeandbeamquality.

FLOODS

Thesimplestinstrumentistheflood:alampandreflectorinaboxwhichcanbepannedfromsidetoside,andtiltedupanddown,tocontrolthedirectionofthelight.Therearenootheradjustments:thereisnomeansoffocusingthelighttocontrolthesizeofthebeamandthereisnoshutteringdevicetocontroltheshapeof the beam. The spread of the light, and consequently the area covered, isdependent upon the distance between the flood and the object being lit. Thefloodisnot,therefore,averyselectiveinstrument.Becauseofthelackofbeamcontrol, it isdifficult to stop floodsabove the stage from lighting themaskingborderstoagreaterbrightnessthantheactingarea;andfloodsfromthesidewillhavethesameeffectonscenicwings.Theresultisthattheframewillbebrighterthanthepictureandtheeyewillbepulledawayfromtheactors.

Floodadjustments

LeftTraditionalflood(StrandPattern60)

RightLinearflood(StrandMini-flood)

Older floods used a round screw-in tungsten lamp, backed by a simplespherical reflector.Althoughno longermanufactured,somanyweremade thattheywillbecontinuetobefoundonstagesformanyyearsyet.

LinearfloodsA long lamp improves horizontal light spread, and a thin lamp allows thereflector to be designed for increased vertical light spread. Therefore lineartungstenhalogen lamps make possible a flood which can be used close tobackclothsyetgiveconsiderablespread.Thestandardunitsforlargestagesare1kWbutsmallerversionsusinglampsof500wattsandbelowprovideasolutiontobackclothlightingonsmallerstages.

CompartmentfloodsFloodscanbecombinedduringdesignandmanufactureintomultipleunitswiththewiringintwo,threeorfourcircuitstogiveamixingpossibilityoftwo,threeor four colours. When these units hang above the stage, they are known asbattens(‘borderlights’or‘striplights’insomepartsoftheworld);whensitting

onthefrontedgeofthestagetheyarefootlights(or‘floats’inBritishjargon);and when placed on any other part of the stage floor, the term is electricsgroundrow — the addition of the word electrics being necessary to avoidconfusionwithscenicgroundrow.

FLOODSSUMMARISED

Flooding equipment is so unselective that its usefulness lies in the lighting oflargeareasofscenerysuchascloths,skies,bordersandbackings,ratherthaninlightingactingareas.

Traditionalbatten

Linearbattensmaybeformedbylinkingfloodstogether(StrandCoda4)

SPOTS

Tocontrolthesizeandshapeofthelightbeam,weneedaspotlight.Spotshave

the same facility for pan and tilt as the flood but, additionally, there is thepossibilityofprecisecontroloftheangleoftheemergingconicallightbeamandconsequently of the area covered. It is convenient to group spotlights intofamiliesaccordingtothetypeofbeamcontroloffered.

PCfocusspotsIn the simplest spots the lampmoves in relation to a plano-convex (PC) lens.Most use a lens which has a light frosting on the flat (‘plano’) surface. Thisintroduces a slight diffusion which smoothes the beam and gives it an edgewhichispositivewithoutbeingparticularlyhardorsoft.SomePClenseshavearingofdiffusionroundtheperimeterbutareclearinthecentre;thiscombinesasoft edgewithminimum stray light spilling outside the beam. PC focus spotshaveconsiderableapplicationwheretheiredgequalityisappropriateandsimplecontrolofthebeamsizewillsuffice.

The beam is a cone of light, so the size of area lit increases as the throwdistance from the spotlight to that area increases.However, thebeamangleofthislightconecanbealteredbyafocusknobwhichadjuststhedistancebetweenlamp and lens.As the lamp (with its reflector) ismoved towards the lens thebeam becomeswider, and as itmoves away from the lens the beam becomesnarrower. On smaller spots, this adjustment is made by pushing a knobbackwardsandforwardsunderneaththeinstrument.On

Adjustmentsonfocusandfresnelspots

larger models, there is normally a more sophisticated lead-screw devicecontrolledbytwistingaknobatthebackand/orfront.Abarndoorcanbeslippedintotherunnersontheinstrument:ithasfourrotatableshutterswhichoffersomeshapingofthebeam.

Focusspotsareavailableinthreesizescorrespondingtolamppowerswhich

were traditionally 500watt, 1 kW and 2 kW. In recent years this hasmovedtowards 650 watt, 1.2 kW and 2.5 kW versions. Each manufacturer's modelshaveaquotedspreadofbeamangles,withabout4°-8°asminimumand60°asmaximum.

FOCUSSPOTSSUMMARISED

ThesimplefocusspotwithaPClens(usuallyreferredtosimplyas‘PCspot’orevenas just ‘PC’)givescontrolof the sizeof thebeam,andabarndoorgivessomecontrolofthebeamshape.Butthereisnoadjustmentforbeamquality:byselectingaPCspot,weareoptingforasoftishyetpositivelydefinededge.

FresnelspotsThe fresnel lens has a characteristic ‘stepped’ moulding on one face and istextured on the reverse. This produces a very even light which is soft at theedgesandtendstoprojectasoftshadow.Becausetheedgeofthelightissoft,itis not absolutely precise and therefore blends easilywith the edges of similarspotstogiveasmoothcoverage.

Inadditiontogivingthissoftedgetothebeam,afresnellenshasatendencytocastsomelow-intensitylightoutsidethemainbeam;suchspilllightcanbeanuisanceiftheinstrumentisclosetoasceneryborderorwing.Thespillofscatterlightcanbecontrolledbyarotatablebarndoorwhichmayalsobebeusedtogivesomeshapetothebeambyintroducinguptofourstraightsoftedges.

LeftSpotwithfresnellens(SeleconAcclaim)

PClens(Selecon)

BarndoormaybefittedtoPCorfresnel(SeleconAcclaim)

For many years the standard British fresnels were a 500 watt with 6-inchdiameter lens,a1kWwith8-inchlensanda2kWwitha10-inchlens.Assomanyoftheseweremadeduringtheperiodwhenstagelightingwasexpandingandnewstagesbeingbuilt,theyarelikelytoremaininuseformanyyearsyet.

The newer fresnel spots are more compact and most use lenses of smallerdiameter.Thesetendtohaverathermorescatterthantheearliermodelsandsoabarndoor becomes essential.When hanging over the stage, it is impor-tant toplansufficientspaceforthelengthoftheinstrumentplusbarndoor.Thecornersofthebarndoorshaveanastyhabitofcatchingonclothsandgauzes;thisoftenresults ina tear, aswell asknocking the lightoff its setting.Like focus spots,fresnels have become standardised on tungstenhalogen lamps of 650watt, 1.2kWand2.5kW.Manufacturers'cataloguesincludedetailsofthemaximumandminimumspreadthroughwhicheachmodelcanbeadjusted,with7°toaround50°-60°beingtypical.

FRESNELSPOTSSUMMARISED

Thefresnelspotofferscontrolof thesizeof thebeamandabarndoorcanaddsome control of the beam shape. But fresnels have no adjustment for beamquality: by selecting a fresnel,we are opting for a soft beamwith a very softundefinededge.

PCorfresnel?Diffuserfiltersplacedinfrontofaninstrument'slenssmooththelightbeamand

softenitsedge.Bychoiceofappropriatestrengthsofdiffusion,aPC

Adjustmentsonprofilespotlights

spot can be softened progressively until the light quality is equivalent to afresnel. Consequently the PC can be regarded as a rather more flexibleinstrumentthanthefresnel.

ProfilespotsIn a profile spot, the lamp and reflector remain stationary while the lens ismovable (whereas ina focusor fresnelspot, the lens isstationaryand it is thelampandreflectorthatmove).Thelensmovementinaprofilespotcontrolsthebeamquality;thelensesarecapableofproducingaveryhardpreciseedgewhichcanbegraduallysoftenedbyprogressivemovementofthelenstube.Controlofbeamsizeandshapeinstandardprofilespotsisachievedbyadjustmentsatthethe central point of the optical system known as the gate. At this point, allprofilespotshavefourshutterswhichcanbeusedtomakeanysizeoffour-sidedshape.Thereisaslotwithrunnerswhichaccepteitheranirisdiaphragmtogivea full range of circular beam sizes, or a metal mask to produce any requiredbeamshape.

Theprofilespotissocalledbecauseitwillprojectaprofileofwhatevertwo-dimensionalshapeisplacedinthegaterunners;andthatprofilecanbe

LeftAprofilespotwillprojectthelinepatternofagobo,placedintheoptical‘gate’betweenthelamphouseandlenses.

BelowGobosmaybedefiniteimagesorsimplebreak-uppatternswhichwillgivetheeffectofdappledlightor,accordingtothesoftnessoffocus,afeelingoftexture.

projectedtoanyrequireddegreeofhardness/softnessbymovementofthelens.Amaskforuseinthegateisknownasagoboandbecauseoftheintenseheatatthispointinthelantern,gobosmustbemadefromheatresistantmaterial.Do-it-yourself gobos can be made from the pliable alloys used for baking pies indomesticovens.

Commercialgobomanufacturersusealithographyprocesswhichenablesanytwo dimensional image to be reproduced as a cut-out in heat-resistant alloy.Gobosmay be selected from comprehensive catalogues or custom-made fromdesign drawings. Standard gobo ranges include such specific images aswindows, trees, theNewYorkskylineand theEiffelTower.Howeveramajorgoboapplication isbreak-uppatternswhich,with softish focusing, introduceatextureintothelightbeam.

Movingthelenstoadjustedgequalityalsoproducessomevariationsinbeamsize. Getting the best performance from a profile spot usually requiressimultaneous adjustment of lens and shutters but, unless the electrician is anoctopus, this has to be done by fiddling with shutters and lens alternately.However,thedevelopmentofrelativelynewsubtlediffuserssuchasRosco119and132allowthelensestobesetforhardedgesandthensoftenedwithafilter.Thisisfasterthansofteningwithlensesandtendstomakemoreefficientuseoftheoptics.

Mostprofilespotsalsohaveascrewarrangementtomakefineadjustmentsofthe lamp in relation to the optical system. This allows the beam to be finelytunedbetweenevenintensityorhotcentre.

The shuttering andmaskingdevices inprofile spots convert a lot ofunusedenergyintoheatandsoshuttersshouldbeusedtotrimthebeamedgeratherthantocut itdowntosize.Thismeansselectingan instrumentwith theappropriatelensforthethrowdistancetothestage.

Variable-beamzoomprofilespotsThelimitedbeamvariationofasimpleprofilespotreducestheflexibilityofanyrig,particularlyapermanentrigwhichhastobecapableofrapidrefocusingtothe requirements of different productions. Variable-beam profile spots use azoomarrangementwherebydifferentialmovementoftwolensesallowscontrolof wide variations in both beam size and quality. The shutters are then onlyrequiredforbeamshaping

Standardisation on small compact tungsten halogen lamps as a light sourcehas enabled a degree of modular construction. Standardised die castings andextrusionsareusedtohouseseveralfixedandvariablebeamoptionsinarangeofinstrumentsbasedonacommonapproachtoopticalandmechanicaldesign.

Opticalsystemsforprofilespotsaredesignedtouseeitherradiallyoraxiallymountedlamps.Theessentialdifferenceisthatradialssitbasedown

IntheStrandCantataseriesofvariable-beamprofilespotlightsapairofindependentlyadjustablelensesofferawidevariationinbeamangleandedgequalityfromasingleinstrument.Cantatasusea1.2kWlampandhavearotatinggatetosimplifyshutterangling.

Adjustmentsonvariable-beamprofilespots

in front of the rear reflector, while axials are mounted through a hole in thecentreofthereflector.

Variable-angle models have become the standard profile spots for newinstallations in theatres intended for short runs of wide-ranging productionstyles.Theyusethesamerangeofhalogenlampwattagesastheotherfamiliesof spotlights already discussed. At each wattage there are models offeringdifferentoptionsofvariable-beamanglerange,suchas16°-30°or28°-40°.

ETCSourceFourprofilespotArangeofsixlensoptions(5°,10°,19°,26°,36°,50°) allows selection of an instrument with the optimum beam angle for anyparticularjob.

NewgenerationprofilesSome of the latest profiles use a 575 or 600 watt compact-filament halogen(kryptongas)lampwithabaseincorporatingaheatsink.Ininstrumentswhichhavebeendesigned tomaximise efficiency in every aspect, the new lampcanprovide more light than a conventional 1 kW or even 1.2 kW lamp in aconventional instrument. Optical design of the new generation instrumentsincludes such features as anti-reflective coating on lenses to improvetransmission,anddichroiccoatingofthereflectortocoolthebeamforincreasedlifeofshutters,gobosandfilters.

PROFILESPOTSSUMMARISED

Aprofilespotcontrolsthesizeandshapeofthebeambyadjustmentofbuilt-inshuttersorinsertionofaniris.Agobomayalsobeinsertedtoprojectashapedimage.Movement of the lens controls the beam quality by softening the hardedge as required. A softened break-up gobo will texture the beam. In thevariable-angle versions, differentialmovement of the two lenses controls bothbeamsizeandquality.Theprofilespotscattersmuchlesslightoutsidethemainbeamthanfresnelorfocusspots.

BEAMLIGHTS

The most difficult light quality to control is the visibility of the actual beampassingthroughtheair.Sofar,allourreferencestobeamcontrolhavebeenintermsofwhat happenswhen the light hits an actor or scenery.Sometimeswewish to see a light beam stabbing through the air andmaking the direction ofsource obvious; more often we would prefer just to see the stage lit withoutmuchindicationofthemultiplesourcesthatareprovidingthelight.vEitherwayitshouldbeacontrolledsituation.Unfortunately,inmostcases,whetherweseethebeamornotdependsonairpollutionratherthantheinstrument.Tobeseen,the lightmust reflect off something and so beamvisibilitywill dependon thepresenceofdust andmoisture in the air.Theprohibitionof audience smokingandtheadventofairconditioninghavecontributedtomakingbeamsinvisible.No longer do we have the spectacle of a stage criss-crossed with stabbingsearchlightsonfoggyeveningsincitytheatreswithsmokingpermitted.

Theone instrument typewhere thebeamshowsupbetter thanothers is thebeamlight.WhereasPC,fresnelandprofilespotshaveconicalbeamslightinganareawhose size increases inproportion to throwdistance, thebeamlighthas aparallelbeamsothatthesizeofarealitremainsfixedwhateverthethrow.Thisparallelbeamisproducedbyusingaparabolic

AboveAdjustmentsonbeamlights.Afocusknoballowsthelamptobecentredinthereflectorforsmoothestbeam;parcanlampsmayberotatedfororientationofthenon-circularbeam.

Right500wattlow-voltagebeamlight(Strand)

reflectorandnolens;itrespondswelltoanyparticlessuspendedintheairandwill always be more dramatically visible than the beam of other types ofinstrument.CentralEuropehasa traditionofbeamlights (mostly500watt,butalso1kW)with24-volt lampsfedfromatransformerbuilt intotheinstrumentcasing.InBritain1kWbeamlightsat240volthavelongbeencommon,butuntilrecentlylow-voltageversionshadtobeimported.

ParcansThePARlamphasreflectorandlenssealedwithin thesameglassenvelopeasthefilament.Thebeamsoftheselampsareslightlyovalwithachoiceofatight,nearly parallel spot or varying degrees of a wider more flooded beam. Thenarrowerthebeam,themoreintensethelight.Theparcanisasimplecantoholdthis‘sealedbeamlamp’andprovidefacilitiesforsuspension,pan,tiltandcolourfilter.Thereisnoprovisionforfocusingsincebeamsize,shapeandqualityare

determinedby thechoiceof lamp.The lampscanbe rotatedwithin thecan tomake optimum use of the oval beam shape. The brightest 1 kW par lampsoperateat120voltsandsotheyarefrequentlyusedasseries-connectedpairson240-voltsupplies.Theintenselightmakesthemverysuitablefordownlightandbacklightwhentheycreateadepth-enhancinghazeinthespacesurroundingtheactor. Their intensity also ensures that considerable brightness can still beachievedwiththedeepestsaturatedcolourfilters.

Parcan(JamesThomasEngineering)

NewgenerationparcansThe new efficient 575 watt lamp, as used in the latest profile spots, has alsofound an application as a par. Backed by a coated reflector and fronted by-interchangeable lenses quickly mounted in a rotating ring, the 575 wattinstrument offers a choice of alternative beam spreads with the intensityassociatedwitha1kWlamp.

Usinga similarhousing to theirnewgenerationparswith575watt lamps, thefocusableETCParnelcombines thepunchof theparwith thebeamqualityofthefresnel.

SmokeInsituationswhereitspresenceisstylisticallyappropriate–oratleastacceptable– smoke is sometimes introduced to help make light beams visible. SmokegeneratorsarediscussedinChapter19.

FollowSpots

Mostfollowspots(oftenreferredtoinBritainas‘limes’),withwhichoperatorsfollow actors around the stage, are basically profile spots with a rather moresophisticatedoptical andmechanical design.Theyhave tobeparticularlywellbalanced toallowsmoothpanand tilt; andcontrols for iris and focusmust lienaturallyundertheoperator'shand.Toachievehighintensity,mostfollowspotsusedischargelampsandtheyareusuallyfocusedwithaveryhardedgebecausethefollowspot,particularlyinAnglo-Americanlighting,hasbecomeamarkofstar-statusratherthanameresourceoflight.

BeamlightshavelongbeenusedinCentralEuropeanoperahousesfordiscreetfollowing – delicately boosting selective visibility rather than consciously

drawingattentiontostaractors.Theparallelbeamgivingautomatic

InnoFour575HMIisalamphousewhichadaptsSource4profilesandPARSforusewitha575wattHMIlamp.TheFollowSpotversionshownherehasadimming shutter located between the two 20cm lenses. Zooming and shuttercontrolsareconvenientlysituatedfortheoperator'shand.(LightingInnovation)

head-to-waist coverage independent of throw distance, plus the soft quality ofthe beam edge, allow the operator to concentrate totally on followingwithouthaving to make adjustments of iris and lenses. This type of following isbecomingcommoninmusicals.

However, the old influence is so strong thatwe can continue to use a hardfollow spot as a device to emphasise the theatricality of a vaudeville typemusicalnumberplayedinan‘outfront’styledirecttotheaudience.

LAMPS

Threetypesof lightsourceare innormaluse: tungsten, tungstenhalogen(oftenreferred toas just ‘halogen’)anddischarge. Inpassing, it shouldbenoted thatfluorescent lamps have very little application on the stage. Although veryefficient in terms of energy usage, a long tubular source of diffused light isdifficult to incorporateopticallyormechanically inan instrumentdesigned forprojectionofacontrolledbeam.However,stagelightingisabroadchurchfromwhich no source should be excluded; some of themore experimental lightingstylesusingasmallnumberofhigh-powerednon-conventionalinstrumentshaveincludedfluorescenttubestodramaticeffect.

TungstenlampsThe tungsten lamps used in stage lighting are large versions of the familiardomestic light bulbs. Being more highly powered, they are designed toovercome problems arising from the extra heat generated. To ensure that thefilamentlinesuppreciselywiththeinstrument'soptics,modernspotlightlampshaveaspecialprefocuscap:thedomesticbayonetcap(BC)isvirtuallyunknownand the screwcap (ESorGES) is confined to situationswithuncritical opticssuchasoldertypesoffloodsandcompartmentbattens.

TungstenhalogenlampsThe light output of tungsten lamps gradually decreases throughout their lifewhile tungstenhalogen lamps maintain their original light output. Anotheradvantageofhalogenlampsisthattheyarephysicallysmallandthissimplifiesopticalandmechanicaldesignoflightinginstruments.Also,standardisationonasmall rangeof compacthalogen lamps simplifies stockholding.Everypossiblepermutation of long, short, thin, fat, cap-up and cap-down was known in thetungsten series and so a special lamp had to be stocked for each type ofinstrument.

Lamp design has to compromise between light output and life: if one goesdown,theothertendstogoup.Nevertheless,mosttungstenhalogenlampsfindacompromisethatensuresabrighterlightforalongerlifethanthecorrespondingtungstenlamps–withthebonusthatthebrighterlightismaintainedthroughoutlife.Theuser,however,canoftenoptforalampthatwillincreaseeitherlifeorlight at the expense of the other. Halogen lamps with special bases havethereforebecomestandardforallnewinstruments.

Ordinary tungsten lamps are still available formany older spotlights althoughthe user has an option to fit special halogen lampswith prefocus bases and aglassenvelopestructurewhichlinesthefilamentupwiththeinstrument'soptics.Forolderequipmentonsmallstagesthereisstillsomethinginfavourofordinarytungstenlamps:theirinitialcostislessandthereisnotmuchvirtueinextendinglifeiftheequipmentonlyhasoccasionaluse.Furthermore,thereislittlepointinmaintaining brightness throughout life if little-used lenses and reflectorsgraduallyacquire a coatingofdust; therearemany situationswhere spotlightsonlygetcleanedwhentheirlampsarechanged.

Arrispotlightwithdischargelamp(1.2kWHMI)andmechanicaldimmer

DischargelampsTheattractionofdischarge lamps is that theyprovide averybright light fromrelativelylittleelectricity.Buttheycannotbedimmedtoanacceptablestandardby reducing the electricity at the lamp in the normalway: indeed they need amomentary jab of very high voltage to make the light ‘strike’ and appear.However,theycanbedimmedbyamechanicalshutterwhichisposi–tionedatanappropriatepointintheopticalsystemsothatitfadessoftly(ratherthangivethehardedgesofashutterplacedattheopticalcentreofaprofilespot).Fortheparticularly subtle fading required in a scenic projector, glasses progressivelydarkened fromclear to black can bemoved across the slide. Suchmechanicalcontrivancesmayseemtiresomelycomplicatedbutwithtoday'stechnologythereis no difficulty in controlling the motor of a dimming shutter by digitalinformation from the control desk'smicroprocessor. Certainly the light outputmakesthistechnologyanattractiveproposition.

Low-voltagelamps

Low-voltagelampsgiveamuchmoreintenselightthanmains-voltagelampsofthe same wattage. The drawback is the chunky weight of the conventionaltransformer that has to be included in the instrument. However, the latesttoroidal transformers are somewhat smaller and lighter, and electronictransformerspromiseexcitingpossibilitiesforthefuture.

HEATANDFANS

Thefutureoflightinginstrumentshasonemajorproblemtowhichnoeffectivesolutionisinsight–heat.Lamp-generatedheatcanbecontrolledbyheatsinksand reflectors, but still has to be dissipated carefully throughventilation holeswhichmustbecarefullysituatedandbaffledtoavoidlightleaks.Withdischargelamps and integral electronics, this heat has to be dissipated with particularefficiency. Fans are permissible in follow spots and scene projectors but thenoisecanbeaproblemforproductionswithspokendialogue.Itmaybepossibleto make a silent prototype fan for one instrument, but we await an easilymaintainedfanwhichwillstillbesilentwhenthereisabatchoftwentyonaspotbar.

3____________________

AUTOMATEDLIGHTINGINSTRUMENTS

Alltheinstrumentsdiscussedinthelastchapterhavetobeadjustedmanuallybya technician with physical access to the pan, tilt and focus knobs. Theadvantages of motorising these movements for remote control has long beenrecognised, but it is only in recent years that developing technology has beenable toprovideanacceptable levelofrepeataccuracy: the instrumentmustbecapable of returning with consistent precision to the pan, tilt and focus datawhich have been recorded. This remote-control capability may be used forresettingtheinstrumentwhenitisnotalight.Oritsmovingbeammaybeusedasadynamiccontributiontothestagepicture.Theseinstrumentsareoftenreferredtoas‘intelligentlights’butIprefer‘obedientlights’becausetheyonlydowhatthelightingdesignerhasprogrammedthemtodo.

AttributesThevariouscontrollablefunctionsofaremotelyoperatedinstrumentarecalledattributes.Inthemorecomplexinstrumenttypes,thesemayincludeshuttering,gobo selecting, gobo rotating, diffusing and colouring in addition to themorebasicpan,tiltandfocus.

SCROLLERCOLOURCHANGING

Thesimplestformofremotecontrolisacolour-changeunitplacedinthefilter-frame runners which are standard on the front of every lighting instrument.

Remotecolourchangingbymotorisedwheelsorsolenoid-operatedsemaphoreshas been common for at least fifty years – usually offering a choice of fourfilters or open white. Today's colour changing is by scrollers. Colours in amotor-drivengelstringofaSellotapedsequenceoffiltersare

Scrollerprovidingupto32colourswithavariablescrolltimethatcanbesofastastobevirtuallyinstantaneous.WybronColoramIIscrolleronanETCSource4spot.

selectedbyasensorwhichrespondstocommandsfromalow-voltageordigitalsignal. Gel strings typically comprise up to 15 filters and the colour-changespeedcanvaryfromavirtuallyinstantcutof1secondtoabarelyperceptible4minutes.

REMOTECONTROLOFCONVENTIONALINSTRUMENTS

Conventionalspotlightscanbefittedwithremoteoperationofpan,tilt,focusoririsplusoptionalcolourscroller.Allpositions foreachchangeare recorded in

thecontroldeskmemoryand fed to the lightsbydigital signalsalongasinglepairofwires.Ifinditquiteuncannytowatchaspotbarresettingitselfwithallthespotlightschangingtheirpan,tilt,focusandcoloursimultaneously.

Motoryoke™canacceptanystandardprofilespotlightforremotecontrolofpan,tiltandiris–shownherewithSource4(LightingInnovation)

Although itmay be used for dynamicallymoving light beams, this type ofremoteoperationisprimarilyintendedforrefocusinginstrumentswhentheyareunlit –possiblybetweencues, probablybetween scenes and certainlybetweenproductions inrepertoire theatreswhichplaydifferentperformanceseachnightwhilerehearsingyetanotheroneduringtheday.Theinstrumentsareinevitablyexpensiveandthefinancial justificationismostlylightingmanagement–rapidrefocusingwithoutaccess.

INSTRUMENTSSPECIFICALLYDESIGNEDFORREMOTECONTROL

Fullyautomatedlightinginstruments, takingadvantageof the latestdis¬chargelamps and digital technology,may also be used to refocus between cues. But

theyaredesignedprimarilytoenablealltheattributesofchanginglightbeamstobechoreographedasacontributiontothescenographyofthestageenvironment.

A very bright light is produced by a discharge lamp with its intensitycontrolledbyamechanicalshutterwhileinternaldichroiccolourwheelsofferavirtuallyunlimitedchoiceofcoloursfrompasteltintstosaturates.

Thehigh-intensity light fromadischarge sourceprovides a beamwith size,shape, quality and colour that canbe instantlymodified.The rangeof coloursavailable from combinations of dichroic filters far exceeds the possibilities ofany traditional filter swatch: virtually any colour is obtainable. When profileoptics are employed, wheel-mounting of interchangeable gobos, often withoptional rotation, allows selection of a group of appropriate gobo images ortextures for eachproduction.There are twobasic formats:wigglymirrors andmovingheads.

WigglymirrorsThelamphouseandopticalsystemremainstationaryandthebeamisdeflectedbyamotorisedmirror.Thistypeofinstrumentisusedmainlyforeffect,thelightsweepingaroundthestageineverchangingcoloursandpatterns.Itisparticularlyappropriateformeetingpopularmusic’srequirementformovementswhichwillbevisuallyeffectiveduringascene.Rockbandsinparticulardemandalightingstyle where movement of the lamps is almost the norm, with stillness beingreservedforanoccasionaldramaticeffect.Insuchconcertsthelightingrig,withtheloudspeakerstacks,isalsothemajorpartofthescenicenvironment.

Fixedautomatedspotlightwithmovingmirror(ClayPakyGoldenscan)

MovingheadsThelamphouseandopticalsystemarepannedandtiltedbyayokewhich,beingan integral part of the instrument, allows amore compact and elegant designthan is possible when motors are added to traditional spotlight technology.Movingheadsfunctionaseitherwashlightsorprofilespots.

‘Wash lights’ are sophisticated versions of traditional PC or fresnel spots.Internal dichroic filter wheels offer virtually unlimited colour choice. Inmostcases, the rangeofmotorised focuscanbeextendedby interchangeable lenseswhilethebeamqualitycanoftenbealteredbyinternaldiffusers.

RightAutomatedwashlight(MartinMAC600)

LeftAutomatedprofile(MartinMAC500)

DYNAMICINSTRUMENTPOTENTIAL

Newtechnologieshavetobeassessedagainst twobasiccriteria: theirpotentialforimprovementsin(a)designqualityand(b)designmanagement.Thelatterismorecapableofobjectiveanalysisbecause it is relativelyeasy toquantify thesavingstobegainedwithnewequipment.Thisareaoffinancialsavingusuallyinvolvesspendingcapitalinordertosaverunningcosts.Theseeconomiesarisemainlyfromthetimesavingswhichleadtoreducedstaffcosts:fasterfocusing

speedsupthewholeproductionprocess,involvingnotjustthelightingcrewbuttheentirestagestaff.Timesavingsarealsorelatedtodesignqualitysincepartofthe saved time can be allocated to scheduling experiment. Moreover, newtechnologies tend to bring humanitarian benefits by reducing physical labour,resultinginalightingcrewwhosewitsaresharpenedbybeinglesstired.

Theabovebenefitsresultmainlyfromtheability tofocus lights inrehearsaland during repertoire changeovers, or to refocus them while they are unlitbetween scenes in performance. But perhaps the more exciting possibilityintroduced by digital remote control is the additional fluidity offered by thedynamicmovementofalightbeam.Thereare,ofcourse,dangers.Itmaybeastatement of the obvious but we need to keep reminding ourselves thattechnology should never be used just because it exists. Technology has tosupport theproduction and it has tobe integrated.But thepotential for this isvirtually unlimited. In particular, there are possibilities for manipulatingaudienceattentionanddevelopingcolourandtextureforatmosphereinamuchmoresubtlewaythanbycrossfadingblocksoffixed-focusinstruments.

With the continuousmovement of a single beam, rather than the traditionalsequentialcrossfadingofmultiplebeams,audienceconcentrationcanbedirectedtowardsdifferentareasofthestageandfromoneactortoanother.Itmightbeasingle moving beam that commands the eyes of the audience to follow, or itcould be a series ofmoving beams that converge on one person. There is thepossibilityofawidebeamthatnarrowsastheattentionclosesinonasoloactorand, conversely, of a narrow beam that reveals the actor and then graduallyopens out to include an increasinglywide acting area. The beam edge can behardened and softened through motorised diffusion which also offers thepossibilityofadjustingtheprominenceofanygobotextureaddedtothebeam.Allsuchshiftscanbeboldlyobviousordelicatelysubtle.

Lighting alchemists dream of a new cheap bright light, generating no heat,with wire-less remote control of colour, direction, intensity, beam angle andshutters–andpreferablywithabeamthatturnscornersandstopsafteritreachesanactor!Someofthedreamsarebecomingreality.

4____________________

LIGHTINGCONTROL

All but the very simplest control systems for stage lighting are now based oncomputer software. The control desk, positioned in the auditorium so that theoperatorcanhaveaclearviewof thestageaction,sendsdata to thebackstagedimmerroomwhichisthedistributionpointforcontrollingtheintensityofeachlight.Programmingdatafortheattributesofautomatedlightingissentdirecttotheinstruments.

Channels,waysandratingsEach channel on the desk can be allocated a function. This function is mostcommonlythecontroloflampintensitythroughadimmerbutitmaybecontrolofoneoftheattributesofanautomatedspotlight.

Each dimmer has a specified rating in kilowatts and will control any loadconsistingofoneormoreinstruments,providedthattheirtotalkilowattagedoesnot exceed the specified kilowatt rating of the channel.Modern dimmers canhandleanyloadfromafewwattsuptotheirratedmaximum.Thisisnormally2.5kW,withaproportionof5kWinallbutthesmallestinstallations.Dimmersare sometimes referred to as ‘circuits’, and a system is often described as ‘X-ways’whereX is the number of channels.Thus a systemwith 20 channels iscalleda‘20-way’

CuesandcuestatesAlightchangeisknownasacue(Q).Thevariousstaticpicturesbetweensuchchanges are known as cue states. A cue therefore represents lighting on themove whereas a cue state is lighting in repose. A cue where the channels

generallyincreaseinbrightnessisknownasabuildwhileageneralreductioninbrightnesslevelsiscalledacheck.Sometimesbuildandcheckarereferredtoas‘fade-up’and‘fade-down’andacuewithsomechannelsincreasingwhileothersdecreaseisacrossfade.

MANUALSYSTEMS

If a control desk has only a small number of channels, perhaps up to about adozen, animble-fingeredoperatormight just aboutbeable to copewith a cuewheremostofthechannelleversdoaslowcheckorbuild.However,acrossfadeinfivesecondsmightnotbeverysmooth!

PresettingToovercomethisproblemmanualsystemsmakeafeatureofpresetting.Thesetofchannelfadersisduplicated,eachsetbeingcalledapresetandcontrolledbyitsownmasterfader.Whenamasterisatzero,itspresetdoesnotinfluencethedimmersandanymovementofthechannelleversonthatpresetwillnotaffectthe lights. The preset levers can therefore be set (or ‘pre-set’ — hence theterminology) to the levels required in a cue state.The cue to achieve this cuestatecan thenbeperformedsmoothlyby theone-handedactionofmoving themaster from zero to full, at the speed required to complete the change in theplottedtime.

StrandLX24-channeltwo-presetdesk

Thenextcuestatecanthenbepreparedonanotherpresetwhichhasitsmasterat zero. By fading one master and building the other, the lighting picturerepresentedbythefirstpresetisreplacedbythelightingpreparedonthesecond.Presets obey the law of ‘highest takes precedence’ ifmore than one preset isactive at the same time with masters at full, the brightness of any particularchannelwillbethesettingofthatchannel'shighestindividualpresetlever.

GroupingTo give increased facilities, particularly to allow a cue to be divided intoseparately timed and possibly overlapping parts, presets are often divided intogroups.Eachchannelmaybeallocatedtoagroupbymeansofswitching.

CrossfadingIn addition to preset and group masters, most desks are fitted with a diplesscrossfade.Bymovingthismasteratthedesiredspeed,asmoothtransitionfromonescenetoanothercanbeaccomplishedwithoutthevisualdipthatisdifficultto eliminate when using individual preset masters to crossfade between twopresetswith several common channels. However, some crossfades look betterwhen the incomingpreset leads and theoutgoing lags, or vice-versa.This canonlybeestablishedforeachcuebyexperiment.

MEMORIESANDCOMPUTERS

Thepossiblenumberofpresets inamanualsystemis theoretically infinitebutoperational convenience places a limit of about four.However,where there isneedformorethanabouttwentychannelsandtwopresets,itisnoweasierandcheaper to adapt the memory storage systems of computer technology. Suchsystemsareessentiallyinfinitepresetcontrolswhere,insteadofsettinguprowsofchannelfaders,thenecessaryinformationisstoredandretrievedwithasinglekeystroke.Operatingamemorysystemisratherlikeoperatingthemastersofamanualsystemwithouthavingtoworryaboutsettinguppresetsphysically.

Earlymemory boards used such electro-mechanical devices as punch cards,drums, floppy discs or tape for data storage of dimmer levels. However all

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currentsystemsarebasedonsolidstateelectronicmemorieswithoutanymovingparts.Anyuseofdiscisnowconfinedtolibrarystorageofplotsforaseriesofproductions in repertoire theatres where they are used for reprogramming thememoriespriortoaperformanceratherthanintheoperationoftheperformance.Reliability has increased steadily while prices have fallen as a result of themicroprocessor revolution. Consequently, memory boards are now standardequipment for even the smallest professional stages, with only an occasionalsmallmanualpresetboardbeingfoundunderstudioconditions.

400-channeldeskwithhighresolutionLCDdisplaysinafoldingconfigurationwhich is particularly suitable for touring. An optional format of the modularStrand300serieswhichspans24to600channels.

Thesesystemshavethreeessentialparts:

channelaccessrecordplayback

Thereareseveralpossiblemethodsofchannelaccess.Perhapsthemostobviousistheuseofafaderforeachchannel.Columnsofpushesforhundreds,tensandunitshavealsobeenusedsuccessfully.Butthemostpopularmethod,inanage

when pocket calculators have become commonplace, is to use a keyboard inwhichthechannelcannotonlybecalledupbutgivenalevel—e.g.tapping2,7,@,5willbringchannel27to50%.Thisisnot50%lightbutthehalfwaypointonascaleof1to10or100wherethepointsrepresentprogressalongadimmercurvewhichhasbeen selected togive a smooth control, compensating for theabrupt changes that would otherwise occur near the fully-on and fully-offpositions.Associatedwithsuchakeyboardisawheel-typeleverbywhichanyselectedchannelcanbeeasedupordownfromitsexistinglevel.

Whenthedesiredcuestateisreachedbybalancingchannelsinthisway,itisrecordedinanelectronic‘file’.Thedigitalkeyboardhasalsobecomethemostpopular method of selecting a file number. Sometimes there is a separatekeyboardforthismemoryrecordbutonekeyboardoftensharestheoptionsof‘channel’and‘memory’asselectedbyapush-button.

Forplaybackaselectedmemoryfileisroutedviaanothersetofpushestotheappropriatemasters.Manymemorysystemshavetwoplaybackssothattwosetsof cuesmay run simultaneously—perhapsa slowgeneral fadecontinuingononeplaybackwhileaseriesoffasterareachangesareperformed

Strand500deskinstalledbyNorthernLightattheLowryTheatreinSalford

on the other playback. Some playbacks have single-lever crossfaders giving asmooth dipless transition from one memorised state to another. But most

playbacks have paired faders with one lever for the incoming channels andanotherfortheoutgoing,sothatonecanleadorlagtheotherifrequired.Thesefadersareusuallymountedtogethersothattheycanbeoperatedwithonehandfor a dipless crossfade.At any time during a cue, the operator can select anyindividualchannels for independentadjustment ifnecessary.Onmostsystems,separate fade timings can be recorded for the incoming and outgoing lightingstates:thecuemaythenbeinstigatedbyapushandthemasterfadersusedonlytospeeduporslowdowntheprogressofthecue.

Informationisdisplayedtotheoperatoronvideoscreenswhichcanshowallsorts of data, themost important being the level for each channel, with theselevelnumberschangingasacueprogresses.Somesystemsalsohavenumericalwindowsshowingthefilenumberofthememorisedcuestatecurrentlyholdingthe light on stage and the number of the next state selected (i.e. preset) forsubstitutionbyamovement(i.e.cue)ofthatplayback'smaster.

There is virtually no limit to the facilities that can be incorporated in acomputerised lightingboard:multipleplaybacks,automatic sequencing, librarystorageandprint-outareallcommonfeaturesofthelargerboards.Manyboardsare now capable of interfacing with the computer-aided lighting designprogrammes(seeChapter17).

Mostsystemsincludeaback-uptokeeptheperformancealiveifthemachinebreaks down. The more complex systems have sufficient duplication ofcomponents toensure that (as in thehydraulics systemsofanaircraft) there isneveratotalbreakdown.Themostsophisticatedback-upistohaveacompletesecond system running in tandem, ready for instant takeover if the primarysystemfails.

TIMING

Modern control desks allow the operator to concentrate on timing the flowoflightduringaperformance.Manualpresettingandmemorybothmakeitpossibleforalltheroutineworktobedoneasapreparationbetweencues,sothatwhenacuestartstheoperatorneedbeconcernedonlywiththefinernuancesoftiming.Although a cue may be labelled as, say, 15 seconds, this is unlikely to be astraightmathematicalcount.Itmaystartslowly,thenaccelerateandfinallyevenout;orperhapstheoppositewayround.Theimportantpointisthatthetimingisprobably the sum of a series of individual rates which operators, like actors,

mustfeel in their theatricalbones,becausethesubtlevariations in timingfromoneperformancetoanother,fromoneaudiencetoanother,arewhatmakesaliveperformancetrulyalive.

Somemanual preset desks have anoptional automatic timer so that the cuetime canbepreset (i.e. the lengthof the cuenot themomentwhen it begins).Microprocessor desks have this automatic timing recorded in their memory.However, this is always arranged so that the operator can take over manualcontrol instantly. Many operators prefer to ignore such automatic timingfacilities except in very slow fades. Themost critical point in any fade is thepointwherelampscomingfromzeromayjump,afteradelaywhilethefilamentheats.Onemanufacturerincludesa‘pre-heat’facilitytocompensateforthisandothershavedevelopedprogrammestomemorisethe‘profile’ofacue—i.e.thewayinwhichitsrateacceleratesanddeceleratesduringitsprogress.Butallthiscanbedonebyagoodoperatorand Iwouldalwaysprefer toentrust the finerdetails of timing to operator sensitivity. Modern lighting controls are verysophisticatedinstrumentsandtheiroperatorsareperformingartists.However,itis often necessary to programme the timing because shift working patternsinvolveseveraloperators.

ROCKBOARDS

Whilemany boards are splendid for reproducing the cue states of pre-plottedlighting, and providing sophisticated facilities to enable fluid progressionthroughthesestatesunderfulloperatorcontrolof the timing, they tendto lackthe necessary flexibility for ‘instant’ lighting design. For instant lighting ofunplottedone-night-stands,thegroupfacilitiesofcomplexsystemsortheback-upsofsimpleronesareoftensufficient.

However, the dynamic lighting requirements of rock bands and industrialpresentations,where the lightingdesignernormallyoperateseachperformance,require a different kind of flexibility. In particular there is a need to be ablebalance several groups, to flash channels singly or in groups and to set upcomplexchasesequences.Thisrequirementisoftenbestservedbya‘lever-per-channel’accesswhereeachchanneldimmerleverhasanassociatedflashbuttonplusfacilitiesforselectiontogroupmasterfaders,masterflasherkeysandchaseprogrammes. In thebest rockboards,each fader levercan,asanalternative tocontrolling a single channel, have amemorised picture assigned to it. Such a

desk is laid out so that the operator, with help from a few labels, is able torememberwhichknobsworkwhichlights—andsoplaythelightingboardasifitwereamusicalinstrument.

However,theoperationalmodesofrockandconventionaltheatrearecomingclosertogetherandmanycontroldesksarenowequallygoodforlightingwhichisinstantorpre-programmedindetail.

Arockboard(AvolitesDiamondIII),withmagicsheetinright-handdrawer(seepage108),offersmaximumflexibilityforfluidlightingofperformanceswheresequentialplaybackofpre-plottedcuesisinappropriate.

CONTROLSURFACES

The traditional interface between the operator's finger and the control desk'sfunctions are fader-lever, wheel and push-button. Continuous experimentingcontinues to seek better ‘playability’. Some systems have tried the computermouse,butwithlittleoperatorenthusiasm.Joysticksactingasmastercrossfadelevers havemet with virtually no success (sidewaysmovement being used toprofile fade progress).Another area of rising and falling enthusiasm has beentouch-sensitivesurfaces,usuallylaidoutgeographically,sometimesintermsofthepositionofthelightbutoften,andperhapsmorefundamentally,intermsofwherethelightfalls.

ADDITIONALCONTROLFUNCTIONS

Until comparatively recently a control system only had to dealwith intensity:eachinstrumentrequiredonlyasinglechannel.Butasautomatedlightsbecomeevermoresophisticatedandtheirusegrows,thenumberofattributesrequiringchannels increasesdramatically.Whentherig includesasubstantialnumberofautomated lights, it may be more appropriate for the programming of theseinstrumentstobehandledbyaseparatecomputerwithitsownoperatorduringplotting and rehearsing. Then, during performance playback, all controlfunctions can be co-ordinated fromone deskwith cue actions triggered by itsmaster‘go’pushes.

DIMMERS

Whilecontroldeskshavealltheglamourofmissioncontrol,dimmerstendtoberegardedasabitoftechnologytuckedawaybackstageandonlyvisitedwhenafuse blows or a circuit breaker trips. Since solid-state, load-independent, fast-responding thyristors revolutionised dimming some forty years ago, dimmershavebecomeincreasinglystableandreliable.Toconnecttoday'sdimmerroomwith the desk requires only a singlemultiplexed data line rather than the oldmulticoreswith theirseparatewiresforeachchannel.The latestdimmershavemicroprocessors (similar to those used in motor cars for efficient enginemanagement)which control their output by digital calculation. The traditionaltopandbottomadjustmentsareredundant;stabilityisindependentoftheravagesoftemperatureandtime.Mostofthemanybenefitswhichresultfromhavingacomputing capability in the dimmer are too detailed for the scope of thisdiscussion, but there is one which should be noted as something of abreakthrough.

Dimmershadfallenbehinddesksinabilitytomonitortheirownperformanceand diagnose any faults. Before dimming became digital it was difficult toprovidean indicationofwhethera lamphasblownoraplugbeenkickedout.Now it is possible to display an indication in the control roomofwhether theoutputfromadimmerisreachingtheinstrument—andthusalerttheoperatortoablownlamporkicked-outplug.

IntegraldimmersThere would seem to be a case in certain circumstances for considering a

thyristordimmerplacedinsideaconventionalhalogen-lampedinstrumentratherthanatacentraldistributionpoint.Mostautomatedspotlights,havingdischargelamps, require their power direct rather than through a dimmer. So there isconsiderableappealinloopingpoweranddatacablesaroundatheatre.Riggingcouldwellbesimplifiedandexperimentsaretakingplace.

IGBTDimmersThyristors, so revolutionary when introduced in the early 1960s that theyimmediately became the standard dimming device, operate by switching thecurrent 100 times per second.This tends to introduce noise: singing filamentsandhummingcables.Anewlydevelopedalternative,theInsulatedGateBipolarTransistor (IGBT), reduces unwanted noise through its ability to respond to amoresophisticatedswitchingcycle.Thisalsoextendslamplifeand,sinceIGBTdimmers requireno smoothingchokes, thereare significant reductions inheat,sizeandweight.

Rigger's(designer's)controlsOneofthemostcosteffectivedevelopmentsinlightingcontrolisthehandheldcontrol which enables selected channels to be made live during rigging andfocusingwithouttheneedforastaffpresenceinthecontrolroom.Theiruseisdiscussedandillustratedonpage105.

POSTSCRIPT

Today's boards will do everything a lighting designer needs. Some are moreoperator-friendly than others and so, in selecting a system, it is essential torememberuser friendlinessandreliabilitywhilebeingseducedby thewondersofsophisticatedfacilities.

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RIGGINGANDWIRING

We have now established aims in lighting, and surveyed the basic types ofequipment which are available to convert these aims into reality. Beforediscussing the use of the equipment to achieve these aims, let us look at themethods of mounting the instruments (rigging) and supplying them withelectricity(wiring).

RIGGING

The design of all UK lighting instruments includes a bolt and wing nut forrigging. For lighter instruments this bolt has an M.10 thread and for heaviertypesitisM.12.Equipmentmadebeforethismetricstandardwasadoptedintheearly1980susea3/8in.or1/2in.whitworththread.Allinstrumentsaredesignedtohangverticallyfromthisbolt,andanyotheranglemayshortenthelamplifeconsiderably, even reducing it from several hours to a few minutes. This isbecauseprojection lampsaredesigned toburnona certain axis and spotlightsaredesigned,notmerelytousethelampwithinitslimits,buttokeepthelamp-casetemperaturetoaminimumbyanaccurateflowofconvectionaircurrents.

The most convenient fixing is standard scaffolding tube (48 mm externaldiameter) and, to ensure that the lamp hangs at the correct attitude, thisscaffoldingshouldbehorizontalorvertical.Horizontalscaffoldtubesareknownasbars (‘pipes’ inNorthAmerica)whileverticals arebooms. Instrumentsarehung from bars by hook clamps and bracketed from booms by boom arms(‘trees’ inNorthAmerica).Bracketsmaybeusedfordirectwallfixingbutarevery limiting as they provide only a series of fixed positions. Swivel modelshavefallenintodisusebecausetheyaretorturetoadjustfromthetopofaladder.Therestrictionsimposedbybracketsapply

AboveInstrumentsarehungfromahorizontalbarbyahookclampor(below)hungfromaverticalboombyaboomarm.

BelowAspigotisscrewedontothemountingboltwhenusingastand.

LeftTheuseofbracketsshouldberestricted,wherepossible,totemporaryriggingsuchasspotsattachedtoscenerytimbers.

Pairedwallbracketssupportingabarallowmoreflexibilitythanasinglebracket.

particularly to positions in the auditorium: if basic provision is made withscaffolding-sizebars,thereisflexibilityforgettinglightsintothemostsuitablepositions for each production.To solve a particularly knotty problem, there isalways the possibility of attaching an extra temporary short length of bar bymeans of standard scaffolding clamps. Very few landlords take kindly totemporaryfixingsbeingscrewedtotheirwalls.

When instruments are mounted on floor stands, wing nuts are replaced byspigotsmadeinsizestofitthestandardhangingbolts.

TrussriggingWhena longand/orheavily loadedsinglebarwouldhave insufficient rigidity,lightsarehungontrussesmadefromcross-bracedscaffoldingsizedtube.

Productionsareincreasinglybeingstagedinvenueswithouttraditionalflyingfacilities.Whentherearefewsuspensionpoints,orwhentherearenoneatall,thelightingrighastobesupportedfromfloor level.Tosolvethisproblemtherockmusicindustryhaspioneeredthedevelopmentofcompleterigsoftrussing,strongandrigidyetlightweight,hoistedandsupportedtotallyfromthefloor.

Trusssectionsareusedasanalternativetosimplescaffoldingpipeswhenextrarigidityisrequired.(OptikineticsTrilitesystem)

RiggingsafetyIt is obvious that anything hanging above the actor or audience is a potentialhazard.Modern lighting instrumentsaredesignednot to fall apart, and today'smouldedlensesaremostunlikelytocrackandscatterbrokenglass.Thedangersarehumanerror:itisessentialthatanyonefixingoradjustingalightshouldtakemeticulous care to ensure that all fixing nuts are tight. As an additionalprecaution, each instrument should have a ‘safety’ of chain or steelwire as aprecaution against a loose hook clampbeingdislodged from the bar by flyingscenery.

Lightweighttrusshoistedonacompacttowerallowslightstobehungwherenosuspensionisavailable.(JamesThomasEngineeringBabyTower)

PERMANENTWIRING

Therearetwokindsofwiringinastageinstallation:permanentandtemporary.Permanentwiringshouldalwaysterminateinsocketssothatinstrumentscanberemoved easily for cleaning and servicing. The standard British professionalsocketforstageuseonchannelsratedupto2.4kWisthe15amp3-round-pinBESA. In smaller installationswithchannels ratedatonly1kW the smaller5amp 3-round-pin BESA is sometimes found, but this complicates the use ofrented and borrowed equipment. Some of the most dangerous electricalsituationsthatIhaveseenonstageshavearisenfromplugshastilychangedinaspirit of ‘the show must go on’. The-not-too-distant future is likely to see acommonstandardthroughouttheEU.

Plugs should not be of the fused type: fuse checking and replacement is amatter to be dealt with at ground level and at a central position – not whilegropingaboutwithoneandahalfhandsat the topofa ladder.Stagefusing is

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centralisedatthedimmerswitheithercircuitbreakersorfuseholdersoftherighttypeandcapacitybeingincorporatedbyallmanufacturersintheirdimmerracks.Normallythesefuseholderswillacceptonlythecorrectratingoffuse.

Becauseonedimmeroftenfeedsmorethanonelight,eachdimmertendstobeterminated in two adjacent sockets.Generally speaking, lightsmounted in theauditorium (known as ‘foh’, jargon for ‘front-of-house’) are moved lessfrequently than thosemountedonstage.Therefore foh sockets canbemountedclose to the actual instrumentposition to reduce theamountof flexiblewiringbetweeninstrumentandsocket.Onstage,however,itisusuallysimplerandmoreadaptable to place the sockets in blocks at the side of the stage, since thepositioningoflightingequipmentabovethestagetendstobemuchmoreflexibleto meet the varying requirements of different productions. Most sockets arepositioned at a high level to feed lights hanging above the stage. It is usuallyconvenienttohavemost,butnotall,ofthesocketsononesideofthestageand,to savemoney, this is often the sidenearest to thedimmers.Where there is achoice,itisusualtooptforstageleft.(Thetermsleftandrightalwaysrefertoactors,facing theiraudience.)However,formaximumflexibility,itisusefultohavesomecircuitsloopedacrosstoalternativesocketsontheotherside.

Bars can be obtainedwith cabling running inside scaffolding-sized tube. Inolder systems, individual circuit cables were fed through holes in the bar atintervals of about two feet (600mm). This has been superseded by amodularsystem of short bars linked together by multicore cables with multipinconnectorssuchasSocapex.

Some sockets are required on both sides of the stage at low level for theconvenientfeedingofgroundrowsandstandequipment.Suchfloorequipmentisoften moved and plugged during performance scene changes. Traditionally,stage sockets have been positioned under the stagewith access through smalltraps known as ‘dips’: this is often not worth the expense on small stages,particularly as traps are frequently made temporarily inaccessible by scenery.Manynewstageshaveblocksofsocketsmountedontheupstageanddownstagewalls.Acontinuousshallowtroughrunsupanddownstageinthewingswithalidwhichliftsinsectionsenablingtemporarycablestoberunpartlybelowstagelevelforsafety.

Theessentialfeaturesofpermanentwiringarethat:

Itiswell-planned–notmerelyforthewaythatastageisbeingusednow,buttoallowflexibilityforinevitablefuturedevelopment.

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It complies with standard stage practice and is installed by qualifiedelectrical contractors to the highest specifications in accordance with theappropriateregulations,nationalandlocal.

It isnever,butnever, interferedwith:nomatterhowurgentlydesirableornecessaryarearrangementofpermanentwiringmayseem,suchalterationsshouldonlybeundertakenbyqualifiedelectricalcontractorsworkingtothesame practices, specifications and regulations as would apply to a newinstallation.

Itischeckedregularlybyaqualifiedinspector.

HardpatchingOn smaller stages, variations in rigging are dealt with by running temporarycablefromthelightstothesocketoutletsaroundthestage.Onasmallstagesuchtemporary cable runs will be relatively short, but problems arise in a largetheatre – particularly an adaptable onewith possibilities of alternative stagingarrangements such as varying degrees of thrust. Under these conditions, it isworth considering a patching systemwhich places the equivalent of amanualtelephoneexchangebetweenthedimmersandalargernumberofcircuitoutlets.Initssimplestform,thiscanbemerelytheterminationofpermanentwiringinaseriesofshortflexibletailswhicharepluggedintodimmersocketsasrequired;or it can be a quite sophisticated frame of interconnecting jack-plugs and jill-sockets.

SoftpatchingFor big stages, particularly those playing in repertoire, it is becomingincreasinglyeconomicaltoinstalladimmerforeverysingleoneofaverylargenumberofsocketsandtoassignthoserequiredforaparticularproductiontothedesk via its microprocessor – i.e. a sort of electronic telephone exchange isplacedbetweendimmersanddesk, rather thanamanualonebetweendimmersandsockets.Whilesoftpatchingasingledimmertoeachcontrolchannelisthenorm, it is possible to patch several dimmers to one channel. This can beparticularly useful for handling large dimmer loads – asmay be involved, forexample, in the lightingof a large cyclorama.Soft patching is a timesaver fortouring companies since it allows each instrument to have the same channel

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(a)

(b)

numberineverytheatreonthetour.

Patching, whether hard or soft, can assist both efficiency and safety byreducing the amount of temporarywiring required for eachproduction andbyproviding ameans of quick and easy central selection of the particular socketoutletswhicharegeographicallyappropriate.

TEMPORARYWIRING

If the permanent wiring has been installed properly, temporary additions inflexiblecablecanbemadebyanyonewithsoundelectricalcommonsense.Itisusual to use rubber-clad plugs and sockets towithstand the occasional knocksanddropsthatareinevitableinstageworking.Allcableshouldbeamplyratedforthemaximumelectricalloadthatislikelytobecarried.Itisessentialthat:

Live,NeutralandEartharefirmlyattachedtothecorrectterminals.

Thecable is firmlyclampedby thecablegripat thepointwhere itenterstheplugorsocketsothatnostrainwhatsoeverisplacedontheindividualwireconnections.

Thecableisrunneatly,withoutsharpbends,andclearofdirectheatfromthelights.Cableshouldbeanchoredatintervalswithplastictapeortiestopreventstrainbeingplacedontheplugandsocketconnections.

Beforeeachuse,thecableisinspectedtocheckthat

therearenocutsornicksintheouterprotectivesheathing.

allscrewsontheplugsandsocketsaretight.

If there is the slightest doubt, the plug or socket should be opened forinspection.

Allthisis,infact,thecommonsensethatshouldbeappliedtotheinstallationofall domestic appliances. Itmust be emphasised again and again that themaindangeronastageiscuttingcornersinsafetyprecautionsinaspiritof‘theshowmust go on’. This corner cutting is rarely intentional. It arises out of mentalconcentrationonwhatappeartobetheoverwhelminglyimpossibleproblemsofgettingtheshowonintheinadequatetimeavailable.Thisneedtobeattheclockmeans that critical work is done under conditions of physical and mentaltiredness.Theonlymethodisconstantsafetycheckinganddoublechecking.

PortableappliancetestingBritishelectrical safety legislation, introduced in1990, requires regular testingof every portable electrical appliance used in a place of work. This coverseverything from irons to spotlights. Special PAT testing equipment has beendeveloped forefficientmonitoringof continuityand insulation,while softwareprogrammesensurethatadequatetestingrecordsaremaintained.

ELECTRICALPHASING

Insomecountries,includingBritain,regulationsrequirethatadistanceof6feet(2metres)bemaintainedbetweenequipmentonseparatephasesoftheelectricalsupply. This is a safety precaution because of the larger voltages that existbetweenphases.Wheretheserulesapply,itiscustomarytotrytohaveatleastallonstagelightingonthesamephase.Thisisoftendifficultonsmallstagesandbecomes impossible with larger installations. The usual custom is to wire theoverhead equipment to a different phase from the equipment at stage level.Where this is done, the phases should be clearlymarked on the socket outletboxes,andcareshouldbetakentowarnallpersonnelofthepossibledangersofrunningflystostageandviceversa.

If a patch panel for dimmer outputs is installed, the jill-sockets should bemarkedwiththephaseoftheirparticulardimmersupply,andthejack-plugswiththephaseoftheirparticulargeographicalpositiononthestage.Theclearestandsimplestmethod is probably by colour coding: patching identical colourswillthen indicate and ensure correct patching. Soft patching, being on the controlratherthanloadsideofthedimmer,overcomesthisphasingproblem.

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DIRECTIONANDFOCUS

Therealcrunchinlightingiswhereweplacethelights,whatwepointthematandhowweadjusttheirbeams.Ifwehavenotpositioned,pointedandfocusedcorrectly, the most virtuoso performance on the most elaborate control boardwillnotmake thewholegreater than thesumof itsparts. It is theplacingandpointingdecisionsthatarethecreativepartofrealisingalightingconcept.Theactualfocusing–theadjustingofbeams–ismoreamatteroftechnique.

LIGHTINGTHEACTORBecausetheyhavetostandoutfromtheirbackground,actorsarenormallylittoabrighterlevelthanscenery.Inanidealworld,actorsandscenerywouldbelitcompletely independently.Noactor lightwouldhit thesceneryandnoscenerylightwouldhittheactors.Exceptinveryoccasionalcircumstancesonthelargestofstages,suchacompletelycontrolledsituationisjustnotpractical.Thenearestwe can get to this ideal is to keep any actor light falling on the scenery to aminimum.Thesetting is thenmainly litby thereflected lightbouncingoff thefloorandfurnishings,plussomeinstrumentsusedtostressthesculpturalqualityofthescenicpiecesandhighlightappropriatefeatures.

Letusconsidertheeffectontheactoroflightfromvariousdirections.Therearethreevariables:

theeffectontheactor

theareaofstagelit

theshadowcast.

FrontlightConsider an actor standing still and facing the audience (A), with light from

above,absolutelyverticallydownwards.Theeyeswillbedarksockets,thenoseaglowandcausingthemouthtolieinshadow.Therewillbevirtuallynoshadowonthefloorandonlyaverysmallareaofthestagewillbelit:anareathatneedbenolarger thanthecircumferenceof theactor'swidestpart–chest,waist,orhipsdependingonphysique.Thisisalightthatisveryselective,dramaticinitsmodelling,butdoingnothingtolettheaudienceseetheactor'sprincipalmeansofcharacterprojection:eyesandteeth.

Nowmovethatlightalittleforwardoftheactor(B).Itwillstarttoreachtheeyesandmouth(providedthatshekeepsherchinupandisnotdefeatedbyahatbrim!).Thearealitandtheshadowcastwillstarttoextendupstagebehindtheactor.

Asthelightcomeslowerfromthefront(C),theactor'seyesandteeth

become more visible. But the lit area extends further upstage, reducingselectivityandincreasingthelikelihoodoftheactor'sshadowhittingthescenery.Thisshadowwillclimbincreasinglyupthesceneryasthedirectionofthelightislowered.Whenthe light reacheshorizontal (D),eyesand teethwillbefully litand the shadowwill be the sameheight as the actor.The area selectedby thelightwillbeacorridorwhich isasnarrowas theactor'swidthbutextends thefulldepthoftheactingareabecausethelightwillgoonandonuntilithitseither

apieceofsceneryorthebackwallofthestage.Thisisall,ofcourse,foranactorstanding still: moving to the left or right will require the corridor width toincreasetoaccommodatetheextentofthesemovements.Furthermore,althoughfacial visibility has improved, its quality has decreased; whereas the verticallightwassculptural,thehorizontallightisflattening.Thereforethenoseseemsnottoprotrudeandtheeyesnottorecede.

So there seems to be an identifiable compromise: low enough for eyes andteeth,yethighenoughtoavoidexcessiveflatteningandtorestricttheareaoflitfloor and the extent of the shadows. Perhaps somewhere around 30°–60°?Degrees from the horizontal or vertical?Doesn'tmatter since 30° and 60° areinterchangeable. Just where we position the spot within this arc will dependuponjusthowtightan.anareaweneedtoselect.Thecompromisewillinvolvechoices between relative visibility, sculptural modelling, shadows andselectivity.Whateverwe choose, the light inevitablywill tend to be flatteningratherthanflattering.

SidelightHavingdiscussedlightinthefrontalplane,letusnowconsidersidelight–lightin a plane at 90° to the front light.What happenswhenwemoveour verticaldownlight to the side of the actor rather than to the front (E)? As the anglemoves down, the actor's face and body become increasingly sculpted.A littlelightgetsundertheeyebrowsandintotheeyes,whilerathermoregetsunderthenoseandintothemouth.Also,asthelightinganglebecomeslower,thearealitandtheactor'sshadowlengthensacrossthestage.Iftheactorisfacingoutfront,lightswillberequiredfrombothsides(F)inordertoilluminatebothsidesoftheface–although therewill tend tobeacentraldark linewhere thebeamsmeetdownthecentreoftheface.Thetwolightsautomaticallyproducetwoshadows.

So, with side lightingwe note thatmodelling and visibility increase, whileselectivitydecreases,astheanglecomesdownfromthevertical(G).Whentheanglebecomeshorizontal(H),therewillbeacompletelightcorridoracrossthestage.Itwillbeactorhighbutitsdepth,upanddownstage,willbedependentontherequirementsofactormovement.Compromiseisagainlikelyto

leadussomewhereintoazoneof30°–60°,butthepreciserangewilldependonseveralfactorsarisingfromtheproduction'srequirements.Howtightlyselectedneedtheareasbe?Istherealotofmovementtobesculpted?(Dancers,almostbydefinition, tend toprojectmorewith theirbodies thandoactors.)Howwillthescenedesignaccept shadows? (If thereareon/off flats, theiranglescanbecheated imperceptibly so that they do not catch shadows but lose them in thebaysbetweenthewings.Iftherearewallsrunningupanddownstage,actor-highshadows are likely to prove unacceptable, although scenic colour and texturemightpermitamoreacceptableleveloftolerance.)

BacklightA light from behind the actor (J) will not illuminate the face, but it helps toenhance stagedepth: the light separates actor from sceneryby creating ahazebetweenthem.Thehighlightsontheheadandshouldersalsohelptosculpttheactor.Theshadowiscastforwardandthishelpswithareaselectiononthestagefloorand,sincelightingdoesnotfallontheface,stronglyatmosphericcoloursmaybeused.

LightfrombelowLightfrombelowhorizontal(K)projectsanactorshadowthatloomsabovetheactoras shemoves forwardsandaway from the light source.When this is theonly direction, or the predominant direction, fromwhich the light comes, theeffect on the face is not at all natural.But a little light frombelow,often justreflected light, canhelp to soften the inevitableharshnessof light fromabove.Suchreflectedlight,however,willbeveryunselective.

ThecompromiseThis exploration of possible lighting angles suggests that there is no idealposition for a single light.Front angles are strongonvisibility, side anglesonsculptural modelling. High angles are more selective than lower ones whichopenuptheareaofstagelitandlengthentheactorshadows.Sowemustseekacompromise which will allow the actor to be lit for maximum visibility andmaximummodelling, yet withminimum shadow, plus, formany productions,theselectionofastightanareaaspossible.

The standard method is to use a pair of lights (L) from directions whichcompromisebetweenthefrontandsideextremes:lightcomingfromthefrontoftheactor(forvisibility)butoffsettotheside(tohelpmodelling).Mountedhighenough to keep the shadows short enough for the actor to dominate them, yetlowenoughforthelighttogetintotheeyesockets(iftheeyebrowsarenottoobushyorthehatbrimtoowide)andintothemouthwithitsallimportantteeth(ifthenosebereasonablyrestrainedinitsprojection).

Acrossedpairoflightsusedinthiswayhasbeenthestandardapproachforatleast sixtyyears– itwas firstdescribedbyStanleyMcCandless inhis1932AMethodofLightingtheStage.Themainadditionsincethenhasbeenbacklighttoemphasise thedepthof thesceneandgenerallyenhance the 'look'of theactor.Duringearlierphasesinthedevelopmentoflighting,thefirstpriorityhadtobeto get enough plain illumination followed by modelling and area control. Onconsiderationsof cost-effectiveness, backlight had to comewell down the list.Howeveriflightistobetheactor'senvironmentonthestageasitisinnature,thatlightmustcomefromallaround.Accordinglywenowgiveahighprioritytobacklight(M),evenwhenequipmentisshort.

The vertical angle of the backlight is not critical: it need only be 20° or sobeyond the vertical and indeed, in many tightly hung rigs, the backlight isvirtually a downlight.Whether it is offset to the side is largely dependent onwhetheritisnecessaryanddesirabletointroduceadirectionalkeyaspartofthemotivationalconceptofaparticularlightingpicture.

Thereforethestandardmethodhasbecometolighteachactingareawithspotsfrom threeprimaryangles: a pair from forward and to the sideplusone frombehind.Wemaymixinalittlefromotherspotsatfrontandsides,butthesearesecondaryanglesoftenusedaswashestoincludeseveralareaswithintheirfocussettings–andaddedonlyintothewider,moreopen,scenes.

AnalternativeTheproblemwiththethree-anglesystemisthreefold.Firstly,diagonalshadowsare thrown in two contrasting directions away from the the actor, making itdifficulttocontrolthelightontheset.Secondly,thethreeangleslightanareaofstage floor considerably in excess of the acting area providedwith good facelighting– and that areaof lit floordoesnot correspondwith the area above itwherefacesarelit.Thirdly,andprobablymostimportant,oncetheangleshavebeen chosen, the compromise between visibility and modelling is fixed. Thebalancebetweenvisibilityandmodellingisoneofthemostimportantfeaturesofdesignedlighting.Indeeditissuchafundamentalpartofthelightingdesigner's‘palette’ that perhapswe ought to aim to have separate angles (from separateinstrumentsonseparatedimmers)forfrontalvisibilityandsidemodelling.

There is an increasing tendency to light with four primary angles with aseparation of 90° between them.With this method, visibility comes from thefrontwhileabacklighthelps toremovetheflatness(N).Ifweneedtoselectatightlycontrolledupstage/downstagecorridorwithoutsidespillage,thisprovidesanacceptablelight.However,sidelightsarenormallyaddedformodelling(O)and,althoughtheywillspreadthelitarea,theycanbeatquitesteepanglessincetheydonotneedtomakeamajorcontributiontovisibility.Bybalancingthesideagainst the front, we can vary the relative stress placed on visibility andmodellingduringtheprogressoftheplay.Wemayalsoaddabitfromside-frontanglesbut thesearesecondaryanglesusedonlywhenwecanafford towidenout theselectedarea forbigscenes.Byusing tertiaryangels forbacklight,wehavethepossibilityofgivingthelightingadirectionalmotivation.

Lightfromfront Lightfromabove

Lightfrombelow Balancedlight

SimplicityItisbecomingobviousfromthisdiscussionthathavingacompletelycontrolledsituationwill require a large series of lights on the actor fromvarious angles.Thisiswhysomeprofessionalproductionshaveverylargelightingrigs.Andsoa timely word of warning. A large palette of lights becomes frighteninglydifficulttouse–andtakesafrighteningamountoftimetobalance.Thecleanestlightingisoftenthesimplest,andsoweneedtosetoutwithpositiveaimsandtrytoachievetheseaimswiththeminimumofequipment.

Someveryexcitinglightingmaybeachievedbyusingonlytwoorthreeverypowerful sources from very carefully selected positions. Perhaps a discharge-lampedfilm-studio light throughawindow,orparlamplightcurtainsbouncingoffawhiteglazedfloor.Forthistosucceedsomeactionmayhavetoberathercarefully choreographed to position the actors in the most advantageouspositions. A few discreet cheat sources may be added to boost the naturalreflectionsofthemajorsources.Butthisshouldbedonewiththegreatestcareinordertoavoidescalationintoabigriginwhichthepositiveadvantageofafewmajorintensesourceswillbelost.

PRACTICALITIESOFPOSITIONING

Weshallbereturningtothesemattersofdesigninlaterchaptersbutmeanwhile,onthebasisofthatoldcliché‘onelampintherightplaceisworthuntoldlampsin the wrong place’, let us consider the practicalities of placing our lightinginstruments in thepositions thatseemtheoretically ideal.Thisproblemdividesitself into two situations: the auditorium and the stage. In the auditorium,architecture is themajor influence on availability of positionswhich thereforetend to remain the same from one production to the next.On stage there is aconflictofinterestsbetweenpositionsforsceneryandlighting:thereforeanewcompromiseusuallyneedstobesoughtforeachproduction.

AuditoriumpositionsAuditoriafallintotwocategories:thosebuiltbeforethedevelopmentofmodernstagelightingandthosebuiltsince.Intheory,thosebuiltin,say,thelastthirtyto

fiftyyearsshouldincludeadequateprovisionformountingspotlightsingood,ifnot always totally ideal, positions.Alas, this is not always so. It is only sinceperhaps theearly1970s thatwehavebeenable to take thisforgranted innewprofessionaltheatres.Andfornewcommunityandschoolhalls,decentlightingpositionsstillmaynotbeassumed.

Moderntheatrearchitectureisatgreatpainsnottostresstheprosceniumarch.Toavoidaframingeffect,theprosceniumisformedbythenaturalterminationof the ceiling and side walls. In such a structure it is relatively easy to formunobtrusivehorizontal lightingpositionswithin theceilingandverticalones inthesidewalls.Ceilingpositionsshould run theentirewidthof theauditorium,with the lights mounted on access bridges where electricians can standcomfortablytofocuswithaclearviewofthestage.Sideslotsshould,asfaraspossible, extend the full height of the wall. They normally need to terminateaboveaudienceheadheight.Thisisnotaproblemsince,aswehavenoted,themajority of lighting angles should be considerably above the horizontal. Theboom in awall slot should have a permanent access ladder and/or a series ofplatforms.If thereisanapronstagethrustingthroughtheproscenium,orif theorchestra pit is likely to be adapted to such use, a third bridge (certainly) andthirdpairofslots(desirable)willberequired.Inthepursuitofintimacy,currenttheatre architecture tends to favour a return to the older practice of hangingaudienceonthesidewallsinwhathasbecomeknownascourtyardformat.Thisrequiresconsiderableingenuityinprovidingsidefohlightingpositions.

In older theatres with a formal proscenium arch, the ceiling is normallyunsuitable for lighting positions, being both too high and too much of adecorativefeature.Howeverthefrontsofcirclesmakepossiblehanging

Anunusualsolutionforaccommodatingspotlightinginanauditorium(NewcastleTheatreRoyal)builtpriortothedevelopmentofmodernstagelighting.Thefrontofthegalleryhasbecomealightingbridgewhich,becauseofthegalleryrake,doesnotimpedethesightline.

Ceilingbridgesandwallslotsincorporatedintothearchitectureofamodernauditoriumprovideaccessiblelightingpositions.(TheatrClwyd,Mold).

positionswiththehighestgallerynormallyprovidingagoodfaceangle.Thisisrarely good in cinematic theatres built between thewars and having only onelowcircle.Sidepositionsaredifficultinoldtheatres;boxescanbeusedbuttheirview of the stage is usually quite restricted. In recent years it has becomecustomarytoerectboomsalmostontheprosceniumarchitselfandtohangabar,knownas an 'advancebar', from the auditoriumceiling close to the topof theproscenium – usually over the orchestra pit or the first row of stalls seating.Whilesuchpositionsareexcellentforlighting, theyhardlyenhanceabeautifuloldauditorium.Someyearsago,whenonlyafewfohspotswerenormal,itwasusual to conceal them in fibrous plaster boxesmatching the auditoriumdecor.However, growth in size of lighting rigs now results in old theatres beingfestooned with lighting. This solution is generally accepted, supported by asizeable school of thought that likes the technology to be exposed. (My ownposition is that while I acknowledge that there are production styles whichrequirealltoberevealed,therearecertainlymanyotherswhichbenefitfromthemeansofmagicbeingmasked.)

Inmulti-purpose halls, provision for foh lighting should bemade by fixingscaffolding (not brackets) from the ceiling and on the side walls. Ladders ofcorrecttypeandheightshouldalwaysbeavailableforaccess.

BackstagepositionsApart from the ‘No. 1SpotBar’ position always required immediatelybehindthe proscenium arch, lighting designers like to be able to keep an openmindaboutwheretheotherlightingbarsshouldbehung.However,theatreswithfastchangeoversbetweenproductionsrequiresomesortofpermanentrigandsospotbarstendtobepositionedapproximatelyevery8feet(2.5metres).Thisenablesreasonably constant angles tobemaintainedon actors throughout thedepthofthe stage. Each spot bar has the possibility of fulfilling two basic functions:providingasculptinglightforactorsstandingunderneathitandafacelightforthose upstage of it. This is discussed in later chapters. In Central Europeantheatres presenting a repertoire with extensive daily changeovers betweendaytimerehearsalsanddifferentproductionseachevening,thereisabridge(orverticalstackofthreebridges)andapairoflightingtowersimmediatelybehindthe proscenium: these give immediate access to all lights which can even berefocusedduringquickscenechangesintheperformance.

Side lightingpositionsarealmost totallyvariable,beingdependentupon thestructureofthescenery,particularlygapsinthesidemasking.Theonlyfeasibleposition for permanent booms is immediately adjacent to the proscenium.Booms and ladders upstage of this are positioned as required for eachproduction,althoughsometheatreshaveladdersmountedinheavydutyslidingtracksundertheflygalleries,allowingtheirpositionstobemovedeasily.Lowlevellights,particularlyfordance,maybemountedonstandsorcastoredtrucks.

FOCUSING

When the lighting instrumentshavebeenplaced in theselectedpositions, theyhave to be adjusted. This process of angling the spotlights and adjusting theirbeamsissometimescalledsettingormoreusuallyfocusing.

Whenwefocusalightonanactorposition,ourprimeconcernistocheckthatthe light covers all the area in which we expect the actor to be lit by thatparticular instrument. I find that the only practical way to do this is tomovearoundpersonallyinthebeamandcheckthatthelightdoeshitme.And,tosavemy eyes, I turnmy back to the light andwatchmy shadow. If there is a full

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shadowofmeplushand(toallowforthefactthatallactorsinmyshowsseemtobe7feettall),Iamlit.Thismethodallowsmetocheckthesecondarypointofconcerninfocusingalight:themessthatthebeamismakingafterithashittheactor.

The troublewithbeamsof light is thatyoucannotcontrol their length.Youcan cut bits out of their sideswith shutters, and you can cut bits out of theirmiddleswithgobos,butyoucannotcutabitoff theendof thebeam.Mostofourlightingisfocusedontheactorsanditwouldbemarvellousifwecouldchopoffthebeamsaftertheyhavepassedtheactorsandbeforetheyhitthescenery.But the light beam passes resolutely on until it hits the scenery with a nastysplodge,oftendrawingaudienceattentionawayfromtheveryactorwhomithasbeendesignedtoilluminate.

What canwe do about this problem? It is notmuch good focusing anotherlight onto the scenery to smooth out the splodge, for the scenery will thenbecome so bright that the actor in front of itwill darken into silhouette.Up apoint on the actor and the shadowagain becomespredominant.Compensatingwithapointmoreonthesceneryandtheactorisbackintosilhouette,escalatinginnotimeatall,intothebrightestdark-spotonthestage.

Muchoftheputtingandpointingoflightsisconcernedwithfindingwaysoflightingtheactorsothattheendofthebeamfallswhereitwilldolittledamage:off-stageoronthefloor,ratherthanonaprominentbitofscenery.Butthiscanbreed a very large rig which often introduces more lighting problems than itsolves–apartfromrequiringanexcessofmoney,timeandspace.

Sowhat canwedo about the actor light that just has to fall on the scenerywhether we like it or not? The technique is ‘clean focusing’ and consistsprincipallyofpayingadequateattentiontotheedgesofthebeam.Therearetwoinescapableruleshere(hownicetofindanoccasionalruleinsuchasubjectivebusinessasstagelighting!):

Softedgesarelessnoticeablethanhard.

Anybeamedges are lessnoticeable if they coincidewith an architecturaledge.

Theeasyroutetosoftedgesisusingafresnelspotbut,inprovidingasoftedge,thefresnelbyitsverynaturethrowsoutanembarrassingamountofscatterlightclosetothelens.Thisscatterlightisparticularlyunwelcomeifbordersarebeingused.Lightshouldbekeptcompletelyawayfromneutralborders,whilepaintedbordersneeda carefullybalanced light.Ouraim is tomake theaudience look

down onto the action, not up at the masking arrangements. PC lens spotsproducemuch less scatter but there is lessmargin for errorwhen overlappingtheir beams in a smooth join.Soft edgeswith virtually no scatter light canbeproducedbyprofilespotsbutthistakesvaluabletimewhichisinshortsupplyinthe schedules ofmost productions (but see note on diffusers below). I wouldtherefore advocate,whenyouare shortof timeor experience (andparticularlywhenshortofboth!), theuseofPCsorfresnelsforactor lightingfromtheon-stage lightingpositions,simplybecausemistakesdon'tshow–orat leastdon'tshowsomuch.

However,withtheexceptionoftheverysmalleststages,thescatterandlackofthrowfromafresnelmakesitunsuitableforuseintheauditorium:fromthispositionwenormallyneedaprofilespot.Itisthesefohspotswhichmaycausethe worst mess on the scenery as a result of the relatively flat lighting anglewhichauditoriumarchitectureoftenmakesinevitable.So,likeitornot,wejusthavetofindtimetofocusthefohwithsoftprecision.Inapermanentinstallation,the foh spots usually do a similar job inmost productions and so they can bepermanently softened. The main problems arise when foh have to be riggedspeciallyforeachshow.

DiffusersApossiblesolutionforquick,easysofteningistheuseofdiffusers,whichhavebecomemoreversatileinrecentyears.‘Frost’filtershavealwaysbeenavailablebut they produce a heavy softening when compared with the range of subtlediffusionfiltersnowmanufactured.Hardfocusingofa

Focusingwithbacktolight

Focusingwithbacktolight

profilespotissimpleandfast–andRosco119and132,orGamfusion10/20and10/30, will soften the whole beam, including its edge without creating anysignificantspill.

Other relativelynewdiffuserswhichhave rapidlybecome indispensable arethe directional types known as ‘'silks’, such as Rosco 104 and 160. Whilediffusingthelight,silksalsostretchitoutinoneplane:byframingthefilteratthe appropriate angle we can elongate the light in whichever direction wechoose.Adirectionaldiffuser isparticularlyusefulwhenworkingwithasmallamountofequipmentbutitcanalsobeveryusefulforgenerallytidyingupthelighting‘look’.

(a)Hardfocused (b)Withdiffuser (c)Withdirectionaldiffuser

Evenafter careful focusing,however,weare still leftwithanedge, albeit asoft one. To make this edge seem natural, it is helpful to line it up with anarchitectural feature of the scenery – door frames, picture frames, etc., arenaturalsonarealisticset.

GobosSomuchfortheedgeofthebeam.Whatabouttheinsideofthebeam?Texturedsurfacestendtobelessobtrusivethanflatsurfacesunderlight.Scenicsurfacesareeasytotexture:indeedsomescenedesignershaveahabitofrushingattheirsetswithhandfulsofgungeandspattersofVandykebrownassoonasIstarttolight.Butitisinterestingtotexturethelightitself.Theobviouswayistouseagobowithirregularholestoproducethequalityoflightthatfallsthroughtrees.Ihave even used such break-up texturing very, very softly inside a ‘Who's forTennis?’ interior settingwithout anyonemuttering about trees. The new glassgobos, suitable only for the new generation profiles with cool gates, offerparticularlydelicatetexturingofthebeam.

Remote-controlledspotlightsAutomated spotlights do not change the need for precise selection of hangingpositions to allow the light to strike actor or scenery at the most appropriateangle.Oncetheinstrumenthasbeenhunginitsfixedposition,focusadjustmentsneednoaccessandsoitiseasytorefinebeamprecisionandqualitythroughouttherehearsalperiod.Butreductioninthenumberofinstrumentsinarigcanonlybe achieved by refocusing when the hanging position of the instrument isappropriate. Full flexibility awaits further development of lights which travel

alongbars.

POSTSCRIPT

Ifmylifeinlightinghashadanyrevelations,IthinkitisthediscoverythatthebetterIfocusthelamps,thefewerthecuesIneed.Icanremembershowswherehalfthecuesconsistedoffiddlingwithlevelsoflightswhichwereuglyonthesceneryandhadtobeupwhentheactorswereinthatareaanddownwhentheywereelsewhere.Icanrememberhourswastedin thestillwatchesof thenight,delicatelybalancingdimmer levels to avoidhardnesson the scenery–only totakeitallupacoupleofpointsnextmorningwhenwehadactors.Istilldoit.

There is an old board operator's saying: ‘If you do it slowly and smoothlyenough,youcangetawaywithmurder’.Theequivalentforfocusingis:‘Ifyousetitsoftlyenough…’

And,returningto thethemeofsimplicity, there isnopoint in indulginginalarge,expensive,multi-instrumentlightingrigunlessadequatetimeisavailableforfocusing.

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COLOUR

Of all the variables in stage lighting, colour is probably the most difficult tocontrol. There is no problem in colouring a single beam, but it is not easy topredictthetotaladditiveeffectofmixingseveralcolouredbeams.

Colour filters are often referred to colloquially as gels, a shortening of theword‘gelatine’fromwhichfilterswereformerlymade.Gelatine,however,isafire-risk and has disappeared into theatrical history along with such othercolouringdevicesastintedglassandlacquer.

All colour filtering is now by non-flammable flexible plastic materialmanufacturedinsheetorrollformundervaryingtradenames.Specialtypesoffilter are designed to withstand the intensity of the newer light sources: suchfiltersareparticularlyusefulforparcansandlinearfloodsbut,withthegeneralincrease in lamp efficiency, they are finding increasing favour as the standardfiltermaterialonprofessionalstages.

Thecolourcontrolofasinglelightisrelativelyeasy:weselectafilterandheypresto!Well, not quite hey presto, because, as a lamp is dimmed, its filamentgrows progressively redder and the light becomes warmer. Pale tints willthereforenoticeablychangecolourasthelightdims,andapalesteelcanbecomequite rosy. This is not necessarily a disadvantage for it can be very useful attimes for a scene to becomewarmer as the brightness is reduced. But it is afactorthathastobetakenintoaccountwhenworkingwithcolourfilters.

The colour from a single light will also depend on the type of lamp. Thedifference between tungsten and tungsten-halogen has turned out to be lessworrying than expected and can almost be ignored for most work. But thedifference between the same filter with a halogen lamp and with a dischargelamp(suchasaCSI,CIDorHMI)canbequitestartlingdue to thevariations,usuallybluer,inthelightemittedbyadischargesource.

FILTERINGCOLOUR

Whenweputafilterinfrontofaspotlightwefeelasifweareaddingcolourtothatlight.‘Putabluein,’wesay,asifwewereaddingblue.But‘Takeoutallcolours except blue’wouldbe amore accurate request.Certainly for a deeplysaturatedblue.Forapalerbluewemightsay,‘Takeoutallcoloursexceptalltheblue, someof thegreenanda traceofeverythingelse.’Or foradifferentpalebluetint,‘Leaveonlyalltheblue,someoftheredandabitofeverythingelse.’Itisimportanttorememberthatwhenweplaceafilterinfrontofalightwearetakingcolouraway—filteringitout.Filteringemphasisescertaincoloursinthespectrumbyremovingtherest.

Unfiltered light (usually called ‘openwhite’) contains all the colours in thespectrum (or of the rainbow if you prefer a more romantic approach!). Bypassing this light through a filter, we are not colouring the light, but areremoving(i.e.filteringout)theothercolours.Thusadeepredprimaryfilterwillremoveeverythingexcepttheredpartofthespectrum:thatis,itwillletthroughonlythered.Apalerredfilterwillletthroughalltheredandsomeoftheothercolours.Apalerosytintwillletthroughalltheredandquitealotoftheothercolours.

Thisabilityofpalefilterstoletthroughacertainamountoftheothercoloursis very important. Materials, whether painted scenic canvas, dyed costumefabric,actorflesh,orwhatever,willonlyrespondsympatheticallytolightunderone condition: in thematerial theremust be some pigment of the same basiccolourasthelight.Ifasceneispaintedcompletelyinbluepigments, it isverydifficult toget it to light to a satisfactorywarm.Certainly,pouring lotsof redrosylightontosuchascenewillmakeitappearsortofwarm;butitwillbeacolourresponsewithnolife.Foravibrantresponse, theremustbesomewarmpigmentpresent.Thiswarmpigmentneednotbeobtrusive:itcanbejustalittlespatter which will only respond when there are warm tints in the light.Therefore,scenepaintingwithabuilt-uptextureofsuperimposedpigmentwilltendtorespondwelltocolourvariationsinthelight.Similarly,costumesusuallyrespondbetterwhenthematerialtextureisshotwithtracesofseveralpigments.Becausepalefiltersletthroughaproportionofallcolours,therewillalwaysbesomesortofresponsefromall thepigmentsinsceneandcostumeswhenpalertintedlightisused.Itneedhardlybepointedoutthatfleshtones,particularlyanactor'sface,onlylookwellinthepalesttints.

The more a filter removes colours from the light, the more that filter willemphasise thepigmentswhich respond to thecolours remaining in the filteredlight.However,theuseofincreasinglydeepfilters,whileleadingtoincreasinglypositive colour statements, is also likely to produce a deadening of the visualeffect due to any lesser pigmentswhichmaybepresent being starvedof theircoloursinthelight.Thusthepalertintsaregenerallythemostsympatheticfilterssince, in addition to passing all of their particular colour, they pass varyingamountsoftheremainderofthespectrum.

COLOURMIXING

Themajordifficultyofcolourcontrol ispredicting justwhatcolourwill resultfromtheadditionoftheseveralcolourbeamshittingaparticularpartofthestagefromaseriesofangles.

Lightmixingworks ratherdifferently frompaintmixing.Mixassortedpaintpigmentstogetherandyouwillgraduallymovetowardsblack;mixthethreetrueprimariesandyouwillactuallygetblack.Ifyoumixtogethercolouredbeamsoflight from different lamps, you will move towards white and if you add thelighting primaries together, you will get white light. This is additive colourmixingoflight.

Ontheotherhand,themixingoffilters,ratherthantheresultantlight,worksin a subtractive way. Mixing assorted filters in front of one instrument willgraduallymove its light towards black (i.e. no light). Place the three primaryfiltersinfrontofthesameinstfrumentandyouwillgetnolight.

CHOOSINGCOLOUR

Colourchoice,likeeverythingelse,stemsfromdecisionsaboutproductionstyle.Howarewegoingtousecolourinaparticularproduction?Arewegoingtouseitatall?Isitgoingtobeawhitelightshowwherewetrytoachieveouraimsintermsofdirection and intensity alone?Or is it going tobe apurewhite showusingonlyvariations indirection?Orperhapsawhiter thanwhiteshowwherethereisnovariationinanyofthecontrollablevariables?

The simplestmotive for using coloured light on the stage is to enhance the

look of the scenery, costumes and actors. This could be, for example, just astraightforwardwarmingtoprovideasympatheticrosycosyglowforacomedy.OraddingthedelicategreysteeltintswhichprovidedBrechtwithhisclearwhitelight.(Unfilteredopenwhitelightbeingratherwarm,Brecht,likethedetergentmanufacturers,adoptedthetraditionallaundrytechnologyofthebluebagwhichmakeswhiteswhiterthanwhite.)

However,lightisusuallycolouredtoprovideameansnotonlyofestablishinganatmospherebutalsoofcontrollingthatatmosphereduringthetimesequenceof the performance. This is done bymixing colours. Perhaps themost classiccaseisthedouble-coveringofactingareasinaplaywithtwosetsofspotlights,onecolouredcoolandtheotherwarm,sothattheemotionaltoningofthescenecanbevariedasthedramaunfolds.

Theresponsesofthehumaneyeandbraintendtoberelative.Inthefirstfewmoments of the performance, we establish our colour palette. If we establishcool andwarmasbeingvery slightdigressions to either sideofneutralwhite,then very soon the audience perception will adjust to this subtle difference.Alternatively, if we establish quite heavy saturated contrasts in the openingminutes,thiswillsetthescaleofaudienceresponseandtheywillbelesslikelytoreacttosubtledifferencesincolourtone.

Ifwedecidetousecolour,willitbevariationsofsubtletints?Orslam-bam-wham contrasts of saturated primaries? Or shall we use tints for the realisticscenes andmove into contrasts for a dream sequence?Does cool/warmmeansad/happy?Ordoesitmeanmorning/evening?Orabitofboth?Orwhat?Andsoon: thefirstdecisionmustbe todeterminewhatrolecolourwillplay in theproductionstyle.

Whenthishasbeendecided,youthenneedtochooseagroupofcoloursfromthe available ranges. Or if there is nothing that takes your fancy, concoct asubtractivemixturebyputtingtwofiltersinthesameframe.Inearlyattemptsatusingcolour, it isprobablybetter to avoid subtractivemixingof two filters asmuch as possible; keep the number of variables to a minimum. Even veryexperiencedlightingdesignersarereluctanttousetwofiltersinthesameframe,ifonlybecausetheyfadeandburnoutmuchfaster.

Chooseasmallgroupoffilters.Havejustacoupleofblues,acoupleofpinks— or perhaps three. Certainly not a different colour for each and everyinstrumentintherig.Selecttheonestowhichthesetandcostumeswillrespond.Ifthesethasgreeny-bluepigments,thenchoosegreeny-bluesforyourcools.If

thesetbluesarewarmandpurply,thenthatisthecluetothecoolfilterchoice.

Forthefacelightsinaplaywemightchooseapairoftintswhichwillmixtoprovideasubtlerangefromapalestcoolsteelthroughneutraltoaslightlywarmgolden rose.Whereas, for the atmospheric sculpturalwashes in amusical,wemightoptforarangeofmiddlesaturationpink,blueandamberwhichwillofferseveralquitecolourfulcombinationsyetalsoadduptoanear-whiteneutral.

Filtermanufacturersissuesamplebookswithpiecesoftheactualfilter.Holdthefilteruptothelightandstudythecolourofthelightcomingthrough.Shinecoloured light from a spot (or even a pocket torch) onto the design, paint orfabricandnotetheresponse.

Colour filters are known by numbers which rarely run in logical sequence.Nor is there much correspondence between the numbers of onemanufacturerandanother.Rumourhas it that an international committeedebated, at regularintervalsforseveralyears, thedesirabilityofauniversalnumberingsystemforcolourfilters.Theyarereportedtohavegivenupondiscoveringthatanine-digitnumberwouldberequiredtocodifyallthefinevariationspossible.

Neutralsarevery important.Cinemoid36pale lavender, is the long-runningclassic—as‘surprisepink’itrevolutionisedfacelightingfiftyyearsago—buthas now givenway to thewider range of lavenders. The particular joy of theneutrallavendersisthattheytendtoappearwarmorcoolaccordingtowhetherothercoloursusedonstagearepredominantlywarmorcool.

Correctionfiltersareausefuladditiontotherangesinrecentyears.Thesearevery subtle tints which adjust the quality of the whiteness of the light,particularlyforfilmandvideowhichareverysensitiveto‘colourtemperature’—the inherentspectralcolourof thevarious lightsourceswhichrangefromahigh proportion of red to a high proportion of blue. Correction filters areparticularlyusefulonthestageforaddingthattinypinchofbluewhichwhitensalightandenhancesitsclarity.

LightingdarkerskintonesWith darker skins some aspects of face lighting become more difficult whileothers become easier. Character projection in a theatre, dependent upon clearvisibilityofeyesandteeth,ishelpedconsiderablybytheircontrastwithdarkerskin. But strong contrast between light clothing and dark skin can lose faces.Light absorbed rather than reflected by darker facesmay seem a problem but

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absorbedlightbringsthebonusofanenrichedqualitytotheskinandunderlyingbone structure.Maximising gains andminimising losses requires considerableliaison with costume and scene designers, and particular care with angles,texturesanddiffusion.Butthemajorareaforcareisfilterchoice.Blueisdangerousandgreenlethal,

turningblackskintoanunbecomingputty.Greenscanbeavoidedbutapalettewithoutbluecanbeverylimiting.Thetechniqueistoavoidgreen-bluesandoptfor blues with high red content. Blue toning can be injected through heavybacklightingandcarefulsidelighting,withfaceneutralsselectedfrompalewarmtints which can with advantage be stronger than is usual for white actors.Consequentlywithmixedcastingaslightwarming-upofwhiteactors'make-upisusuallynecessary.

FILTERCHOICE

Thekeytosuccessfulfilterchoice is todevoteasmuchconcernto thecolourswhicharebeing filteredout as to the colourswhicharebeingallowed topassthrough.Andsowetrytochoosefilterswhichpass:

• a lot of the main colour that we wish to emphasise for atmosphericeffect,plus•someoftheothercoloursappropriateforstimulatingavibrantresponse.

AprocessforfilterchoiceLikeeverythingelseinlighting,wehavetodecidethevisualeffectwewanttoachieve and then find a technical means of doing it. There is a progressionthroughfourkeyquestionsrequiringanswers:

Howiscolourtobeusedinthisproduction?

Toenhancetheclarityofwhitelight?

To enhance the visual quality of the performers and their stageenvironment?

To support the progress of the action with appropriate changes ofatmosphere?

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Or?

Hownaturalisticwillthecoloursbe?

Approximatingtosunshine,moonshine,andchandeliers?

Considerablyheightenedbutstillwithanaturallogic?

Non-naturalistic?

Or?

Howcontrastywillthecolourpalettebe?

Delicatetints?

Strongtones?

Heavysaturates?

Or?

Whatarethecolourcharacteristicsofthesetandcostumedesigns?

Dothecoolstendtowardsblueswithagreenishorreddishcontent?

Dothewarmstendtowardspinksorgolds?

Or?

ThefilterpaletteSuch a questioning process enables a gradual narrowing of choice towards arelativelysmallpaletteoffiltersappropriatefortheproduction.Theselectionofspecificfilternumbersismadewiththeaidofswatchbooks.Someswatchbookslist filters by their numbers,while others group them in colour families.Mostmajor manufacturers offer both options. Numerical listing assists filtermanagement – finding, cutting and framing – because colours are alwaysreferred to by numbers, both on plans and in conversation. However whenpreparingalightingdesignitislogicaltochoosefirstthecolour,thenthedepthofsaturationandfinallytheappropriateshade.

DICHROICFILTERS

Conventional colour filters work by absorption – i.e. they hold back theunwanted colours in the spectrum. This process gradually destroys the filterwhose life decreases rapidly in proportion to the increasing brightness fromhigher-powered lights. Dichroic colour filters work by reflection – i.e. theyreflectawaytheunwantedcolours.Althoughdichroicfiltersareverymuchmoreexpensive thanconventional filters, theyhaveamuch longer life.Theycanbewashedwith standard dish-washing detergent solutions and retain their colourstabilityforyears.Theirefficiencyproducescolourswhichareclearer,brighterandpurer.ThispuritymaybesomethingofanAchilles'heel:itistheimpuritiesin traditional filters which often allow materials or flesh to respond, and sodichroics probably require rather more subtle mixing. Perhaps their mostimportantadvantagefortheatreistheirextremeresistancetoheat.

Itisthisfeaturewhichenablesdichroicfilterstobeusedinadvancedremotelymicroprocessor-controlled instruments to produce, by colour mixing, a wide,almostcontinuous,paletteofcolours.Thisheatresistanceallowsthemnotonlytobepositionedinsidehigh-powereddischarge-lampspotlightsbuttobeplacedsoclosetothelightsourcethatsmallfilterscanbeorganisedintocolour-mixingcombinations.

Wecanthereforeselectaprecisecolourforourlights,notbychoosingafilter,but by ‘painting’ from the lighting control desk. In addition to selecting theintensity for each light in each cue, we have the option of choosing (andrecording)anyprecisecolour.

DIMENSIONALCOLOUR

The dimensional quality of light can be helped by using different filters fromeither side. A slight contrast in colour between left and right makes for anincreasedappearanceofplasticityintheactororobjectlit.Asanalternativetocolourvariation,plasticitymaybeincreasedbyavariationinintensitybetweenone side and the other. Because intensity and colour interact, a variation inintensity will also produce a variation in colour. If we are not careful, thecontrastbetweenthetwosidescanbecometoogreat.Personally,Iprefertouseavariationinintensityratherthanavariationincolour.Suchanintensitybalanceoftengrowsnaturallyoutofthewaythatthelightdirectionismotivatedbyakeysource.Howeverwhenthestyledemandsanevenlightfromallsides,orwhenonly a minimum amount of equipment is available, colour balance can be a

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usefulwayofincreasingthedimensionalplasticityofactorandscene.

THREE-COLOURMIXING–AHISTORICALPOSTSCRIPT

The additive mixing of the three primaries to achieve any desired shade hasbecome an obsolescent, if not completely obsolete, method of using colouredlight.Forlightingactors,itisatechniquebelongingtoabygoneeraofcoveringthe stage in a flat washing flood of light from battens and footlights. Thesebatten and footlightswere, ideally, in four colours: the three primaries of red,green, and blue tomake the colour, plus white to control the dilution of thatcolour.Foreconomyreasons,Britishtheatreswereoftenequippedwithathree-coloursystemwithoutthewhite.Becausethisdidnotgiveabrightenough‘full-up’,thegreenwasusuallyremovedtogiveared,whiteandbluemix:thismayhave demonstrated the patriotismwhichwas always a strong feature ofmusichall,butitproducesaratherlimitedrangeofcolourpossibilities.

Despite the passing of this type of colour mixing, variety artists still writeplotsintermsof‘redstage’,‘bluestage’,‘colours’,and‘full-up’.Red,blueandcolourstranslatereadilyinto‘warm’,‘cool’,and‘pretty’,whilethemeaningoffull-upisclear,evenifitdoesnotnormallyinvolvebringingeverylighttofull.

Three-colourmixingpractice lasted longeron cycloramaswhere flooding isthenaturalmethodoflighting.Primariesorsecondariesattopandbottomcouldproduceanycoloursrequiredbut

itisawastefulwayofgettingpalecoloursandovera longcrossfade, it isdifficult tokeepthecolours inbalanceas theymove.

The starting and finishing states may be exact, but the cyclorama can passthrough some rather devastating colours on the way. It has therefore becomenormalpracticeforcycloramalightingtochooseaseriesoffilterscloselyrelatedtotherangeofcoloursrequiredforaparticularproduction.Ascycloramasaresooftenused inaskysense, thereareusuallyat least twoblues ina three-colourmixat the top and twoblues in a three-colourmix at thebottom.Togive thecyclorama that extra illusion of depth which comes from a fine gradation ofcolour, thebluesat thebottomshouldbesubtlydifferent tints,usuallyslightly

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paler,fromthosechosenforthetop.

FILTERTIPS

Neverchooseafilterbyitsname.Lookatthecolourofthelighttransmittedthroughitbyholdingasampleuptolight.Or,betterstill,trytheeffectbyshiningfilteredlightonapieceofsceneryorapieceofcostumefabricoranactor'sface.Orifthesetandcostumeswillbeexecutedfaithfullyfromthedesigns,experimentwithfiltered lighton thedrawingsand/ormodels.Oureyewilltelluswhichfiltersproducethemostsympatheticresponse.

Beware,also,thenamesofcolour-correctionfilters.Thesedescriptionsaremoreaccurateforfilmandvideothanforthehumaneye.Thenamesofferanindicationbutdecisionshouldbebasedonexperimentjudgedbyeye.

Rememberthatalotoflightisreflectedfromscenicsurfaces.Consider,inparticular,theconsequencesofastronglycolouredfloor.

Inchoosingafilter,itisrelativelyeasytopredicttheeffectofasinglelight.Butpredictionof theeffectof severaloverlapping filtered lights isnot soeasy.Fortunately,however,theireffectisadditive.Thatis,whilefilteringalight removes parts of the spectrum, an overlap of various colours fromvarious filtered lights will tend to put the spectrum together again. Sooverlappingofcolouredlightsmovesustowardsanear-whiteneutrality.

Blueswithagreencontentcanberatherunbecomingonactors'faces:trytoavoidinextendedmoonlightscenes.

Lavenders are particularly sympathetic to faces. They also have theuniquely useful quality of not only blending well with other lights buttaking on something of their character: thus they tend to appearwarmorcoldaccordingtothepredominanttrendofthecolouringoftheotherlights.

Thehighintensityofthelightproducedbyparcansallowsuseofthemostheavily saturated filters. Note that the colour from a parcan will beconsiderably paler than the light from a conventional lens spotlight ofsimilarwattage.

Ifatmosphericcolourisconcentratedinthebacklightsandsomeofthesidelighting, neutrals and pale tints can be used from the front to provide avisibility which is sympathetic to face and costume without diluting the

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overallcoloureffect.

Aslightcolourdifferentialbetweenleftandrightsidescanbeusedtohelpincrease the sculptural modelling of an actor. This can be particularlyvaluable if dimmer sharing prevents directional keying by means of anintensityimbalance.

When using break-up gobos to texture the light, slightly different gels inoverlappinginstrumentswillincreasethedepthofthetexture.Italsohelpstousesplitcoloursineachspot(i.e.twohalf-sizepiecesoffilterbutt-joinedintheframe).

A floor which has a fine spatter of paint colour will be much moreresponsivetofilteredlightthanaplainfloor.Thisisparticularlysowithablackfloor.

It is difficult to lightwhite cycloramas to a dark blue.Cyc cloths shouldhaveaverypalebluepigmentationwhichwillaidresponsetobluelightbutnotupsetresponsetotherestofthespectrum.

Use slightly different blues at the bottomof a sky from those at the top.Normally theseshouldbeslightlypalerat thebottombutevenwhen theyhavethesamesaturation,adifferenceintintproducesagradationofcolourup the cloth, enhancing the feeling of horizon andmaking the sky seemdeeperandfurtheraway.

Colour-changingmechanisms (wheels, scrollers etc.) enable us to changethefilterinalightbyremotecontrol,buttheydonotremovetheneedfordouble-coveringwithtwinnedlightsforcrossfadingandpalette-mixing.

Inevitably, this isa limitedandperhapsratherpersonalviewofcolour,offeredonly as a possible starting point for anyone about to make their own firstexperiments. The subject will continue to arise, of course, in later chaptersdiscussingthelightingofdifferentformsofproduction.

8____________________

FIRSTSTEPSINLIGHTINGDESIGN

Wehavediscussedpossible aims in lighting.Wehave lookedat thehardwareavailablefortheproductionofcontrolledlightonthestage.Wehaveconsideredhowthisequipmentcanbemountedandhowitcanbefedwithelectricity.Wehave debated the effect of the direction of the light hitting an actor and theconsequences of subtracting part of the spectrumwith colour filters.We nowcometothecrunch:howdowebringallthistogetherintheprocessoflightingdesign?Justhowdoesonestartwhenfacedwithabarestage?

Before considering the formal process of lighting a show, let us look at thesimplest possible situation. Starting with just one spot, one cable, and nodimmers, letus seehowwecanbuildupaneffectiveuseof, say, the first teninstruments.Apart from theoretical considerations,youmaywell have to lightanactualshowwithsucharestrictedamountofequipment.Ihavecertainlyhadtodoit—anditcanbefun.

Wearemovingawayfromobjectivescientific facts intoanareaofpersonalpreferencewherenotwoindividualsarelikelytoagreewholeheartedly.Theatre,like all art forms, includes a large measure of personal subjective response.There is no absolute objective standard for good lighting, just as there is noabsoluteobjectivestandardforgoodacting.So,as this isapersonalopinion, Ishallwriteasifthinkingaloud.

I hope that nobody has to start as low down the scale as step one, but ifanyonedoes,thereisonlyonelighttoacquireandoneplacetoputit.Thespotisafresnel,andthepositioniscentreintheauditoriumceiling(A).Thedistanceofthespotfromthestagewilldependonthewidthoftheactingareaandthebeamangleofthespotlight.Ifweknowtwoofthesewecancalculatethethird.The

(1)

(2)

simplestmethod is todrawthesituationatasuitablescalesuchas1/4 in. to1foot (or 1:50 if you aremetricated).Knowing the spread andbeam throw, therequiredbeamanglecanbereadoffwithaprotractor(B).Orknowingthebeamangleofanavailablespot(fromthe

manufacturer'scatalogue),thespreadoflightfromanythrowcanbediscovered.Ifnomanufacturer'scatalogueisavailable,usemytechniqueforgettingtoknowequipment:whenanewspotlighthitsthemarket,Imayoftenbeseenassessingitsthrowbywanderingaroundatheatrewiththethingtuckedundermyarm,andatrailingcablecreatinghavocinmywake.Butalwaysrememberthat

mostspotlightsarelesseffectivewhenusedtotheirlimitsofmaximumandminimumbeamangleandall spotlights can be spotted down from their maximum but not floodedbiggerthanit.

So choose a slightly wider spread than your calculations suggest. Or, if youalreadyhavethespotlight,placeitalittlefurtherawayfromthestagethanseemstheoreticallycorrect.

However,theprobleminplacingspotlightsintheauditoriumisnotsomuchone of deciding theoretically good positions but finding positions which arearchitecturally possible while being remotely suitable. In small halls, theproblemisusuallyoneofinsufficientheight.Ifthelighthitstheactorsatanearhorizontal angle itwill have, to put itmildly, a flattening effect.When actorsfacetheaudience,theireyeswillhavenodepthandtheirnoseswillnotstickout,a problemwhich increases with the distance between actor and audience andthereforenotsovitalinatinyhall.Abiggerproblemwithhorizontallightinginanysizeofauditoriumisthattheshadowswillbelifesize.Astheangleoflightincreases, the shadowswill decrease until the pointwhere the light is comingverticallyfromabovetheactorandtheshadowisallcontainedwithintheareaoftheactor'sfeetandisthereforebarelynoticeable.Butsuchaverticallight,ifthe

only source, plays havoc with the face: eyes become black sockets and thehighlightednose assumesCyranodeBergerac proportions.Fewactors use thenoseasaprincipalmeansofdramaticexpression,andtheirmainactingfeatures—eyesandmouth—areindarkness.Thecompromiseangle,betweenverticaland horizontal, to produce visible, sculptured actors, with a shadow ofproportionsthattheycandominate,issomewherewithintherangeof30°–60°.

Wehavethereforepositionedourlightwithaviewtoattemptingfulfilmentoftwoofthebasicrequirementsforstagelighting:tomaketheactionvisibleandtomake it as sculptural as possible.Andwe have our priorities right by puttingvisibility first and foremost: there is no point in actors acting if the audiencecannotseethem.Withonlyonesourcewearehardlyinapositiontouselighttocontrol atmosphere, although if the play were generally cheerful I wouldprobablyput inabitofpale rose,and if itweresad I shouldgo for thepaleststeeltint.

Lightisanimportantwayofselectingtheaudience'svisionandconcentratingtheirattentionuponthedramaticallysignificantareaofthestage.Withbutonespot, selection is limited to differentiation between stage and auditorium.ThismayseemobviousbutIhaveknownsmalltheatreswithquitelargelightingrigswherethiswasnotachievedandlightspilledallover theprosceniumarch, theaudience and even the auditorium walls. Our single spot must therefore befocusedcarefullysothatthelightiscontainedwithinthestagepicture;ifatallpossible,thespotshouldhaveabarndoortoshapethebeambecauseifweselectapositionof the focusknob togivesufficientwidth,weshallalmostcertainlyhave toomuchheight; and theheight of the light shouldbenohigher than tocatchtheheadofanactorstandingatthebackoftheactingarea.

If I had two spots only, I would place them in the auditorium ceiling butwouldusepositionstowardsthesideoftheauditoriumratherthaninthecentre(C). If the width between the side walls were not a great dealmore than theprosceniumopening,Iwouldputthelightsonthesewalls,butiftheauditoriumwereverywide,Iwouldtrytochooseceilingpositionsjustalittlefurtherapartthantheprosceniumopening.

All our light is still coming from the front and the scene will therefore beratherflatbut,becausetheactorsarereceivinglightfrombothsides,theywillbealittlebitmoresculptedthanwhenwehadonespotonly.Wecanincreasethisdimensionaleffectbyputtingslightlydifferenttintsinthespots:perhapsgoldinone spotandpalegold in theother—orpossibly rose inoneandgold in theother. Or, if it is a cold situation, steel in one and steel tint in the other.Alternative possibilities are gold and open white (i.e. no colour) or steel andopenwhite. It is all amatter of experiment: indeed, playingwith a couple ofspotsandabundleofgelsisthebestwaytofindoutaboutcontrollingthecolourofthestagepicture.

With spot number three, it is time to go backstage and perhaps time tointroduceakeyintothelighting:Ilikelighttohavemotivation.Thismotivationneed not be a logical source such as moon, sun or a practical light fitting,because it all depends on the style of the particular show. It could be a spotshining through awindow or it could be just a spot providing a crosslight orbacklight (D). Experiment — but remember the remarks about light in ourdiscussionofspotlightnumberone.

Backto thechecklist!This lampisreallygoingtostartdoingsomethingforsculpturalmodelling,andbychangingcoloursduringtheshow(thinkofaccesswhenyouposition the lamp)wecanstartgettingatmosphereundercontrol. Ifwearebuildinguparigbybuyingequipment,itisnowtimetoacquireourfirst

profilespotwhichwillgiveusmoreaccuratecontrolof thebeam,andwecanalwaysgetinterestingeffectssuchasleafdapplesbycuttingshapesinfoilandinsertinginthegateslot(notinthecolourframerunners!)Anotherwayofdealingwiththreespotsistohaveonlyoneintheauditorium,

and use the other two focused across the stage from positions immediatelybehind the proscenium. On the whole, I prefer the two out front, but stagelightingisfullofdiscoveriesbasedontrialanderror—anditisonlywhenyouhave such a small amount of equipment that you have time available forexperiment.

IfIhadfourspotsonly,intheinterestsofbalanceIwouldprobablyplacetwofoh spots in the auditorium and the other pair immediately behind theprosceniumtolightacrossthestage(E).Keepthemhighish,becauseapartfromconsiderations of sculpting the actors and keeping their shadows short, if thespotsare too lowoneactorwill tend tocutoff light fromanother. (Onlyverysensitiveactorscanuse light toupstage their fellows: insensitiveactorscannotevenfindthelight!)

Bythetimeweareusingfourspots,Iwouldfavourhavingallfohasprofiles.This has rightly become standardpractice because it enables us to contain thelightwithintheprosceniumarchandtotrimtheedgesquiteaccuratelybymeansof the shutters.Moreover, profile spots have less spill outside themain beamand,afterall,itistheactorsthatwewishtolight,nottheaudience.CertainlyIhave suggested earlier that the first two spots should be fresnels, but in adesperatesituation(andyoucannotgetmoredesperatethanlightingaplaywithoneortwospots!)thefresnelhasmorewidthtoitsbeamandismucheasiertoadjust.

With these four spots we have just the beginnings of selectivity: not theselectionofclear-cutareasbutwecouldconcentrateattentionononesideofthestageortheother—ifwehaddimmers.Whendowestartintroducingdimmersinto the scheme of things? If it is a question of buying, not yet. Renting?Probably not yet. Borrowing? Yes, provided that it is not a case of dimmersversusextraspots.Ithinkthatspendingmoneyondimmingisrelativelyunwiseuntilyouhaveabout six spots.Unless,perhaps,youareproducingnineteenth-centuryromanticopera.Havespotnumberfiveinsteadanduseitforsun,moonorsimilardirectionalstatement(F).

Number six could go centre, immediately behind the proscenium (G).Withtwocrossingspots,youarealmostcertaintohaveadarkholeinthemiddle:so

focusthenewspotstraightupthecentreofthestage.Perhapsnotdeadcentreforfixingorfocus;thatwilldependontheshapeoftheset.Withsomedimmersyoucouldnowgetincreasedcontrolofselectionoftheareaofstagethatyouwouldlike the audience to look at.Andas for visibility—well, thenumberof darkholesshouldbedecreasing.

Spotsevenisarealbreakthrough(H).FourspotsbehindtheprosceniumandwecanreallystarttalkingaboutNo.1SpotBarwithoutblushing!IfwenumberthespotsA,B,CandD,anactorstandingontheOP(actor'sright)sideofthestagewouldbelitbyspotsAandC,whileanactorstandingonPS(actor'sleft)would be lit byB andD.These spotswill not domuch for an actor standingimmediatelyunderneath them,but thispositionwill be lit from the foh.Whenwehaveonlyafewspots,thedutyofthespotbaristoprovidevisibilityupstage.

Andyes,youarequiteright,theonstagelightingisnowgettingoutofbalancewiththefoh,sospotnumbereightshouldgooutintothe

auditorium(J).Placeitcentrewhereitcanfillthegapbetweenthetwosidefoh,whichforarchitecturalreasonshaveprobablyhadtobepositionedtoofartothesides.Andspotnumberninecouldbefohalso(K),sothatwecancarryonwithour aim of lighting the actor from both sides to give as much sculpting aspossible.IfwelabelthesefourfohasW,X,YandZ,actorswhowerelitbyAandCupstagewillbelitbyWandYwhentheycomedownstage.Ifthiswereaninteractiveprogramme,thenextquestionwouldbe‘whatlightsanactorstepping

downstagefromBandD?’

But this is not a definitive factual recipe for lighting: it is just one lightingdesigner's thoughts and anyonewho has reached spot number ten by practicalexperimentwillbesofullofideasthattheywillhavedozensofpossibleusesforit.Ithinkitisquitelikelythatitwillfinduseasanotherkeylight:perhapsonefrom each side of the stage, or perhaps two keys from the same side with adifferenceofcolourordirectionalquality.Withourtenspots(L),wehavequiteanadaptablerig.Ifthestagerequirestovaryatmosphericallyintermsofwarmandcooltones,wecouldsplitourlampsintopinksandblues,orwecouldhavemainlypinkswithjustafewblues,orperhapssomeneutrals.Therearealotofpossibilities and much of the detail will be a personal response. But not toopersonal:thelightmustberelevanttotheproductionstyle.

9____________________

THELIGHTINGDESIGNPROCESS

Whateverthescaleofoperation,lighting,likeanyotherdesignprocess,isbasedupona sequenceof logicalmanagementdecisionswhichprovide a frameworkforcreativeimaginationtoflourish.Ideasdevelopinadesigner'ssubconscious,plantedthereinthelongtermbytheexperienceoflookingatlifethroughtheirownandotherpeopleseyesand,moreimmediately,byimmersioninthedetailsof the particular production currently under design. It is inevitable that manycreativedecisionswill be illogical (that'swhatmakes themcreative!) but theyhavetobetakeninalogicalsequence.

THELIGHTINGDESIGNER

Someonehas tobe inchargeof the lightingprocessandisnormallycalledthelighting designer. This lighting designer is not some rather grand personwhoappears towards the end of the rehearsals and implies: ‘Right! You, Director,have done your production bit and you, Designer, have done your scenic bit.Stand aside and Iwill light the result of your (pathetic) efforts!’ The lightingdesigner is part of the production team, indeed an important contributingmemberofthatteam:butthedirectormusthavetheultimatedecision.Theonlywaytogetshowsoff thegroundis toappointdirectors,give themdictatorshippowers, and fire them if things donotworkout.Gooddirectors do not flaunttheir dictatorship powers. They need to be hypersensitive to human feelingsbecause theyhave tobeable todrawcreativityoutofpeople.But the lightingdesignermustbepreparedtogivethedirectorwhateverthedirectorwants,evenif the lighting designer can hardly bear to look at the result. In practice, a

lightingdesigner is likely to say, ‘Right, I'll certainlydo it thatway,butdon'tyoufeelthatitwill…?’Ifthereasoningisconvincinglyargued,itwillprobablycarry the day— but good lighting designers, like good directors, have to bestudentsofhumannature.

Thelightingdesignermay,ofcourse,be thedirector.Or thescenedesigner.Orthestagemanager.Andisveryoftenthechiefelectrician.Butthereisalottobegainedfromhavingaseparatepersonforthejob.Apartfromthedirectorandscene designer having quite enough problems without getting involved in thenitty-grittydetailsof lighting, there isoftenaconflictof interestbetween lightfortheactorandlightforthescene.Theinevitablecompromiseisprobablybestarrivedatbyathirdperson.

Stage management is difficult to combine with lighting because stagemanagement is essentially a backstage task, whereas lighting requires a viewfromthefront.Thereismuchtobegainedfromthechiefelectriciandoublingaslightingdesigner: theirwork isveryclosely integrated.But it ishelpful ifoneperson can concentrate on deciding what ought to happen, while anotherconcentrates on making it happen. Moreover, unless the production companyowns the theatre, the electrician's responsibility will be primarily towards thetheatre, while the lighting designer is concerned with the requirements of theproduction.

Whateverthedistributionofdutiesinaparticularsituation,someonemustbein charge. Let us call that person a lighting designer and follow the designprocessthroughtheireyes.

DESIGNPROCEDURE

TextstudyTheplayscriptormusicscoreisthestartingpoint.Beforeanyinitialdiscussionswiththeothermembersoftheproductionteam,thelightingdesignershouldreadthescriptatleasttwice,firstforoverall‘feel’andthenfordetail,concentratingonthedialogueratherthanonstagedirectionswhichthedirectormayignore—especiallythoseinan‘actingedition’.Foraworkwithmusic,thescorewillbelistened to until absorbed.This text studywill stimulate ideas but the lightingdesignerwilltrytokeepaveryopenmindatthispoint.

DiscussionsJust how early the lighting designer should be involved in the productionplanningprocesswilldependonthetypeofshow.Forastraightforwardcomedyorwhodunit, there is littleneed for lighting involvement in complexdecisionsaboutpreciselywherethesofashouldbeinrelationtothewindow,orindeedthecolourofthesofacushions.Butit isessentialthatthelightingdesignerseethescenedesignbeforeconstructionstarts. Inprofessional theatre, the final scenicdesign is almost always a scale model and this should be more common inamateurtheatre.Itismucheasierforeveryone,especiallydirectorandactors,to‘read’amodelthansketches.Thelightingdesignermaybeabletosuggestminormodifications which will simplify a lighting problem. On a model such amodification can be made quickly, easily, and cheaply, with a penknife; onfinishedsceneryitrequirestools,timeandmoney.

Iftheproductionisinanystyleotherthananaturalisticinterior,thelightingshouldbeconsideredmuchearlier.Thedirectoranddesignerwillnodoubthavea series of discussions at which ideas will gradually develop: the lightingdesigner should be present for parts of some of these discussions.Apart fromensuringthatlightisconsideredasanintegralpartoftheproductionratherthansomethingtobegraftedonlater,thelightingdesignerisusuallywelcomeasanoccasional third opinion on the progress of the production's concept. It needhardlybepointedoutthatthereisnowelcomeatthesediscussionsforthetypeoflightpersonwhohasaone-trackmindaboutlightingproblemsandanegativeattitudetoteamsolutions.Bucketsofcoldwaterareoutofplaceinproductionplanning, should be applied very occasionally and only as a last resort.Constructivecreativethinkingmustbetheorderoftheday.

Mostproductionproblemsintheatresarisefromcommunicationdifficultiesofone kind or another. In lighting design they arise from the necessity of usingwordstodescribevisualsituations.Visualcommunicationbetweenthedirectorand the design team is helped enormously when scene designers draw storyboardsshowing thesequenceofhow thevariousscenicelementsareusedandgivingsomeindication,howeverimpressionistic,oftheirvisionofthelighting.

StyledecisionsArising from these discussions, there should be broad agreement as to stylebeforeeitherrehearsalsorscenicconstructionstart.Duringrehearsals,ideasmay

change and will certainly develop — so the production team must remainflexible and communicative. There should be consensus between director,choreographer and design team as to how the script will be staged and thecontributiontobemadebylighting.Lightwillnormallybeexpectedtoprovidesupportive illumination and sculptural modelling for the actors and theirenvironment. But will it be softly diffuse or have stabbing beams?Will lightselectactingareas?And/orwill itestablishshifts inatmosphere?Will therebeanyspecialeffects?Willthecoloursbesubtletints?Ormorestronglyromantichues? Or more saturated contrasts? Or a clear penetrating white? Hownaturalistic?

RehearsalsThewise lighting designer pops into rehearsal from time to time.A series ofshortrandomvisitswillgraduallybuildupafeelingforthewholeproductionasthescriptistransformedintoadetailedrealisationwhich,hopefully,bearssomeresemblancetotheearlierdiscussions.Thesightofthelightingdesignershouldinspireconfidenceinthedirectorandactors.Astheproductiontakesshape,withideas of acting, scenery and wardrobe gradually become reality, lightingdesignersaretheoneunknowncreativefactor, their ideasremainingasheafofpapers.Willthelightingdesignerpulltherabbitoutofthehat?‘Surpriseus,’theactors'eyesseemtosay.Toappearatrehearsalsandchatoveracuporglassisawisepsychologicalmove:theactorsmaylaterbesympatheticaboutblackspotsandmoveoutofthem.

Befriendstagemanagers.Theycanprovidevitalinformationfromthepromptbook. Directors often become so involved in the production that they believetheyhavepassedoninformationtoothermembersoftheteam.Remarkssuchas‘Thatiswhereyouswitchonthetablelamp,’or‘Asyoubreakleft,abluelightwillfadeuponyoufromthefront,’maybenewstothelightingdesigner.

PlansDesign involves paperwork where the key lighting design information isrecordedonthelightingplanandthecuesynopsis.

The lightingplan ismade from the scenicgroundplanand, like thatplan, isnormallytothescaleof1:25.Manytheatreplansarestilltotheoldscaleof½in.

to1ft,butforpractical lightingpurposes this isacceptablyclose to themetric1:25. The lighting plan is drawn on a sheet of tracing paper pinned over thescenic plan. After the lighting equipment has been drawn, enough scenery istracedthroughtorelatethegeographyofthesettothelights.

A lightingplanhas twofunctions:workingoutandcommunication. It is thesheetofpaperonwhichlightingdesignersactuallyworkouthowtheywilllightthe show: the instruments to be used, their positioning, how they will becoloured,which dimmerswill feed them andwhere theywill be focused.Allthesedecisionsarebestmadebysittingdownatablankplanwithpencil,eraser,and a flagon of strong coffee. Always choose the thickest available tracingpaper, capable of withstanding alterations from the lighting designer's mostimportant tool — the eraser. Copies of the completed plan are used tocommunicate the designer's intentions. Apart from informing the rest of thelightingteam,copiesshouldgotostagemanagement,scenedesigner,productionmanager, et al., so that they, too, have some idea of the lighting crew'sintentions. One hopes, often in vain, that they will consider the plan beforemaking thechangesofmind towhich theatrepeople are addicted.But even ifthey do not actually look at the plan, it is a good psychological principle toshower copies around. Large plans can be reproduced easily by copyshops,while those for studios or small halls may be small enough to reproduce onstandardphotocopiers.

Theaiminplandrawingistoproduceadocumentwhichissoexplicitthatifthe lighting designermailed it to an electrician, then that electrician could geteveryinstrumenthung,coloured,andconnected,withoutmeetingortelephoningthedesigner.Normallythefocusinformationwouldnotbeprintedontheplan,exceptperhapssomeroughnoteslikeUL(upleft)orDR(downright)toenablerigging electricians to point the instruments in approximately the rightdirections.

Anytypeofsymbolmaybeusedtoindicatethevariousinstruments,providedthatakeyisdrawninthemargintoindicatewhateachsymbolmeans.Thereareinternationally agreed symbols for profile, flood, fresnel, etc., but these onlyindicate basic family types of instrument. Symbols used on lighting plansnormallyneedtorelatemorespecificallytoparticularmanufacturers'models.Itis helpful if the symbols are to the same scale as the plan, because if there isspace for the symbol on the drawing, then there should be space for theinstrument on the stage. There is no absolute Standard for noting colour andcontrol channel numbers: I put the colour number inside the symbol and the

channel number outside. Horizontal bars are easy to indicate within the twodimensionsof aplan.Verticalboomsarenot soeasy.Thesemaybedrawnat45°orthebasemarkedandadottedlinerunofftoadrawingatthesideoftheplan.

InstrumentsymbolsonplansAny symbols can be used provided that a key is drawn on the plan. Butcommunicationiseasierifsymbolsconform,eithertotheinternationalstandard

ortoscalestencilswhereaparticularmanufacturer'smodelsarespecified.However,thevarietyofavailableequipmenthasincreasedtothelevelthatgenericstencilsareappearing.

Amajorproblemintheprocessoflightingdesignisthatdecisionshavetobemadeandplansdrawnbeforeallthenecessaryinformationisavailable.Ideally,theplanwouldbedrawnafter the final run-through in the rehearsal room,butmanyequipmentdecisionsnormallyhavetobemadebeforethattime.Lightingdesignersandtheirplansmustbeflexible.Newideaswillkeepcomingaftertheplanhasbeendrawn,butitismuchbettertohaveaplantoalterthantohavenoplanatall.

DESIGNDECISIONSATTHEDRAWINGBOARD

The sequence of decisions to be made at the drawing board is summarisedbelow. Some of the basis on which these decisions are made has already

emerged in earlier chapters and more detailed discussion is included in laterchapters.

IdentifyingareasIf the production requires the stage to be divided into areas for independentselection by light, these have to be determined. These areas are rarelysymmetricalinsize,shape,ordistribution—andareareasoflightatactorfacelevel,whichdonotcorrespondtoareasoflitfloor.

IdentifyingcoloursIfthelightingstyleistoincludecolourmixing,thestageisdividedbycolours,establishing which areas in drama need both warm and cool toning. Perhapssomecanbebeneutral?Inamusicaltheremaybeareaswheremoresaturated‘reds’, ‘blues’ and possibly ‘ambers’ are required in addition to ‘neutrals’ forfaces.

DecidingspecialsTherearetwomaincategoriesof‘special’instruments.Somewillberequiredtohighlightspecificscenicfeatures,andsometolightactorsinsituationswherethesizeandshapeofthebeamaresocriticalthatnoneofthegenerallyfocusedarealightswillsuffice.

EstablishingprioritiesPrioritiesneed tobeestablished for theallocationof resources.There is rarelyenoughequipmentortimetomeetalltherequirementsofourideals.Howvitalisthattwominutespecialeffect?Enoughtojustifyremovalofseverallightsanddimmersfromtwohoursofgeneraluse?

ChoosinginstrumentpositionsInstrumentpositionsarechosentogivethebestavailableanglesforlightingthe

chosen areas in the chosen colour ranges. Specials and effects are similarlypositioned.

ChoosinginstrumentsInstruments are allocated, starting with the ideal type for each position, thenreallocatingtomakethebestuseofequipmentactuallyavailable.

SelectingfiltersFilters are selected by converting general ‘warm’, ‘cool’, ‘reddish’, ‘bluish’,‘hot’,‘fruity’,etc.,coloursintospecificfilternumbers.

THECUESYNOPSIS

Theexpression‘lightingcue’isusedtodenoteachangeinthelighting.Thecueisthestartingpointofthechangeandthecuetimeisthedurationofthechange.Acuestateisthelightingarrivedataftercompletionofalightingcue.Thus‘cuefive’representslightingmovingtoanewstationary‘cuefivestate’.Bothwouldnormallybewrittenas‘Q5’,butspokenofas‘Q5’for thechangeand‘inQ5’forthestate.

ThecuesynopsisisalistofQnumbersandtimingswithanoteofwheretheyoccur in the script, how long they last and roughlywhat happens. This ‘whathappens’ is not a detailed prediction of which particular instruments will beused,butadescriptionofthecueinverbaltermssuchas‘buildbluesdownstageright’or‘fadeouteverythingexceptskyandLearontopstep’.Thecuesynopsisshouldbepreparedatapointintherehearsalswhentheformoftheproductionhas stabilised. If possible, it should be prepared prior to the penultimate run-throughintherehearsalroomsothatitcanbecheckedagainsttheactionduringthefinalrehearsals.Nomatterhowpressingarethedemandsoneveryone'stimeatthispoint,itisfataltostart

LIGHTINGCUESYNORSIS

ACTTWO ‘WAITUNTILNIGHT’

PAGE ACTION Q TIME LIGHTING42 OPENING

OFSCENEO.L. PRESET MOONLIGHTTHRU'WINDOW

HALLBACKINGONFIRELIGHT

42 FRED&MARYENTER

1 SNAP STANDARDLAMPONSOFRAREA

[SOFT/ROMANTIC]43 ANTICIPATE

FRED'RISE2 25s CHEATUPFRONTCENTRE

+DRINKSTABLE45 MRSG'S

ENTRANCE3 SNAP WALLBRACKETSON

ALLAREASTOABOUT3/447 DOORBELL 4 30s BUILDNEARLYFULL

FORCOMEDYBUSINESS50 BRIAN'SEXIT 5 20s CHEATDOWNEDGES57 ENDOFSCENE 6 3s FADETOBLACKOUT

the final countdownof ‘getting in’, lighting and dress rehearsing, unless thereexistsacuesynopsistosupplementthelightingplan.

The synopsis is prepared by a committeewhich, like all committees, has aprecise optimum number of members. One essential person missing and itsdecisionswillbe takenon insufficientevidence;one inessentialpersonpresentanditsdecisionswilltaketwiceaslong.Thecuesynopsiscommitteeconsistsofdirector, choreographer (if appropriate), designer and stage manager with thelightingdesigner in thechair.Theminutesof thecommitteeconsistof thecuesynopsisandthisshouldbewidelycirculatedassoonaspossible.Thissynopsishas columns for Q number, Q timing, script page number, stage action, andlighting.Aseachcueisdecided,thepositionismarkedinthestagemanagementprompt copy. If the duration of a cue is uncertain, the dialogue is spoken (ormusic hummed) at the correct speeduntil the point in the script bywhich thelight change should be completed — a watch will give the elapsed time inseconds.

Itisamazinghowthedisciplineofconstructingsuchasynopsiscanforcetheproduction team into realising problems and making decisions— not just inlighting matters but in all departments. However, members of the productionteam often say they are too busy to meet. If so, the lighting designer shouldprepareasynopsisforcirculation.(Thestagemanagerwhoisgoingto‘callthe

cues’will almost certainly be happy to join the lighting designer in preparingthisdraftsynopsis.)Peoplewhohesitatetocommitthemselvesonablanksheetusually love toedit,anddirectorsarenoexception.So the listwillcomebackwithalterationsandannotationswhichcanbeaveragedoutandrecirculated.Butitiseasierforalltheteamtositdownanddiscussittogetherinthefirstplace!

CommunicateintentionsIntentions are communicated to electrics crew, production manager, stagemanager, scenedesigneranddirectorbycirculatingcopiesof the lightingplanand cue synopsis. It is advisable to point out to them anything vital that theymightotherwiseoverlook.

CheckintentionsDuringthefinalrun-throughsintherehearsalroom,thelightingdesignermakesafinalcheckofalltheintentionsoftheplanandcuesynopsisbycomparingtheactionduringeachcuestatewiththeplannedareas,colours,specials,etc.

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IMPLEMENTINGTHELIGHTINGDESIGN

Designphaseover,planningcomplete.Inourmind'seyewecanseethe‘lightinglook’thatwewantfortheshow.Wehopethatwehavedevisedarigusingtheright lights in the right places.Will it all work?We cannot be sure until theequipment is rigged and focused so thatwe can begin to paint the stagewithlightbybalancingthecontributionsfromthevarioussources.Creativeideasandsplendidtechnologywillachievelittleunlesstheyintegratewitheachotherandwith all the other elements in the production mix. Theatre is aboutcommunication with an audience during the real time of a performance. It isaboutwhat is, notwhatmight have been. Ideasmust become reality and thisrequiresorganisation.

In staging a show, every department needs organisation, but the lightingdepartment needs more than most because lighting people can only really dotheirthingwheneveryoneelsehasfinisheddoingtheirs.Timeistheenemy,andtime creeps up fastest and most devastatingly on the electrics. Consider thesituation.Theactorshavealotofrehearsalsandifoneortwoofthese(actorsorrehearsals)aretotaldisasters,allisnotlost:thereistimeforarethink.Scenerycan be redesigned – scalemodelsmade,modified and discarded. It should beobviousintheworkshopwhetheracrinolineladycangetthroughadoor.Iftheproduction team hates the paint colour, there is still time to experiment withalternatives.Costumescanbe fitted in time tobealtered.Propscanbechosenandchanged.

Alltheseactivitiescanbecarriedoutawayfromthestage;theybelongtotherehearsal room and the workshop. But what about lighting? It cannot berehearsed until it is created, and it cannot be created until every instrument isphysically in position, suppliedwith electricity and focused.And it cannot be

focusedwithanydegreeoffacilityuntilthesceneryiscompleteandinposition.

The potential of lighting in the creation of controlled performance space isvirtually limitless.But fullexploitationcanonly reallycomefromexperiment.Experiment requires time and that time, for the reasons discussed, is notnormally available. It is, therefore, essential that the lighting process is highlyorganised so that available lighting time can be used creatively. We havediscussed the sequence of events in the lighting design process. Let us nowconsider the organisation required to enable an effective realisation of thelightingdesign.

SCHEDULES

Planning of the entire production process, and especially the lighting, has toproceedfromabasisoftimeavailable.Timeandmoneyareinterrelated,butinthetheatrethereareoccasionswheremoneyjustcannotbuytime.Attheriskofbeing boring, it must be emphasised continually that theatre is aboutcommunication and one idea that gets carried through and projected to theaudienceisworthadozenideasthatremainstillborninthedesigner'smind.

Theatre people achievemiracles against the clock; theywork to time scaleswhich might be considered rash in other sectors of industry. But, whereas itmightbejustifiabletoaimtocondensethreehours'workintotwo,itiscertainlyimprovidenttoplanforfourormorehourstobesqueezedintotwo.Therefore,beforeembarkingondetailedplanning,itisnecessarytoagreeadraftschedulefortheallocationofstagetime.

PREPARINGEQUIPMENT

Whatisthefactormostlikelytowreckourcarefulplanning?Inmyexperienceandobservation,amajorsourceoffrustrationinlightingispoorlymaintainedequipment. There are quite enough problems without having to cope withequipmentwhich is dirty,mechanically doubtful (jamming andwobbling) andelectrically intermittent.And lack ofmechanical and electricalmaintenance isnotjustfrustrating–itisdangerous.

Owned equipment is the easiest to maintain because ownership normally

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allowscontrolofaccesstoit.Ifregularlyusedbysympathetichands,lightsarevirtuallyeverlastingprovidedtheyarecheckedoverregularly.However,roughhandling can devastate themechanics and unfortunately it takes quite a lot ofexperience todiscover just the rightamountofpressurenecessary tomake therequired focusing adjustments. Whether equipment is left hanging or kept instore will depend on frequency of usage. Either way it is essential that acontinuousmaintenanceprogrammebeundertaken,withaspecialcheckcarriedoutpriortoeachproductionsothatdefectsmayberemedied.

Rentedequipmentfromwhateversourceshouldbecleanandsafe.Thebesthired equipment is electrically, optically andmechanically as new – the onlyindication of long service being the quality of the paint finish. Some hireequipmenthasbeenknown to fall shortof this standard;you tend togetwhatyou pay for, although lighting hire has become quite a competitive business.Alwaysreportanyproblemstotherentalcompanybossandinsistonimmediatereplacementofanyfaultyequipment.

Installedequipmentonarentedstagecanbethemostdifficultmaintenancesituation. Itmay be in the hands of resident staff beyond our control, and themaintenance will therefore be as good as the staff. On many stages theequipment is excellently maintained. If not? Alas, the realistic, if depressing,solutionmaybetobuildintoourplanningthecontingencyassumptionthatsomelightsmaynotbeasbrightastheyshouldbe,andthatitmayjustnotbepossibleto get full benefit from shutter and lens movements. A supply of thin strongflexiblewireisausefulstandbyforcounteractingthesaggingtendencyofspotswithslippingtilt-locks.

Thefollowingchecklistsindicatetherequireddegreeofpreparedness:

Opticalcheck

Reflectorsclean?

Lensesclean?

Lensproperlypositionedwithretainingclips,springs,etc.?

Lampnotnearingtheendofitslife?

Lampproperlyseatedinholder?

Mechanicalcheck

Lenstubeorfocusknobmovingfreely?

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Shuttersmovingfreelyyetremainingwherepositioned?

Hangingboltcompletewithwingnut?(orspigot,ifonastand?)

Safetychainforeachlight?

Electricalcheck

Equipmenthasbeensubjectedtoscheduledmaintenanceandchecking?SeeearliersectiononPortableApplianceTesting,p.54.Eachinstrumentfittedwithcorrectplug?

Plugcorrectlyattached?

Cabletailingoodcondition?

Allcableswithcorrectplugsandsockets?

Allcablesvisuallyinspectedforbreaksorcracksinoutersheath?

Cablesheathgriptakingthestraininallplugsandsockets?

Allcontrolchannelsworking?

Anyblownfusestomend?

Sparefusesstandingby?

Accessoriescheck

Enoughbarndoorsavailable(withdoorsthatwillstaywhereput)?

Enoughirises,masks,gobos?

Allcolourfilterscuttosize,labelled,numberedandframed?

Enoughclampsandboomarms?

RIGGING

Ifplanningisgoodandequipmentwellprepared,allthatisrequiredforsmoothriggingiscoordinationbetweenthelightingandscenicdepartments.Itisusuallybetterifthelightsoverthestagearehungbeforethescenerygoesup–probablywhile it is still coming in the door. Then, when the scenic chaos starts, thelightingcrewcanmovetothesideofthestageorintotheauditoriumtorigfoh.Whatever happens, it must happen as a result of interdepartmental rational

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discussion.A free-for-all on stagewill soon lose all the potential time-savingfrom pre-planning. The rigging process will demonstrate the quality of ourplanning, and, if this planning is good, we might get all the instrumentspositioned,coloured,andpluggedtotheircorrectdimmerswithouttheuseofascrewdriver.Orthatshouldcertainlybeourideal.

Theeasiestbarstorigarethoseonasuspensionsystemwhichallowsthemtobe lowered to a working height of about a metre above the stage floor. Theprocedureis:

Hangallinstrumentslooselyonthebarbytheirhookclamps.

Slidethemalongthebaruntilthespacingiscorrect.

Tightenallhookclamps.

Fixallsafetychains.

Plugupeachinstrument,ensuringenoughslackcabletofocusfreely.

If the bar is not internallywired, run feed cables along it, securingwithplastictape.

Pulloutallshuttersonprofilespots.

Fitanygobosintoprofilespots.

Fitallbarndoors.

Fitallcolours.

Point each instrument in its approximate direction (unless there are twowhichshareadimmerbutcannotbe reachedfromone ladderposition: inthiscase,focusingwillbeeasierifoneisinitiallytiltedtothehorizontal).

‘Flashout’toensurethateachinstrumentislighting.Ifthecablesaretobepluggedinafterthebarhasbeenflown,writethesocketnumbersoneachplugtop.

Overheadlightingisriggedstagelevel.

Riggingaladder.

Focusing.

Then,andonlythen,shouldthebarbehoistedawaytooperationalheight.

Barsonfixedsuspensionsarenotmuchfuntorig–asanyonewhohastriedtofitabarndoorfromthetopofaladderwilltestify.Soithelpsalottoensurethatmatters such as fitting barndoors and pulling shutters have been attended tobefore any spotlight is taken up a ladder. And the same applies when fixinginstrumentstoverticalbooms.

SafetySafety in rigging cannot be overemphasised – both electrical and mechanicalsafety.Timeisalwaysshortandsince‘theshowmustgoon’thereisalwaysariskofcuttingcorners.Andwhenpeoplearetired,bothmentallyandphysically,there is always the possibility that theymay omit to tighten one of themanynuts,oroverlookacablewhichisnotproperlyanchoredtothebarwithtapetotake the strain off the plug and socket connection. The onlyway is to check,checkandcheckagain.

FOCUSING

Withallinstrumentshangingandcabled,itistimetostartfocusing.Underidealconditions, the scenery will be complete and dressed with all furniture andproperties.And allwill bequiet to allow the lighting staff to concentrate.Butundernormalconditions, atbest therewillbenoiseandchaosas the finishingtouchesareputtothescenery;atworstthiswillbesobehindschedulethatourconcentrationandvoiceswillhavetocompetewiththesoundofpowertools.OnthefewoccasionswhenIhavehadidealfocusingconditions,thepianotunerhasarrived. But the probability of noise and chaos during focusing is yet anotherreasonforgoodadvanceplanning.

The process of focusing needs a minimum of three people and a fourth isdesirable. It is justpossible tobeaone-man-focusing-bandbut, topushup thedimmerknobsandclimbtheladdersaswellasstandinthelightbeamsisaskingtoomuchfromeventhemostversatilelightingdesigner.Sometimesithastobedone.Butit takestimethat israrely, ifever,available.Thethreepeopleintheteamarethelightingdesigner,anelectricianuptheladderandaboardoperator.Thedesirablefourthissomeonetoholdtheladdersteady.Allmembersofthisteam do not need to be equally experienced. Obviously, the more that theelectricianuptheladderknowsabout theequipment, thebetter.It issurprisingjust how quickly an inexperienced person can focus if given good clearintelligent instructions like up, down, left, right, bigger, smaller, etc. At thispointanybodyshouldbeable toworktheboard,sinceall that isrequiredis tobringthechannels

LeftAsimplerigger'scontrolallowschannelstobefadedupordownforcheckingandfocusingwithoutrequiringanoperatorinthecontrolroom.RightMorecomplexrigger'scontrolsallowmostfacilitiesofthecontroldesk,includingchannelsandmemories,tobeaccessedfromasimplehand-heldkeypadusableanywhereinthetheatre.

ononebyonewhentheirnumber iscalled.If themachine isnot labelledwellenough for this simple purpose, there are likely to be problems when thecomplexphasesofplottingandoperatingarereached.

Insmallstudiotheatres,theboardcanoftenbemovedfromthecontrolroomto the stage for focusing. And for larger stages, rigger's controls offer smallhand-heldunits allowing individual channels to be raisedor dimmed from thestagewithoutanyonebeinginthecontrolroom.

Throughout the focusing process, it is essential that the lighting designerremainsonstage,movingaboutinthelightfromtheinstrumentbeingfocusedtocheck that itwill light the actor,watchingwhere the endof thebeamhits thescenery,andgiving instructions to the restof the teaminaclear,cheerfulandencouragingvoice.Toensurethatweknowexactlywhatlightiscomingfromaparticularsource,itisbettertohaveonlyonespotalightatatimeunlesswearecheckinganoverlaporjoinwithanotherspot.Incidentally,itissurprisinghowmuchtimecanbesavedif,asamatterofroutine,thenextinstrumentisswitchedonbefore thepreviousone is switchedoff. Italsoensures that thestagenever

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goestocompleteblackout;thisisnotjustmorepleasantforworking,itissafer!

Ourfocusingshouldaimtobeaccurate,clean,efficientandsafe.Theessenceofaccurateandcleanfocusingis:

Ensuring that the actor is lit everywhere in the area which has beenallocatedtothatparticularinstrument.

Overlappingsmoothlythelightbeamsofadjoiningareas.

Tryingtomakethebeamedgesofactorlighthitsceneryinanunobtrusiveway.

Normallyusingasoftedgewhichwillbeunobtrusiveonbothactor’sfaceandscenery.

Rememberingthat,sincehardedgesmakesuchpositivevisualstatements,therehastobealogicforhavingany.

Focusingismorelikelytoproceedsmoothlyandefficientlywhenwe:

Don'tlighttheinstrumentuntilweareabsolutelysurewhereitgoes(itgetshotquickly!).

Doadoptaclearcodefor talkingto theboardoperator.Whenweshoutanumberitmeansthatdimmerupfollowedbyeverythingelseout–unlessweaddthewords‘aswell’.

Do talk in terms of the actual adjustments that are available on theparticularinstrumentwhichisbeingfocused.

Speakloudlyandclearly,keepingtheendsofsentencesup.

Andafocusingsafetycheck…

Domakesurethattheladderisstable–andhassomebodyholdingit.

Don'tleavetoolsatthetopoftheladder.

Domakesurethatalladjustmentsarelefttight.

Don'tplaceanystrainoncableswhenadjustinginstrumentpositions.

Domakesurethatnoinstrumentis left inapositionwhereitwillfoulonanything–suchasacurtaintrack.

Do fade in each new light before dimming out the old, so that the stagenevergoestotallyblack…anditsavestime.

LIGHTINGREHEARSALS

Focusingover,therecomesthegreatmomentoftruthforthelightingdesigner.Will all individually focused lights add up to the pictures that have until nowexistedonlyintheimaginationsoftheproductionteam?Andhaveallmembersofthat teamreallybeenimaginingthesamething?Ihaveneverconqueredtheflutterofheartbeatandthesinkingofstomachthataccompaniesthemomentoftakingtheplanfromthestagetotheauditoriumandcallingforablackoutpriortocomposingtheopeningcuestate.

Thisisthemomentwhenthemembersofthelightingteammovearound.Ontheboardwemustnowhavethefinest,mostexperienced,operatoravailabletous: plotting a show is much more difficult than operating it – indeed if theplottingisgood,mostreasonablyintelligentandsensitivepeoplecanbetaughttooperaterelativelyquickly.Sittingwith the lightingdesignerare thedirector,scenedesignerand thememberof thestagemanagement teamwhoknows thedetailedmovementsoftheactorsandwhoisgoingtocontrol theperformance.Thelightingdesignerhastheplanandcuesynopsis.Thestagemanagerhascuepositionsmarkedupinthemasterpromptcopy.Ifthecontrolhasnomemory,itsoperator has a special copy of the cue synopsis with the time between cuesindicated on it.On non-memory controls, operational problems depend on thetime available between cues for resetting, rather than the doing of the cuesthemselves.

Thusprepared,weareoff!Thelightingdesignercallsforthechannelnumbersone after another, balancing intensity levels as he goes, until there is aprovisional cue state to offer the team. The director moves an assistant stagemanager around the stage to check the light level around the door and by thesofa.Thedesignercommentsonthecolourofthesky.Afewadjustments,andtheboardoperatorisinstructedto‘PlotIt!’.Theoperatormustbeallowedallthetime needed towrite down or electronically record a precise plot: there is nopoint incarefullybalancinga stagepicture ifwemaynever see it again.Asalighting rehearsalproceeds, it tends toaccelerateas the teambecomes familiarwiththerangeoflightingpossibilitiesavailable–or,asonecynicaldirectorputit:‘Oncewehavefoundoutwhatwehavenotgot.’Cynicshavealsopointedoutthatmanyshowshavefewercuesinthesecondhalf:acombinationoftiredness,andtimerunningoutatlightingrehearsal.

Thereareoccasions,particularlyforshortrunsofperformances,whenitmay

bedesirablethatlightingdesignerandboardoperatorbethesameperson.Thishas only become possible with recent advances in technology because it isessential that, when the jobs are combined, the lighting designer can take thecontroldeskintothemiddleoftheauditoriumforthelightingrehearsal.Thisisamomentwhen the production teammust reallywork as a team. Teamwork isdifficultiftheteamleaderisstuckinaboxatthebackoftheauditoriumoronaperchatthesideofthestage.Havingthedeskinthemiddleofthestallsisnotalwayspracticalforthemiddle-pricerangeofcontrolsystemsbutitisrelativelystraightforward for the most expensive and for the cheapest. It is possible toplace the smaller desks exactlywhere required: on stage for focusing, inmid-auditorium for rehearsal, in a control room (perhaps in a studio theatre,improvisedwithscreens)forperformance,andlockedupinacupboardatnight.Withthelargerboardsitispossibletohaveaspecialportableunitwhichcanbeplacedtemporarilyattheproductiondeskinthecentreoftheauditorium.

With goodmemory boards and experienced operators it is often possible toleavethefinerdetailsofbalancinguntil technicalanddressrehearsalswiththeactors.Providingthegeneralshapeofthelightinghasbeenplotted,adjustmentsofapointupwardsanddownwardsareoftensimplertomakewhenalltheactorsarepresent–andwithamemoryboard, therightbalancecanbeachievedandinstantlyrecordedwithoutdisturbingtheflowofanactorrehearsal.

SimplifiedplansThe1:25planisestablishedasanexcellentmethodofworkingoutalightingrigandcommunicatingit to theelectricscrew.However, thesizeof theplandoesrather limit the mobility of the lighting designer, and the format does notimmediately indicate which lamps light a particular area. For the lightingrehearsal and subsequent technical and dress rehearsals, it is often moreconvenientforthelightingdesignertocondensetheessentialinformationontoastandard 8 in. x 5 in. index card. The only numbers on the card are channelnumbers and these are written within arrowed symbols indicating direction.Thesesymbolscanbedrawnincolouredinkstogiveanapproximateindicationof, say,warm and cool or pink, amber and blue. ‘Specials’ can be listed in acorner.Theplan for a small showcanoftenbecondensedon toone sideof acard, leaving the reverse for an abbreviated cue synopsis. A big show mayrequireone side for stageand the reverse for foh.A jumbomusicalmayneedseparate cards for coloured (atmosphere) channels andneutral (face) channels.

But threecards is themaximumthatshouldeverbenecessary tocondense thecompleteplanandcuesynopsis.Suchcardsarenormallyonlymeaningfultothedesignerswhopreparethem,buttheyaresolelyfortheiruseandenablethemtowatchtheshowfromallangles.Onpreviewsandfirstnights theycanevenbeslipped intoaprogramme– togetherwithanextracard formakingnotes!Seepage147foranillustrationofasimplifiedplan.

MagicsheetsComputer technology allows the possibility of direct access to the dimmercontrolsystem.Alightpenonavideoscreenisonepossiblemethod.Butrecentdevelopmentsincludeusingamouseasa‘lightbrush’onareasofastageplantobringcontrolof thatarea's lightsdirectlyunder the lightingdesigner'spaintinghand(seepage44).

BoardplotsThe tricky part of board operation is plotting: not somuch the actual writingdown,butthedecisionsastohowaparticularcueistobedone.Theseplottingdecisions vary with the type of board, particularly when there is no memoryfacility.Ondirectlyoperated resistance sliderdimmers,will thenext cueneedknees, elbows or a length of wood?On a two preset board shall it be a newpresetorjustnimblefingers?Withamulti-presetmulti-groupsystemthechoicecould be new preset or new group, or perhaps a combination of these plusnimble fingers.Everyonedevelops their own solution as theybecome familiarwiththeirparticularsystem.

Whenoperating,Ialwaystrytoplottoasimplebutfixedroutinesothat,inapanic, cockpit drill will take over. The information to be recorded on a plotdivides into two categories: preparations and actions. The time availablebetween cues for resetting is often the critical factor. It is certainly the mostblood-pressure raising factor on opening night, although, by a couple ofperformanceslater,onealwayswonderswhatallthepanicwasabout.However,Icertainlyhavealwaysfounditadvisableatthepointof‘electricsgo’tobeabletoreacttoanactioninstructionwrittenbesidethecuenumberwheremymarker(aclothespeg)isresting.Andthen,havingcompletedthecue,myneedistogotoaclearinstructiononwhattopreparenext.

Plotforatwopresetboad

Everyonehasapersonalformatforaplotsheet.Allsortsofthingslikefingerprints, coffee stains, etc., rapidly become landmarks as one drives through aperformance.Aboardplotcannotshowabsolutelyeverything.Thereisahumanelement in timingwhichiswhat live theatre isallabout.Butwithaclearplot,the operator can relax at the moment of ‘go’ into giving full attention to thetiming.Thetypicalplot(foratwo-preset)shownonpage109isnotofferedasthe only format, but it does indicate the sort of information that has to berecorded.

Onmemoryboardsthelevelsarenotnormallywrittendownontheplotsincetheyareelectronicallyfiledforinstantrecall.But,apartfromthis,theplotneedstolistthesamecategoriesofinformation.Indeedthepotentialofmemoryboardsfor totally fluid lightingmeans that therecanbeaconsiderable increase in thenumberandcomplexityofsequentialandsimultaneouscues.

TECHNICALREHEARSALS

The first rehearsal at which lights are used with the actors is the technicalrehearsal,whosepurposeistointegratetheactorswiththeirstageenvironment.At a ‘tech’ the actors concentrate on such matters as manoeuvring roundfurniture,copingwithdoors,timingentrances,etc.,ratherthanthefinernuancesof characterisation. The actors and the technical cues have to be coordinatedcarefully;theactors(andtheirdirector)shouldnotexpectthetechnicianstogeteverything right first time – this is the technicians' first rehearsalwhereas theactorshavebeenatitforweeks.Sometrickysequenceswillneedtoberepeated–and,when‘goingback’,sufficienttimemustbeallowedforanyadjustmentstoplotstobewrittencarefullyandtheboardtobeproperlyreset.Whentechnicallyrehearsingsomeshows,itispossibletojumpfrom‘cuetocue’–thatistopassoversectionswheretherearenocues.However,itisessentialtorememberthatoperationalproblemsarenot associated somuchwithdoingcues aspreparingforthem.Whencuesoccurinfastsequence,thesequenceneedstoberehearsedwithoutanystopsso that theoperator isworkingwithin therealityof the timethatwillbeavailableintheperformance.

At this rehearsal, it will almost certainly be necessary to rebalance dimmerlevels in some of the cue states. How much of this can be done during therehearsalwilldependonthemodificationsrequired,thecomplexityoftheshowandthetypeofcontrolboard.Unlessthereisamemoryboard,notesshouldbemade and the rebalancing left until after the rehearsal. Notes should also bemadeofanyadjustmentsrequiredtothefocusingofthelights.

Technical rehearsalsarealways tiringand frequentlydepressing.Thekey tosuccessliesinavoidingpanic.

DRESSREHEARSALS

Whereastechnicalrehearsalsareverymuchstoppingoccasions,theaimatdressrehearsals is to keep going – stopping only if the continuity really falls apart.Unlessthenumberofcuesisverysmall,itisunwiseforthelightingdesignertomakechangesduringtherunningofadressrehearsal.Muchbettertomakenotesduring the rehearsal, then arrange priorities and take action afterwards. Dressrehearsals,especiallythefinalone,shouldalwaysbeorganisedasperformanceswiththestagemanagerincharge.Thelightingdesignershouldonlyinterveneincasesofextremechaos.Whentherehearsalgrindstoahalt,itshouldalwaysbethestagemanagerwhoascertainswhetheralldepartments,includingthelighting

operators,arereadytostartagainandtellsthemwhichcuestatetheyshouldbein.

It is just not practical towork a lighting controlwhile reading a script.Allamateur companies should follow the professional practice ofworking on cuefrom the stage manager (or whichever member of the stage management iscontrolling the performance). Traditional red (warn) and green (go) cue-lightsare virtually obsolete because they can be missed so easily.When cueing byvoice,themethodisimportant.With‘Goelectrics,Cue25,please’,itisdifficulttoknowexactlyonwhichwordthecueissupposedtostart.‘Electrics,Cue25(pause),GO’ispositiveandprovidesasecondstandbyonwhichtotensionthehandmuscles.

PERFORMANCES

Ifallplanningandrehearsalshavegonewell,theactualperformanceshouldbesmoothandfun.Let'shopethatthefirstnightisnotananti-climax!

Butsomethingissuretogowrong.Whenalampblows,oracueislate,keepcalm.Rememberthatwehaveallbeenlivingwiththedetailsoftheshowanditslightingforalongtime,probablyweeks.Theaudiencehavejustcomein;theydonotknowwhatissupposedtohappen.Ifwecarryonsmoothlywithoutjerks,they may never realise that we have been overtaken by what, to us, is totaldisaster.

GraphplotsIftheproductionishavingmorethanaverysmallnumberofperformances,orifit is likely to be revived at a later date, the lighting plan should be corrected.Whathappenedisnotalwayswhatwasplanned!Thecuesynopsis

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shouldbeexpandedintoagraphplotcontainingtheinformationinthespecimenplot illustrated. The graph plot in conjunctionwith the plan forms a completerecordoftheproduction'slighting.

THEGETOUT

After the final performance, the lighting should be restored to an appropriate‘squareone’condition.Thisisdiscussedinalaterchapter,butanychecklist islikelytoinclude:

Dismantleanytemporaryrigging.

Restoreanyequipment,whichhasbeenmoved,backtoitsusualposition.

Return all rented and borrowed equipment promptly, including allaccessories. (Rental companies and lenders are only human: customersknowntolookafterequipmentgetbetterserviceandkeenerdiscounts.)

Store other equipment carefully: shutters pushed in, gobos removed,barndoors folded, cable tails coiled round suspension arms. Label anydefectiveequipmentwithdetailsofrepairrequired.

Filere-usablecolourfiltersbysizeandnumber.

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LIGHTINGPLAYS

The process of designing lighting for a play starts, as it does for any type ofperformance,byestablishingthecontributionexpectedfromlight.Thelightingstyle thatwill be appropriate for a particular production of a particular dramatextisnotatalleasytodetermine.However,moststylesstemfromsomedegreeofrealism,evenifthatrealisticconnectionisratherdistant.Mostplaysareaboutpeople. Their behaviour, to be credible, needs to relate to the behaviour ofourselvesandthepeoplearoundus.Andweaudiencewillprobablyrelatemorereadily to the play if its environment has some connection, however tenuous,with the world that we live in. Consequently, many production styles comeunder a heading that might be called heightened realism. Acting and scenerybecomeanexaggeratedand/orsimplifiedversionoftherealityof‘normal’life.Therefore,inseekingthelightingstyleforaplay,ausefulstartingthink-pointisreality.Towhatextent,andinwhatways,willthelightdepartfromanattemptto copy the natural lighting sources in the sky and the artificial light sourcesdevelopedbymankind'sdeterminationtoovercomethedailycycleofdarkness?

Totalnaturalism—or,atleast,ascloseaswecangettoitonthestage-isthestylewiththeclearestlogicandthereforetheeasiesttounderstand,ifnotalwaystheeasiesttoachieve.Therefore,toillustratethetypeofthoughtprocessesthatgo intodesigningadrama rig, letuswork throughan imaginary show.Letustake that theatrical cliché, the box-set playwith frenchwindows and a drinkstablebehindthesofa.Thismaybeoneofthedullerlightingsituations,butitisalso one of the most difficult. It can be much easier to organise a dramaticsequenceofindividualstabbingbeamsthantogetasmoothdrawing-room‘full-up’whichilluminesyetpaysmorethanjustlip-servicetoall theotherlightingaimswhichwehavesetasouridealtarget.

SetdesignTheplay is set in anout-of-towndrawing room (seegroundplan).Across theupstage corner is a french window opening onto a fragment of garden withhedgeandadistantvistaofchurchspireagainstsky.Asthisdistantvistaisnotmuch more than a metre away at most, we shall have to rely on actors notreachingheavenwardsandspoilingtheillusion.Upstageisanarchleadingtoasmallhallwithdoorstoallpartsofthehouse:perhapsweshouldnotprobetoodeeply into the details of its architecture.On the stage leftwall is a fireplace.Furnishingsaresimple.Actorsmakinganentrancethroughtheall-purposearchandmovingdownstagehaveasimplechoiceofasofatotherightoranarmchairtotheleft.Behindthesofaisadrinkstableandbesidethearmchairasmalltableprovidessomewhereforanactortorestaglass.Downrightisatabletosupportthe telephone and down left is a chair that nobody sits in. It faces upstage tofocusattentioninwards:ifanybodydoessit there, it isonlybecausetheauthorhasforgotten,notonlytowriteanydialogue,buttoprovideanexitline.

Scenerygroundplan

StyleForthisplay,naturalismorrealismarethekeywords.Thisrealismmayperhapsmoreproperlybecalledstagerealism,becauselifeinaboxsethasconventions

which are only loosely based on behaviour in a real world. Nevertheless, forlighting purposes, real and natural are the keywords.Light in this productionwilltrytobehavelikenaturallightinreallife.

LightsourcesInourdailylife,therearetwotypesoflightsource:naturalandartificial.Whenweactoutthedramaoflifeinaroomathome,lightmaycomefromthesunormoon through a window. Or it may come from electric light fittings. If thesunlightenterstheroombyonlyonewindow,itstillilluminatesalltheroombyreflection from surfaces such as walls, floor, furniture, etc. Thus, if we standnearthewindow,thatsideofthefacewillbehighlighted.Theothersideoftheface will also be lit, but to a lower intensity, by reflected light. Similarly, atnight, awallbracket light fittingwill illuminate all the roomby reflectionbutwithcertaindirectionalhighlights.

Whenweremoveonewalloftheroomtoletanaudiencewatchthedrama,wecould still rely on reflected light if the audience were no larger than perhapsthreerowsdeep.Butassoonastheaudienceincreasesinsize,wehavetoprojectthe stage action. In lighting terms, this means that we can no longer rely onnaturalreflectionoflightfromsinglesourcessuchasajumbosunlampoutsidethewindowbyday,andelectriclampsonthewallsbynight.Wemustintroducealltheparaphernaliaofstagelightingtoreinforcethesenaturallightsources.

Thismayallsoundveryobvious,butitisimportanttogothroughthiskindofthoughtprocesswhenworking inany lighting style.Having founda style,wemustestablishkeylightswhichwillmakepositivelightingstatements—oftenapositivedirectionalstatement,orapositivecolourstatement,orboth.Inadditiontothekey, therewillbea lotofunobtrusivelightsourceswhosefunctionis toprojecttheideaofthekeybycheatinginbalancedlightfromnon-keydirectionsorwithnon-keycolours.Inthenaturalisticdramastyleunderconsideration,thekeyswouldbesun,moon,andpracticallamps.

OutsidethewindowInbox-setplays,viewsthroughwindowsareveryimportantinestablishingsuchdetailsaswhetherthehouseisintownorcountry,whethertheroomisgroundfloor or upstairs, the time of day, theweather, etc. In nature, there is one big

celestial light source, the sun by day and themoon by night. Light from thissourceilluminateseverythingthatweseethroughthewindow—buildings,rooftops,trees,sky,etc.Lightenteringtheroomthroughthewindowmaybedirectlight from sun or moon, but it is more likely to be light reflected from thevariousoutsidesurfacessuchasrooftops,hedges,etc.

Inatheatre,havingonesinglesourcedoesnotwork.Apartfromdifferencesinreflectivequalitybetweenscenicandrealsurfaces,weneedacontrolledlight.And to control the lightweneedone set of lightinggear to dealwithwhat isseenoutside,andanothersettodealwiththelightcomingthroughthewindow.

Themainprobleminlightingsceneryoutsideawindowistomakeitretreat.Such scenery is often close enough for an actor to touch the church spire. Aportion of sky is usually included and this means hanging floods to give asmooth light at the top. The number of colours required will depend on thenumber ofmeteorological conditions demanded by the script and the director.Theminimumislikelytobeacoupleofblues:adeepandanotsodeep,withtheactualfiltersdependingonthestrengthandtoningofthebluepaintontheclothandtherangeofblueskiesrequiredintheproduction.Thepairoffiltersshouldberathercontrastybecauseareallydeepbluefilterhelpstoputbeefintoabluesky,evenwhen thepredominanteffect is from,say, thepalesteelof theothercircuit. If adirty andgloomyorperhaps lavender sky is requiredadditionally,thenitmaybenecessarytohaveathirdcolour:butthinktwicebeforedoingsobecauseitmayuseupequipment,circuits,andspacethatcanbeillafforded.

In any case, such requirements are often better dealtwith from an electricsgroundrowatthebottomofthesky.Itisdifficulttogetanillusionofdepthintoaskyclothwithouthavinglightat thebottomaswellasat thetop.Thismeansthat, between frenchwindowandcloth, therehas tobe a scenicgroundrow tomasktheelectricsgroundrow.Thisscenicgroundrowhelpstheillusionofdepthbecauseitprovidesamiddledistancefortheaudienceeyetofocusonandrelatenear(window)andfar(sky)distancesto.Lightfromagroundrowusuallyhastobe in aminimum of three colours: a couple of blues (they should be slightlydifferentfromthefiltersinthetopfloods)andsomesortofsunrise/sunsetcolourinaccordancewiththedemandsofthescript.Checkontheheightofthescenicgroundrow.Ioncespecifiedanelectricsgroundrowtositonthestagefloor,onlytofindthatthescenicpieceswere2metreshigh:Ihadtoscroungeacoupleoffloods on stands to do the job. Any scenic pieces standing in this area, orfeaturespaintedonthecloth,willbelitbyspillfromtheskyfloodsandbouncefromthebackofthewindow,butifthereisaprominentarchitecturalfeature—

likeachurchspire—andwecanspareasmallspotlight, thenahighlightcanenliventhewholepicture.

Somuchforwhatweseethroughthewindow.Whatabout thelightcomingthrough?Asageneralrule,itisbetterthatthereshouldbeasfewinstrumentsaspossible: we must avoid multiple shadows from an excess of sources. In ourplan,therearemanypossiblepositionsforthesespots.Theycouldhangonabarbetweenwindowandsky,butthelightwouldcomefromsohighananglethatitwouldonlyregisteronthetopsofthewindowglazingbars,onthefloor,andonactorsonlywhen theyare standingveryclose to thewindow.The instrumentscould be on a boom upstage, but then the light would only register on theupstageglazingbarsandthedownstagewallsof theset;again,anactorwouldhavetobeverynearthewindowordesktobehitbythelight.If thelighthitsthough the window from a downstage boom, it registers on the parts of thewindow bars that the audience can see, it can make a pretty pattern on theupstagewalloftheset;anditnotonlylightsactorsinquitealargeareaoftheset,butlightsthefrontalaspectofthemwhichisvisibletotheaudience.

Fresnels,withtheirsoftwide-angledlightareoftenthefavouriteinstrumentshere.Theaverage3metre-highwindowlightswellwithtwopairsineachoftwocolours.Ofapair,oneinstrumentlightsthetopandtheotherlightsthebottomwithverylittleoverlap,sothatwegetonlyonewindow-imageprojected.Withonepair inpaleyellow,and theother inpaleblue,wehavearangeofmixingpossibilities:bothcoloursforcoolmorninglight,yellowaloneforafternoonandwarmingasitdimstowardssunset,blueonlyforthemoon.

Theatrical effect often has to take precedence over strict accuracy as tobehaviour of sun and moon in relation to the compass. Remember thatsunlight/moonlight is often funnelled through other buildings, so the verticaldirection can bemost telling— like the low angle of a setting sun across thebottomsectionofawindow,ortherisingsunstrikingonlytherooftopsfromalowangleasitcomesoverthehorizon.

But read the script carefully and discuss with the director: no point inproviding a feast of meteorological and astronomical detail if the windowcurtainsaregoingtobeclosed!

BackingsThelightingofabackingoutsideadoorrequiresthesameapproach:alighton

thebackingitselfandaseparatelightthroughthedoor.Aspotlightsettoshinethroughanopendoorensuresthat,onexit,anactorwalksoffintolightand,onentrance,isbacklit.Becarefulwiththeanglethough:anentrancecanbespoiltifwe see a shadowof the actor preparing to enter. Entrances and exits are veryimportantmomentsfortheactorsandfortheplay:theyareusuallythemomentswhenaudienceconcentrationonaparticularactor ishighest. If the intensityoflightonthebackingishigh,theactorwillbeinsilhouetteandfacialexpressionwilldisappear.Backingsmustthereforebebalancedverycarefullywithonstageactorlight.Softselectivespotlightingisbest:afloodshouldbeusedonlywhenaspot is not available. Small backing spots can often be hung from bracketsscrewedtothebacksofsceneryflats.

ActingareasHavingdesignedtheperipheralareas,wecometothepartofthestagewheretheaction is.The first step in planning is to break the stage down into separatelycontrollable areas.This canbe done in an arbitrarywaybydevising a grid ofequally sized units, perhaps nine areas based on downstage, midstage andupstage — subdivided into left, centre and right. Such a system covers alleventualitiesinanapproximateway,butitshouldonlyberesortedtowhenwedonotknowthepreciseareasrequiredbytheproduction.

Intheplayunderconsideration,theremaybeonlyonearea:thewholestage.Ifitisafarcewithaplotdependingonmislaidtrousers,theremaybenoneedtobreakthestageintoareas.Ortheremaybejusttwoareas:asmallonebasedonatablelampbythetelephone,andabigonewhichistherestofthestage.Oranintimatesceneonthesofamayprovideathird.

Considerthepossiblesequenceoftheplaythatmayinhabitourset.ActOne:earlyevening startingwithquitea lotofdaylight,butprogressing to thepointwherethepractical lightfittingsmustbeswitchedon.ActTwo:midnightwithdying firelightanda touchof themoon,enterCouplewhoswitchon standardlampatthesofafollowedbyApologeticDiscovererwhoswitchesonablazeofartificiallight.ActThree:morningafterthenightbefore,abashofsunshine.

Already this simple scene synopsishas toldusagreatdeal about separatelycontrolledlightingareas.Watchingrehearsalsandtalkingwiththedirectorwillrevealmore. For example, after switching on the standard lamp and having apreliminary skirmish on the sofa, one charactermaydecide to fix drinks: it islikelythatthedrinkstableareawillhavetobecheatedbrighter.(Incidentallythe

firstcuewasaconscioussnapswitchingcue,thesecond

Productionareas

willbeaslowsubconsciouscheat.)ThatsettingsuninActOnewillhavetobefiddledwithcareso that theappropriateactionarea is lefta littlebrighter thantherest—thatis,becomesanothercontrolledarea.

Ananalysisofareaswillprobablyproducealistfarlongerthancanbedealtwith in practical terms. So the list has to be refined.Close examination oftenrevealsthatwhatwethoughttobetwoseparateareasaresonearlyidenticalthattheycanberegardedasone.

Inseekingtoestablishareas,bewarethedirectorwhosays:‘Wellthereisthesofa, and the chair, coming through the door, and looking out thewindow…and,ofcourse,thedrinkstable.’Suchadirectorisoftenthinkingbacktotheoldstyleoflightingwherethestagewascoveredwithawashoflightfromfloodingequipment and spotlightswereused tohighlight chairs, etc.The actorsmovedfromonehighlightedpuddle to another, passing through a flatmurkywash inbetween. Modern lighting techniques join the spotlights together to form abalancedcontrolleddirectionallightthroughouttheactingarea.

ThinkinginsectionTheprocessofidentifyingtheidealproductionareasand,ifnecessary,reducingthemtoapracticalnumber,willresultinoutlinesontheplanthatlookratherlikea series of spotlights focused on the floor.We must not fall into the trap of

thinking that theactorswillbe lit ifwe focusspotlights in thisway.Since thelightwillneedtostriketheactoratanangleinordertoreacheyesandteeth,thelight at actor's face level will not correspond with the lit area of floor. Thusactorsmaystandwithinapooloflightinthefloor,yettheirfaceswillmissthelight. Or, indeed, an actor may stand outside that pool with face fully lit. Sowhenwemarkoutanareaonourplanwearethinkingofthatareaatfacelevel—andinconsequencethelightwillspillontoalargersurfaceoffloorandwallsthanisapparentfromourmarkedareaontheplan.

Actorsmaystandwithinapooloflightonthestageflooryettheirfaceswillmissthelight.Andstandoutsidethatpooloflightwithfacesfullylit.

Another problem of thinking and working in plan is the difficulty ofimagining the angle atwhich the light strikes the actor.As a general rule, thelightwillhittheactoratamuchmoreverticalanglethanlookslikelyfromtheplan.Withexperience,lightingdesignersdevelopaninstinctwhichenablesthemto look at plans and visualise the angle. But this intuition only comes afterinvolvement in many productions where the designer has gone through alearning process of comparing sections and plans against the reality of theproduction. These sections need not be beautiful drawings of the entire stage:quickthumbnailsketcheswilltellquiteastoryprovidedwedrawthehorizontalandverticalmeasurementstothesamescale.

In(A)theactorisstandingunderthespotandwehavealreadydiscussedtheadvantages(goodsculpturalmodelling)anddisadvantages(poorvisibilityduetoeyeandmouthshading)ofsuchaverticallight.In(B)hehasmovedupstageandwearegainingvisibilityattheexpenseofmodelling.In(C)hehasmovedsofarupstagethatthelight,thoughprovidinggoodvisibility,hasbecomeveryflat.In(D) the light cannot possibly reach the actor's head because a border is in theway.Inallcases,wecannotetheheightoftheactorshadowonthebackwalloftheset.

This typeof section,drawnupanddownstage, is themostgenerallyuseful.

However, ifwewant toconsider theeffectofside lightingangleson theactorstandingdirectlyunderneathaspotbar,wecandrawasectionacrossthestageasin (Z).Nosection,however,will tellus thewhole storybecause the lightwillrarely be hitting the actor directly from the front or from the side. It ismorelikelytobeapairoflightsforwardoftheactorbutdisplacedtothesides.Andastheyaremovedsideways(along,say,aspotbar)theangleatwhichtheyhittheactorwilldecrease.Thisisnoteasytoworkoutonpaperand,tobehonest,Iusea large amount of guesswork. Fortunately my guesses have improved withpractice! It is, however, an areawhere computer programmes are increasinglyabletoassistthevisualisation.

Withluck,thelightingdesignerwillbeabletowalkabouttheactualstageonwhich the play will be performed. Even if the lights are not hanging, it ispossible to lookat thepositionsandgainsomeideaof theangle that theywillprovide.Standintheactorpositionsandpointatalight:yourarmwillshowtheangleatwhichthebeamwillhittheactor.Useyourotherarmtoextendthelineofthebeambehindyou(youwill lookasifyouareplayingataeroplanes!)—thiswillshowhowfarthelitareawillextendbehindtheactor.Gobacktothedrawingboardbothbeforeandafter theshow.Relate theplansandsectionstothe actuality of the light on stage; relate it to the feel of the light as youpersonallystandonstage,andrelateittothewayitlooksontheactorwhenyouwatch from the auditorium. This relation of cause and effect, of paper andreality,istheonlyrealwaytolearnaboutlighting.

FansettingIn a naturalistic play, the light coverage has to be smooth and even,with thepossibility of being not only divided into areas but also given a directionalemphasiswhichislogicalintermsoflightsources.Thesimplestwaytoachievethisisbysettingtheinstrumentsintheformofafan.

We have see that the most economic way of getting a light which bothilluminesandmodelsistouseapairofspotlightsfromforwardandtothesideoftheactor,onefocusedtoeachsideoftheface.Thus,threeareaswillrequiresix spotlights. In the illustration overleaf, an actor standing in areaA is lit byspots1and4,inareaBby2and5,andinareaCby3and6.Spots1,2and3aresettocoverthestageinafanfromonesideandspots4,5and6tomakeafanfrom theother side.Thespotsoverlapslightly so that theactormovingacrossthestagegoessmoothlyfromoneareatothenext.Smoothnessisalsohelpedby

the throwdistancesandangles remainingreasonablyconstantacross thestage:asaresult,verylittlebalancingofindividualdimmersisrequiredtomaintainanevenlight.

Fansetting

Tointroduceadirectionalemphasis,spots1,2and3couldbesettoaslightlyhigher intensity than4,5and6—orviceversa togiveanemphasis fromtheotherside.

Inourplay, a spotbarhanging immediatelyupstageof theprosceniumwillproduceausefulfanoflightstartingatalineapproximately2metresupstageofthatspotbar,assumingthatthespotbarisabout5metresabovethestage.Thehigherthebar,thenthefurtherupstagewillbethestartofausefulfan.Inaplayofthiskindthenormalactingareaisnotverydeepandbasicareacoveragecanbeachievedwith two fans: theupstage fromspotbar and thedownstage fromfoh.Becauseofthearchitecture,fohspotsoftenhavetobefixedwherewecanhave themrather thanwherewewant them.Theangle isoften too frontalandmay be too low or too high. The quality of the foh light will therefore bedifferent from the spot bar light and it is important to have a considerableoverlapbetweentheminordertoavoidanabruptchangeinlightqualityastheactormovesbetweenupstageanddownstage.

OffstagesideofthefaceActorsareeasytolightinthemiddleofthestage.Theproblemsareatthesidesofthestageandstemfromthedifficultyofgettingalightbeamtohitthatsideofthe actor's facewhich is nearest to thewings. In an open setting, light can bedirected fromoffstage,but lightbeamscannotpass through thewallsofabox

set. In a daylight scene it is natural that the side of an actor nearest to awallwould be less bright; but if an actor in a night scene is standing near a wallbracket, then naturalism requires that the wall-side of his face should be thebrightest. In a box set, we can only deal with the problem by focusing theextremeendsofthespotbartotheirownsides.Thisis thenaturalpositionforthefirstlampinafansetting,butfocusingitisatrickyoperationbecauseofthenecessityoftryingtoavoidexcessiveflareontotheadjacentscenerywall.Suchaflareofspilllightwilltaketheaudienceeyesupwardsandawayfromtheveryactoruponwhomweare trying to focusattention.Similarproblemsarisewiththefoh,becausesidefohcanusuallyonlylighttheoppositehalfofthestage—or,ifwearelucky,theoppositetwo-thirds.

PerchesSpotsfixedtotheprosceniumwallsoneachsideofthestageortoboomsasfardownstageaspossible,arecalledperches.Thenamecomesfromplatforms,stillfixedtotheprosceniumofsomeoldertheatres,whereelectriciansonceperchedto trim the carbon arcs which were a basic light source from this position inbygone times.Theseperchpositionscanprovideauseful light for theoffstagesideof the face in thedownstagearea, aswell asprovidinggeneralmodellingcrosslight.Theirdegreeofusefulnessdependson theextent towhich theycanlight upstage, and this in turn depends on how the scenery fits within theprosceniumarch(seeillustration).

Perchangles:[top]prosceniumwiderthanset;(centre)prosceniumsamewidthasset;(bottom)prosceniumnarrowerthanset

PracticalsAnaturalistic set is normally dressedwith all the furnishings and props to befound in a real room. This includes electric light fittings which, when theyactually light,areknownaspracticals. If theyhavediffuse lampsandopaqueshades,itiseasiertoavoidtheircausingadistractingflare.Aspracticáisarepartof thedecorative scheme, theyshouldbe selectedby the scenedesigner ratherthanbythelightingdesigner.Ifapracticalistolooklikeaplausiblelightsource,theedgesofthespotlightshittingadjacentwallsmustbecarefullytrimmed.Forexample,aspotshouldnotactuallyhitawall-bracketfittingbutshouldfuzzoutjust below, so that the practical appears to be casting a glow downwards andoutwards. Careful balancing helps plausibility and practicáis should be on

individual dimmerswherever possible. If a practical has to share a dimmer, aselection of lamps of various wattages should be available at the lightingrehearsal.

ColourWehavebeendiscussingtheplayonlyintermsofselectingcontrollableareas,and the direction from which we should light those areas to get a goodcompromisebetweenvisibilityanddimensionalmodelling.Whataboutcolour?Weneed to apply a similar approach to that used for discovering controllableareas. The belt and braces solution is to cover every area twice, havingwhatamountstotwolightingrigs—oneinwarmtonesandtheotherincooltones.

Apartfromtheeconomicsofsuchanapproach,thescriptandproductionmaynotrequiresuchlavishprovision.Soitisbacktoproductionanalysis.Colourina naturalistic play tends to be used to denote morning, afternoon, sunlight,electriclight,gaslight,candlelight,etc.Ifithasahappy/sadmeaning,itisoftenbecause a clever author or director has twisted time and season to match theemotional situation. Which areas require a colour variation? Do we need adifferentcolourforartificiallightorwillthenaturalwarmingofslightlydimmedlamps do the trick? Or will cosy ambience come from amore localised lightratherthanfromcolour?Veryoftenacolourtoningofthestagecanbeachievedbyafewspotssetinopenfocustocolourwashthestage.Whateverwayweplanto use colour, the decision must come from the style and demands of theproduction.

FootlightsHow about footlights? These are very rarely installed in new theatres.At onetimeamajor light source, theywere rejectedwith thedevelopmentofmoderntechniquesbecauseofthedistortedeffectproducedbyastrongupwardlightonthe face. They were further rejected on architectural grounds when neurosesstarted todevelopabout theprosceniumarchactingasabarrierbetweenactorandaudience.Havetheyanyvalue?Itcertainlycanhelpanactor'sfacetohavealittlesoftupwardlighttocounteractsomeoftheheavyshadowingthatcanresultfromanoverabundanceof toplight.Theproblemis that,whenweuseenoughfootlight to gain a significant result on the actor's face, we also introduceshadowsofaparticularly irritatingnature.Thiseffect iscalled‘risingshadow’

because it is higher than the actor and the shadow height varies as the actorsmoveupanddownstage.Furthermorethereislikelytobenotoneshadowbutawholeseriescorrespondingtotheindividuallampsinthefootlight.

Nevertheless, in a box-set comedy, if a footlight is available, I like to try alittle—but carefullybalanced to thepoint justbefore rising shadowbecomesnoticeable.Apartfromtheslightlifttothelighting,thereisapsychologicalliftto the actors. Awarm glow can help actor confidence, and, contrary tomosttheorists,manyactors like tohaveabarrierbetween themand theaudience.Afamous comedy actress, who certainly developed an immediate rapport witheach and every audience, once said tome: ‘Canwe have footlights— I needthemforprotectionagainstthedevouringmonstersoutthere!’

ChoosinginstrumentsOurdiscussionsonlightingtheplayhavesofarbeenconcernedwithdecisionsaboutanglesoflightandpositioningoftheinstrumentstoachievetheseangles,rather than with type of instrument to be used. I believe this to be afundamentallycorrectapproach.

Ifirstputcrossesonmyplantoindicatethepositionsofthelights.ThenIaddbasic indications of direction (using such shorthand as little arrows withreminderslikeDRandUCfordownrightorupcentre)andcolourtype(suchasW,CorNforwarm,cold,neutral).OnlywhenIfeelcertainaboutthepositionsofthelightsdoIdecidewhichtypesofinstrumentIwouldideallyliketouseineachof thesepositions.Firstasafamily(i.e. flood, fresnel,profile,beamlight,etc.),thenasaparticularinstrumentwiththeappropriatebeamangletocovertherequired area on the throw distance from the decided position. Finally Irationalise— possibly deciding to use PC or fresnels spots in some positionsbecause they will be faster to focus than profiles and schedule time looksdistinctlyshort.ButmoreprobablybecauseIhavetouseequipmentwhichexistsrather than the equipment I would ideally like to have. Lastly I convert mynotionsofcolourtonesintoactualfilternumbers.

AtypicalplanPiecingthisdiscussiontogetherintoatypical lightingrigforourboxset,whatdoweget?(Seepages126–127.)

Lightinggroundplan

Outsidethewindow,circuits21and22covertheskyinadarkishblueandapalerblue.Atthebottom25and26coverinslightlydifferentbluetints,andathirdgroundrowcircuitgives awarmsunset. In themiddleof the floodbar, aprofilespot(23)highlightsthechurchspireonthegroundrow.Theboomhasacoupleofwarmfresnels(27)andcoolfresnels(28)forthewindow.Outsidethedoors,19and20dealwithbackingsandentrances/exits.

On the spot bar, 1, 3 and 5 form an upstage fan from stage left and thiscorrespondswiththefanof8,10and12fromtheright.4and9lightacrossthedownstage area to counteract the flattening effect of the foh. 2 and 11 give acontrolledfloodofcoollightacrossthestage.6punchesupthelightonanyonedeliveringanentranceorexitlineatthedoor,and7liftsthelightonanyonewhomaybeotherwiseover-silhouettedwhilestandinginfrontofthewindow.

From the perches, 13 and 14 provide a fanning crosslight to centre and

upstage right, while 16 and 17 do the same from the other side. The lowerperches,15and18,provideasoftfilltotheirownsidesofthestage.

In the tradition of the permanent basic rigs ofmany theatres, fresnels havebeenshownontheno.1spotbaralthoughtheseareincreasinglybeingreplacedbyPCs.Thefohareprofiles.

Fromthefrontcentre31,32,33and37,38,39provideafancoverage,while35providesafill.34and36areacoolwash.Fromthesidesoftheauditorium,29and41givecrosslightingtocentre,while30and40carrythiscrosslightontotheirrespectivefarsides.

Thisisnot,repeatnot,theidealwaytodealwithabox-setplay,itismerelyonepossiblewayofapproachingtheproblem.

UsingmoreinstrumentsLighting positions in box sets are often limited by a ceiling.Obviouslywhenthereisaceiling,itisnotpossibletohangspotbarsinpositionsotherthanthedownstageareaimmediatelybehindtheproscenium.Whenthereisnoceiling,abacklightingspotbarbecomespossibleandamidstagespotbarcanintroduceamoredimensionalmodellingangleoflightintotheupstageareas.Ifmorelightsarerequired in thedownstageposition, thefirstspotbarcanbedoublebanked—anadditionalbarhungnextto,andslightlyhigherthan,thefirstone.

UsingfewerinstrumentsWemay,forreasonsofeconomyininstruments,electricityortime(allofwhichequate to someextentwithmoney)be forced touse fewer lights.Theywouldprobablybediscardedfromtheplaninsomethinglikethefollowingorder:35;4and9;34and36;23;7.Thenthepercheswouldbecomeoneopen-focusedspotper side, backings would reduce to one lamp per circuit, the side foh wouldshrinktooneperside.Theboomwouldbecomethreefresnels,thentwofresnels.Floodbar andgroundrowwouldbecomewhateverold floodsorbits of battenwereavailable,andtheboomwouldreducetoonespotonastand.Beforelong,wewouldbedowntothefundamentalsituationofour‘firststeps’asdiscussedinChapter8.

BalancingOnceallthelightshavebeenhungandfocused,theprocedureforarrivingatthevarious cue states runs parallel to the thought processes at the drawing board.Thestartingpoint is thekeysource.First theviewoutside thewindowisbuiltup, followed by the light coming through thewindow. Then the spot bar andpercheswhichlightfromthesamedirectionasthewindow(i.e.keysource)areadded. Instruments from the other side are now balanced to a slightly lowerintensitylevelsothatthelightappearslogicalintermsofthewindow.

Foranartificial lightsource, thesamesortofprocedure isapplied.First thepractical light fitting, then the spots which light the appropriate area from alogicaldirectionand,finally,additionofotherangles,withcarefulbalancingtoensurethatthesceneremainslogicalintermsofthepracticallightfitting.

FLASHPOINT:ANEXAMPLEOFABOX-SETPLAY

Itwouldbeverydifficultindeedtodesignasetmorebox-likethanFlashpoint.Theboxwas aNissenhut armybarrack-roomwith sidewalls runningup anddownstage,andbackwallrunningacrossandparalleltothefrontofthestage.Thedoorwasupstagecentrewith awindowoneach side, and the furnishingswerelimitedtobedsandlockerspositionedwithappropriatemilitaryrespectforsymmetry.

Flashpointwasanaturalisticplayandthelightinghadtorelatelogicallytoitsapparent source: two naked bulbs hanging from the (supposed) ceiling. Theirharshnessprovidedthecluetofilterchoiceforthelightinginstruments—none.Apartfromatouchofgoldtintinthebacklightandatouchofblueinacoupleoffohcircuits,thiswasanopenwhiteplay.

In planning the light outside the windows, some licence was taken in theinterestsofdramaticeffect.Theentireactionoftheplaytookplaceatnight,butnightinanarmycampisneitherblacknorblue—logicallytherewouldbesomewarmlightfromstreetlamps,otherhuts,etc.However,attheclimax

FlashpointattheMayfairTheatre

oftheplaywhenonesoldierisholdinghisfellowsashostagesatgunpoint,‘arc-lights’weredirectedontothehutandsubsequentlyshotout.Theimpactofsuchasceneishelpedbymaximumcontrastandsotheexternallightonthewindowwasrestrictedtoadeepishblue.

TheMayfair,unlikemostLondonWestEndtheatres,hadareasonablestockoflightinginstrumentsandsoitwaspossibletolighttheplayentirelyfromthetheatre's own resources.TheMayfair's fohpositions aregood,with abaroverthefrontstallsseatinggivingaparticularlysympatheticfaceangle(beingatinytheatre—310seats—ladderaccesstothisbarisnotaproblem).

As canbe seen from the plan, six pairs of spots on the first stage barwerefocused in a conventional fan-setting on the upstage areas (left, centre, andright);and,similarly,sixpairsfromthefohbarcoverthedownstageareas.Allareashadacomfortabledegreeofoverlap.

Themidstagebargaveacross-washandtheauditoriumside-bars(againsetina left/centre/right configuration) helped to model the actors from the lowerangle. The only instruments that could be called specials were some fresnelsfocusedtohighlightacoupleofkeyscenesintheplay—oneplayedstandingonthe upstage right bed and the other in the down left corner. (Throughout, theterms right and left are used to indicate the actor's left and right, not theaudience's.)

Thereweretwoupstagebars.Thebarjustdownstageofthebackwallofthesetgaveasimplewashofbacklightontheactors,whilethelastonebacklitthewindows.The‘arc-lights’were2kWfresnels—onstandstogive

LightingplanforFlashpoint

the appropriate horizontal angle for dramatic effect when the window wasbrokenandtheroomlightsswitchedoff.

The cuesworkedon two levels: naturalistic switchingof the practical roomlights,andsubtlechangesofemphasiswherethelightingbalancewascheatedsothat the audience's concentrationwas controlled in a subconscious rather thanconsciousway.Theplotworkedeasilyonatwo-presetcontrolsystem.

OTHERPROSCENIUMPLAYSTYLES

Ihaveusedthebox-setrealismstyletoillustratethethoughtprocessesinvolvedindesigningaplay.Drama,however,mostlyburstsoutofsuchaframework—notjustoftheboxsetframedbyaprosceniumarch,butoftheprosceniumitself.A later chapter discusses the implications of thrusting the stage beyond theconfinesoftheproscenium.Whathappenswhenwetakeawaythesolidwallsofa realistic room and substitute some sort of clear acting space with onlysimplifiedrepresentationalscenicelementstosymboliselocationandmood?

Thefirstresultforthelightingdesignerisfreedom.Freedomfromthetyrannyofwallsandceilingswhichblockthepassageoflightbeams.Freedomfromthehopelessness of trying to imitate the wonders of the natural light which stemfrom a single source reflected by the complex vibrant surfaces of a lighting

environment. Freedom to use light in an expressive way to point andcounterpointtheintellectandemotionofthedrama.Ah,WonderfulFreedom!

Buthavinggainedthisfreedom,wheredowefindorientation?Thewindow,thewallbrackets,therestrictivewallsweresomethingtorespondto,somethingtochannelourthoughts.Whatnow?

With a departure from reality, acting increasingly becomes an exaggeratedand/orsimplifiedversionofnormalbehaviour.Scenerybecomesanexaggeratedand/or simplified statement, using selected symbolic items from a realenvironment. Likewise, lighting becomes an exaggerated and/or simplifiedstatement—essentiallyaclearer,morepositive,lightthanthegentlyreflective,all-pervadingunobtrusivelightofnormallife.

Under these conditions there is likely to be greater emphasis on the use oflighttocreatespacebypullingitoutofsurroundingdarkness.Thiswillinvolveconsiderableemphasisondimensionalmodellingfromsideandbacklights.Suchlighting styles are often best achieved by the ‘four lights at ninety degrees’method rather than the three-light method of paired fan-set face lights plusbacklighting.

As we move away from naturalism, light cues can become more fluid.Windows,andtheviewthroughthem,arethefirstthingstobejettisonedontheflight fromnaturalism.Practical lampsmay linger, but the resultant light needplay scant attention to the logic of the source. Light cues can become free tohappenforpurelyselectiveoremotivereasons.

What sort of key light(s)? Does the set suggest a directional key light? Orperhaps a series of directional key lights appropriate to individual scenes?Whatevertheresultofourthinking,thesolutionislikelytohavetwofeatures:astrong positive lighting statement that the audience are immediately aware of;andaback-uprig,probablyon thefanprinciple, thatdevelops the lightwithinthelogicofthekeysourcetoprojecttheactortohisaudience.

Itisnowquitecommontoignoremaskingontheprosceniumstageandleaveall the lighting equipment on view. Sometimes the structure of the rig isdeliberatelydesignedaspartoftheset,itsshapeoftencomplementingtheformof that set.Atother times anormal rig is just exposed: this is apositive styledecision and, when it is made, there is a strong case for exposing only theupstagebarswhicharemostlikelytoincludethepositivekeylamps.Themassofsecondaryfillequipmentimmediatelybehindtheprosceniumisperhapsbestlefthidden.

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SINGLE-SOURCELIGHTING

Nature's reliance on a single source— sunbyday andmoonbynight—hasbeennotedearlierinthischapter.Thedifficultiesofapplyingtheseprinciplestothestagehavebeenhintedatandmaybesummarisedas:

Most sunlight or moonlight is reflected light, but scenery reflects in adifferentwayfromnaturalsurfaces.

To project character, actors tend to need a light which is balanced toprovide clear facial visibility over longer distances than are normal ineverydaylife.

Theoptionofsubtlevariationsinatmosphericcolourorareaselectiontendsrequires a more accurate beam control than the broad brushstroke of asinglehigh-poweredsource.

Nevertheless,thedramaticclarityofaverypowerfullight,usuallygeneratedbya discharge lamp, can be so effective that it may be considered justifiable tosacrifice some facial visibility in the interests of the total picture. Likeeverything we do with light, this is a matter of lighting style — notsuperimposedbutintegraltothewholeproductionconcept.Workingwithonlyavery few broad uni-directional beams requires careful consideration of thereflectivequalitiesof thesceneryplusaparticularlyhighdegreeof integrationwith the acting, often fitting the actors to the light rather than the light to theactors.

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LIGHTINGDANCE

Sculptural enhancement of the human figure is the primary requirement oflighting for dance.While dancers’ expressionsmust be visible, it iswith theirlimbs that they ‘speak’.Therefore the entire body has to bemade visible in away which will maximise the three-dimensional quality of the dancer'smovementsandseparatethemfromthesurroundingenvironment.

Forthisreasonmostlightsonthedancestagearefocusedeitherasdownlightsorcrosslights.Very fewarepointedupstage,eitherdirectlyoron thediagonalanglesofthefansettingscommonlyusedindramawheneyesandteetharesuchapriorityforvisibility.

Suchageneralisationis,ofcourse,tobemodifiedbyconsiderationsofstyle.Classical ballets, particularly those with a strong narrative plot, are likely torequire a softer, more frontal light than an abstract modern piece. Classicalchoreographytendstofill thestage:adancercantraversetheentirestageveryrapidly and with relatively few steps. Therefore light is unlikely to be usedselectively to any great extent other than perhaps a ‘tightening’ achieved bycheatingdowntheedges.Somemoderndance,ontheotherhand,usescomplexmovements by dancers in relatively static positions. Both classical andcontemporary dance tends to utilise strong colour for atmosphere. For theclassicsthisisoftenaromanticheighteningofnaturewiththemoontrulyblueandthesunparticularlygolden.

Settingsfordanceveryrarelyincluderaisedlevels.Indeedthereisageneralneed to provide as much clear space as possible. And lots of entrances arepreferred—both togivearangeofoptions(it isdifficult toenterfromwheresomeoneelsehasjustmadealeapingexit)andtosimplifygettingalotofpeoplesimultaneously on or off.Multiple entrances are good news for lighting sincetheyensurethatthesidesofthestagearesufficientlyopentoallowthenecessarypositionsforplacingsculpturallights.

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Althoughlargescenicpiecesmaybefoundinsomeclassicalballetdesign,thegreatmajority of dance takes placewithin a space bounded by backcloth andwings.Manymoderndance companieshave a standard settingof blackwingsandborders,analternativeofskyorblacksattheback,andavinyldancefloorwhichisroutinelyblackbutmaybewhiteorgrey.Clothsor,morelikely,smallscenicpiecesmaybeusedattheback.Biggercompaniesmayalsousewingflatsasanalternativetoblacksforsomeworksintherepertoire.

Thisstandardisationof theactingareaenablesconsiderablestandard¬isationofnotonlythelightingrigbutmuchofitsfocusing.Thisisfortunatefromthelightingmanagement point of view sincemost dance programmes, apart fromthe big three-act classics, consist of three or four one-acters which may bechosen in virtually any permutation from the total repertoire. Therefore themaximumchangeover timebetweenany twodancepieces in aperformance islikely to be the fifteen minutes of a standard interval. This imposes aconsiderabledisciplineontheuseofthelightingrigwhichisoftenorganisedinthefollowingbasicgroups:

Fixedfocusandcolour.

Fixed focusbutwith remote colour-changerswith fixed rangeof colours.(Thefourorfivecoloursofsemaphoresandwheelsisnowexpandedtothedozenplusofscrollers.)

Fixedfocusbutallowedanintervalcolourchange.

Refocusableduringintervals.

Specialsunalterablysetforworksinthecurrentrepertoire.

As already indicated, the fixed-focus lights on the overhead spot bars arenormally set as back, down and crosslights — very rarely on the diagonal.Downlightsareparticularlyimportantindance,bothfortheircontributiontothemodelling and for the way they colour the floor and help wash out dancershadowswhichwouldotherwisebedistractingonitsuntexturedsurface.Ofthecrosslightersonthebars,thoseattheextremeends,knownasthepipeends,areof particular value formodelling from a high angle. Frontal lighting from theauditorium isusedverysparinglyandmostly frompositions to theside;manymoderndancecompaniesusevirtuallynofoh.

Sidelightingisusuallyprovidedfromlowbooms,rarelyhigherthanabout3or 4metres, mounted on small castored trucks heavily weighted for stability.These can be moved up/down and on/off the stage according to the masking

arrangementsandarenormallysettighttothemaskinglegs,allowingaspaceforentrancebetweentheboomandthenextlegupstage.Thelowestlightsonsuchboomsareknownasshinbustersbecausetheynotonlylighttheshinsbutarepotentiallydangeroustodancersmakingexits.Thelowestshinbusterisoftensetto splash across the stage floorwhile the instrument immediately above clearsthefloor.Goinguptheboom,horizon¬tallysetlightsinseriescatchthedancers’bodies. Since dancers at the side of the stagewill be close to the lights,wideanglesandsoftedgesarerequired:fresnelsarethereforeoftenfavoured.Verticalspreadfordancersclosetoasidelightmaybeimprovedbydirectionaldiffuserssuch as Rosco 104. Profile spots with break-up gobos, focused horizontallyacross the stage, can make an interesting contribution of chiaroscuro to thelighting palette since they do not show until the dancers pass through theirbeams.Coloursmaybechangedeasilyon side lighting trucks,notonly in theintervalbutduringtheperformance.

Wingflatsorlegsarenormallyseton-and-offstageratherthanup-and-downstageoratanangle.Theyappeartobesetparalleltothefrontofthestagebuttheonstageedgeisveryslightlydownstageinrelationtotheoffstageedge.Thisfractional angling is imperceptible to theaudiencebut sufficient to ensure thatthe crosslighting does not hit the opposite wing where it would cast dancershadows.Theanglingofthewingissoslightthatitcanonlyreallybedoneafterthe lights havebeen focused; the lightingdesigner stands in themiddleof thestage, arms waving, and the onstage edge of the wing is cheated fractionallydownstageuntilhisshadowdisappears.

Followspotsaresometimesusedinclassicalballetbutasinglefrontalfollowspotcanbeveryflatteningifitinanywayapproachesbeingamajorsourceoflight.Iffollow-spottingisusedthereshouldbeatleasttwo,orpreferablythree,fromanglesappropriatetosculpturalmodelling.Inmoderndance,however,thefollowspotisnormallytoberegardedasaspecialeffect.

Danceispotentiallyoneofthemostexcitingareasforlighting.Thepossibilityofconcentratingonmodellingandatmosphereratherthandetailedvisibilityforeyes and teeth allows light tomake a particularly integrated contribution.Theabsenceofsceneryintheactingareareducessomeelementsofcompromiseandallows the lighting scope for maximum fluidity in creating the performancespace. The absence of scenery also leaves a reasonably clear grid, allowinglighting equipment a better chance of placement where required, while theminimaluseoffohremovesmanyoftheproblemsassociatedwithgettinggoodlighting positions within the restrictions of auditorium architecture. Dance

companies often use quite extensive lighting rigs but a great deal can still beachievedonalowbudget.Standsinthewingspluspipeendsanddownlightersarethebasics.

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LIGHTINGMUSICALS

Although labels suchasoperaandmusical are still applied to theatre for sungratherthanspokencommunication,thedistinctionbetweenvariousperformanceformshasbecomeincreasinglyblurred inrecentyears—bothfornewwritingand in theway olderworks are presented. Indeedmany productions of dramatexts now involve so much music and choreographed movement that anydivision of our discussion into drama, dance, musicals and opera could beregarded as irrelevant.Nevertheless,while there is a undoubtedly a large areawhere cross-fertilisation between forms is developing an integrated ‘totaltheatre’,therearestillconsiderabledifferencesbetweenthelightingcontributionmade tomainstreamdrama, conventionalopera and thevariousmanifestationsofwhatweusuallyrefertoasthe‘themusical’.

Any work of music theatre is a long way from realism: we tend tocommunicatewitheachotherbyspeechratherthanbysingingduets.Yet,whereamusical format isestablishedat thebeginningofaperformance,anaudiencequickly find musical communication to be quite normal, natural and evenrealistic.

In thepast, theatreusedmusic,whether in the formofsongordance,asanaddition to the spoken drama. The musical numbers were added as acommentarytotheaction,ratherthanasameansofcarryingtheactionforward.Thenthemusicalensemblesattheendsoftheactsbegantobepartoftheaction.Thisspreadtotheduets,triosandotherensemblepiecesinthemiddleoftheactsuntil,today,whenmostmusicalsaimtobecompletelythrough-composed,evenreflectiveromanticsoloscarrytheactionforward.

Originally, there was little difference between opera and other forms ofmusical.Inthefirsthalfofthetwentiethcentury,thetwoformswenttheirowndiverse ways — at least in Britain and America, although perhaps not socompletelyinCentralEuropewhereoperettawasthepopularformofthemore

lighthearted musical stage. In lighting terms, many differences areorganisational:operahastobeplayedinrepertoirebecauseofthevocaldemandsonsingers,whereasamusicalcanplayforacontinuousrun.

Theprincipaldifferencebetweentheaveragemusicalandtheaverageplayissize.Themusicalhasmorepeopleandmorescenes.Thisinevitablymeansmoremoney.For lighting itmeansmore instruments,morecuesandmoreplanning.Andanycynicwilltellyouthat,forallinvolved,itmeansmorehysteria.

StyleSowheredowestart?Yes,nosurprises,it'sbacktostyle.Asalwaysthisgrowsoutoftheextentandmannerofthedeparturefromnaturalism.Productionstyleinamusicalisstronglyinfluencedbytwodecisions.Firstly,theextenttowhichthedirectorisgoingtotreatthemusicalnumbersasanintegralpartoftheshow.Secondly,howthedesignerisgoingtodealwiththediversityofsceniclocationsdemandedbythescript.

MusicalsceneryPictorialscenepaintingisstillverymuchaliveintheworldofthemusical.Playdesigners, whether working in a naturalistic style or not, tend to build solidthree-dimensional scenic units from strongly textured materials which requirelittleassistancefrompaint.Butanentiremusicalscenemaystillbepaintedonacanvasdropasbigastheprosceniumopening.Theplotsofmanyoldermusicalswere constructed to alternate between full-stage scenes and frontcloth scenes.These frontclothsmaskmajor scene changes, and also allow time for costumechangesforthechorussingersanddancersrequiredforthefull-stagenumbers.

DecorativemaskingTospeed theflowfromonescene toanother,whileminimising thenumberofcrew required tohandle thechanges,mostmodernmusicalproductionsdonotbuild complete scenes. They use the decorative masking principle where thestage has a permanent arrangement of wings, borders and back-cloth. Thismasking is not the conventional neutral surround of skeleton-set drama, but averypositivepictorialmasking,oftendecoratedwithacolourfulmotiforeven

based on a definite constructional idea such as elaborate trelliswork. Forindividual scenes, representational pieces stand, often island-like, within thismaskingsurround.Inthesmallest-scaleproductions,thesescenicpiecesmaybejust small free-standing cut-outs carried on from the side.As the shows growmoreambitious,theyincreaseinsizeuntilultimatelytheybecomesohugeandheavy that powered assistance is required to move them on a special stageflooringcrisscrossedwithguidingtracks.

Anaveragemusicalsetting?Although there can be no standard scenic treatment, many of the possibleapproachestotheproblemhaveenoughcommonfeaturestoletusconsiderwhatmight,forlightingpurposes,betermedanaveragemusicalsetting.Thecommondenominator is the borders-and-wings approach which, whether permanent ornot, is the most practical way of providing for a large acting area with thepossibilityofquicksimultaneousentrancesandexitsbyalargecast.

Anaveragemusicallightingstyle?Whether or not the music numbers are well integrated into the show, fewmusicals are carried continuously forward inmusic.Amore normal pattern isstill spoken dialogue alternating with musical numbers. When these musicalnumbers are a commentary interleaved between dialogue sections, differentlightingstylesareoftenusedforthetwotypesofscene.Thedialoguescenesareenactedinlightingthatapproximatestothatofanaturalisticplay,but,with‘cueforsong’,thelightingdoesaconsciouscontrastingchange.Oneconventionhassoloistspickedoutbyfollowspotswhiletherestofthestagecheatsdowntoasuitablycolouredambience.At theendof themusicalnumber the lightbuildsback to normal, often over the last few bars to support the climax, inevitablyencouraging applause. There is a danger that themove from a contrasty lightwithfollowspotsintoagenerallightcoveragewilldropthedramatictensionofthesceneand,unlessthefollowspotisfadedverydiscreetlyandonlyafterthelights are fully back to ‘normal’, the actormay even appear darker. For brashnoisynumbers the lighthas tobebuilt fullybrightandgivenanevenbrighter‘bump’ rightat theendof theclimax. (Tomake thisbumppossible, the lightscanbesubconsciouslycheateddownbeforetheendofthenumbersothatthereis some intensity available for bumping back consciously to full.) A very

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atmospheric lighting for songs cangive a feelingof anticlimaxwhen the lightreturnstoaspeechstyle.Sothisisanareawheregreatcareintiminghastobeexercised; therehavebeenmanymusicalproductionswhereabruptchanges inlighting and production styles have destroyed the author's and composer'sattemptstowriteashowwithatruemarriageofwordsandmusic.

Anaveragemusicallightingrig?Whateverwayitisdecidedtouselightinaparticularproduction,thereislikelytobeabasicrequirementtocontrolthelightwithinthefollowingframeworkofpossibilities:

Thefacialclarityofnaturalisticdramaandthefiguremodellingofthedancecombinedwithselectiveemphasisonappropriatescenicunitsanda wide range of ambience, possibly embracing the extreme limits of thecolourspectrum.

Facial clarity tends to be required only towards the front of the stage. In theinterests of establishing audience contact, important scenes tend to be playedwellforward:theonlyimportantupstagespeechesaredeliveredfromthetopsofstaircases, probably on entrance or exit. Facial clarity is only required formusical numbers if there are no follow spots. Traditionally, these musicalnumbers were delivered well downstage to be near the orchestra, but radiomicrophones plus fold-back loudspeakers have brought more freedom ofmovementtosingers.

Inmanycases facialvisibility for thedialoguescenescanbeachieved fromthefohandfirstspotbarpositions,withafewlightsonamidstagebartoface-lightstaircasesandthelike.Thesefacelightsusepaletintswhereastherestofthe rig is inmorepositive colours.Thebarswill carry some spots topickoutscenicfeaturesbutmostoftheremainderoftherig,whetherfromaboveorfromthe side,will be used to put colour andmodelling into the chorus singers anddancers. Even in a modern musical, where the chorus may be individualcharactersrather thanananonymousmass, theytendtobeusedin theformofbackgrounddressingandare thereforemore fun to light than theprincipals. Ifthechorusdohaveanythingspecial to sayor sing, they tend tocome forwardeitherasamassorasindividualstodeliverfromtheface-litdownstagearea.For

dance numbers, the sculptural modelling is increased by using a greaterproportionofsidelight.Tosoft-lightapainted frontcloth, there isnothing tobeat the sourceswhich

aredisasterfornormalactorlighting:fresnelsflatonfromthefrontofthelowestbalconyplusatouchoffootlight.

The illustrations on pages 142 and 143 show the scope of typical plans forlargeandsmallresourcemusicalshows.Overtheentirestagearea,provisionismade for topandside lighting inat least two,preferably three, colours.Usingthestrongest saturatedcolours frombackanddownlights, intermediatecolourswhicharestrongbuthavean incisiveclarity fromthesides,andneutrals fromthefront,wehaveacolourpalettethatoffersconsiderablescopeforthedifferentrequirementsofsong,danceanddialogue.

Large-scalemusicalwithextensivelightingresources

Musicalusingsmall-scaleresources

Practicalrigging

PracticalriggingThebestpositionsfortheoverheadbarsareimmediatelyupstageoftheborders.The horizontal masking borders are often framed and bolted to theircorresponding vertical masking legs to form solid portals. Thus the maskingbecomesaseriesofportals,ratherlikeaseriesofprosceniums.Indeedthefirstportalisusuallycalledthe‘falseproscenium’.Ifthelightingbarsareflownnexttotheportals,theyareabletolightupstagewithoutspillingonthefrontofthenextborder.Alsothelightsareprotected,tosomeextent,frombeingknockedbymovingscenery.

This position is suitable for most normal purposes with the exception ofbacklight for which the ideal hanging position is immediately downstage ofportals. Such bars require a high dead tomask, and care needs to be taken toensurethatlightisnotcutoffbyflownsceneryhangingdownstageofthebars:thiscanbeaparticularproblemintheatreswithlowgrids.

Wherepossible,sidelightingiscarriedonboomsscrewedtothestagefloor.Again,theseboomsshouldbefixedimmediatelyupstageofthemaskinglegstoallowtheirlighttobeangledslightlyupstageandtokeepthemclearofsceneryandactormovements. If scenerymovementsmakebooms impossible, the sidelights may be hung on ladder-like frames, clear of the stage floor. This isreasonably satisfactory, although for dance it is usual to have some lower,horizontal,sidelighting.Itis,naturally,disastrousifaladderisknockedduringascenechange; thewholestructureand its lightbeamswillcontinue toswingthroughoutthefollowingscene.Forthesmall-scaleshow,lightsonstandscanbeused.But theyshouldbesupervisedbystageelectricians since,apart from theriskoftheequipmentbeingknockedbyscenery,itwillprobablybenecessarytochangethesidelightingcoloursofasmallrigbetweenscenesorevencues.

THEGREATAMERICANBACKSTAGEMUSICAL:ABIGMUSICALONASMALLSCALE

‘Lookkid,Idon'tsaythiseverydayoftheweek,butyou'regoingplaces.Yougotclassandyougotwhatittakes.’

‘Thanks,Sylvia.ButIhappentothinkthatIcanstickrightherewithJohnnyandstillgetmynameinlights.’

‘IfyoustickrightherewithJohnny,theonlywayyou'llgetyournameinlightsisifyouchangeittoCoca-Cola.’

This kind of dialogue will be very familiar to anyone who loves theatre asportrayedinthe‘I'mgonnamakeyouastar’typeofHollywoodshowbizmovie.Alas,theydon'tmake'emthatwayanymore,butyoucanstillcatchare-runontelevision.

TheprogrammeofTheGreatAmericanBackstageMusical listed thescenessimply asPlace and Time:NewYork, London and the battlefields of Europe,1939 to1945.This includedsuch locationsasbackstage,onstage, thedressingrooms of tacky clubs andBroadway hits, tea at theRitz and coffee at a sodafountain,entertainingthefront-linetroops(directhit,nextsceneafieldhospital)etc.,etc.Allthenormalstuffthatepicmusicalsaremadeof.HoweverthiswastheRegentTheatre—acinemawithnowings,noflysandatokenstage.

ButdesignerRobertDeinworkedmiraclesofscenicstatement.Twoportalsofblack glossed scaffolding lined with black bolton twill framed one of theRegent'speculiarities,turningitintoanasset.Ifasmallstagehappenstohaveanattractive cast-iron balustraded balcony running along the back wall andblockingoffasignificantpartofthestage'sdepth,thereisnopointinignoringit.Itwillnotgoaway;you justhave touse it.Andso thebalconybecamemanythings.Theminiatureroll-upclothsforthe

BackstageatTheGreatAmericanBackstageMusicalshowingtheupstagerightlightingboombetweenascaffoldingportalandtheornamentalbalustradewhichisapermanentfeatureoftheRegentstage

clubstagesceneswerehungunderittoconveysmallnessofscale.ItbecameacrosslitfeatureoftheRitz.ItbecamethelocationoftheSodaFountainscene.Itbecameauseful levelfordry-icetanksandflash-boxes.Itwasonlyhiddenforthe Broadway Spectacular scenes when a full height pair of silver lurex tabsmade,bycontrast,averybigstatement.

Within this framework, small cut-outs, mini-trucks and essential furniturewereused tosuggest location.Thissceneryhad tobesmall—therewas littlewingspacetostoreitand,evenwithacastofonlysix,anactingareaofabout

18ftby16ft(6×5metres)doesnotleaveagreatdealofroomforlavishscenery.

LightingplanforTheGreatAmericanBackstageMusical

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Thestandard1:25scaledlightinglayoutplancanbeunwieldyduringlighting,technicalanddressrehearsals.However,theessentialinformationcanbecondensedontoastandard8in.x5in.(20x12cm)indexcard.AbigshowmayusebothsidesbutTheGreatAmericanBackstageMusicalfittedeasilyontooneside.Thesymbolsforthecolouredchannelsweredrawninred,blueoryellow.

Therewerethreetypesoflightingrequired:

straight‘play’lightingforthedialoguescenes

atmospherictreatmentforthemusicalnumbers

moreexaggeratedtreatmentofthemusicalnumberstakingplaceonstages(the‘musicalswithinamusical’)

Thelightingwasascaled-downversionofthetypeofrigusedonbigmusicals.Pale natural tints from the front, strong colour from the sides, and reallysaturatedcolourfromaboveandbehind.

TheRegentissosmallthatallfacelighthastocomefromtheauditorium,butthere are two ceiling bars over the stalls at a good face angle, together withanotherbaroverthebalconyandapairofboomsatthebalconysidesgivingagoodfill.Thestallsceilingbarswerefocusedstraightinwithnocrossing.(Yes,perhaps a little flattening but in this particular show itwasmore important tokeep the dialogue scenes tight with minimum light spill on the black portalframes.)Onsuchasmallstagetherewaslittlepointinsplittingleft,centreandright(orevenjustleftandright—fortheonescenerequiringthis,therewereacoupleofspecials),sotheareawassplitintoinnersandouters,togivecontrolofthedegreeoftightnessofanyparticularscene.Allthesespotswereprofileswithpaletints.

Thedownandbacklightingwasprovidedby1kWparcans(120voltinseriespairs)givinghighintensityfromsaturatednear-primarycoloursandcreatingthatdepth-enhancing haze, characteristic of backlight in general and sealed-beamlightsinparticular.

The dialogue scenes were lit mainly from the front with just a low-leveltoning from above. The scenes set in backstage working light were ratherharshly white, while other locations were given softer tinting. For musicalnumbers,sidecolourwasaddedandthesinglefollowspotusedratherdiscreetly.For onstage ‘musicalwithin amusical’ scenes, the colour becamemuchmorecontrasty and the follow spot more obvious. And some obviously ‘stagey’devices were introduced, such as chasers, dry-ice, flash-boxes, flashingphotofloods,gobosandshin-bustingbeamlightsatfloorlevel.

To provide a linkwith themovies, the show's credit titleswere run on theRegent'sroll-downcinemascreenduringtheoverture.Thiswasachieved(atlessexpense than film and projectionist) by crossfading a pair of 35mm carouselsfromabar on the front of thebalcony.This position, oftenomitted fromnewtheatresbecauseitwouldproduceabad(i.e.horizontal)faceanglecanbeveryusefulinamusical.Hereitwasvitalforsuchjobsaspickingupsparkleonthetabsandprojectingasilhouettegoboduringaradioannouncement.

Thehousecontrolwasa36-wayMini2whichcarried themain load,plusatemporary12-wayMini2forthespecials.Thetwinboardswerehandledbyone(excellent) operator from an end-of-balcony control position. There was noconventionallightingrehearsal—theshowwasplottedbyafastpencilduringasemi-dressstagger-throughwiththeactors.

LIGHTENTERTAINMENT

Thereisawholestratumoftheatrewhichhasnoscriptandlittlerehearsal.Thereisoftennodesignerandwhenthereisadirector,theroleislikelytoborderonthatofreferee.Theonlydocumentisalist,oftenwrittenonthebackofabox-officeadvertisingcard,knownastherunningorder.Thistendstobesubjecttolast-minute change. The word ‘light’ in the term ‘light entertainment’ hasnothingtodowithstagelighting.‘LightEntertainment’coverseverythingfromvariety toa reasonably large spectacular revueput togetherby the insertionofstarpersonalityactsinaframeworkof‘productionnumbers’.

Varietyartisteshavetheirownlightingplots,againtraditionallywrittenonthebackofbox-officecards.Theseplotsuse the terms‘full-up’, ‘redstage’, ‘bluestage’,‘colours’and‘blackout’.Thisgivesanideaoftheatmosphericmoodtobecreatedaround the artistewhilevisibility is takencareofbya followspot.The practical way to deal with this situation is by onstage downlighters andcrosslights in ambers, reds and blues— not primaries, just a selection of themorefruity,saturatedcolours.Fromthefrontsomepalercolourshelpthefull-upandcomedyscenes.

BEAUTYANDTHEBEAST—ASPANTOMIME

ThiswasnottheDisneyspectacularbutaversionofthestorytoldintheformatofpanto—thatuniquelyBritishformofChristmasentertainment,withrootsincommedia dell'arte, which has survived by slowly adapting to 250 years ofchanging fashion. Columbine and friends, who were first reduced to aninterpolatedharlequinade,havelongvanished.Thefunnyladiesarestillplayedbymen but, sadly, the heroic prince, so long a swashbuckling actress, is nowoften a male pop singer. Panto scripts, loosely following the fairytale story,provide a framework for the insertion of a mixture of ancient gags,contemporary references, popular songs and dance-based production numbers.Theinsertionsincludenotjustsongsbut

GoodFairyBluebell(AlisonDouglas)andwickedVenusFlytrap(KimIsmay)meetforaduetinafrontclothand,asitisan‘out-frontshowbiz’musicalnumber,thediffusershavebeenremovedfromthefollowspots.PantomimedirectedbyRichardFrost,lightingbyFrancisReid.(PhotobyNormanAdamsofAberdeenDistrictCouncil)

ThecoloursandgobosforBeautyandtheBeasthavebeenaddedtothestandardFOHrigplansuppliedbythetheatre'slightingteamwiththeirindicationsoffocuspossibilities.

whole sequences associatedwith the talents of particular stars,most ofwhomhavemadetheirnamesontelevision.Thesceneryiscanvasandpaintwithlotsofclothsandgauzes.Amagicaltransformationscenemustconcludethefirstactand the show ends with a wedding scene in which the sole action is forindividualmembersof thecast towalkdownacentral staircaseand take theirbowsinespeciallyluscious‘finalecostumes’.

The lighting has to be bold, colourful, pretty andmagical,with atmospherecomingfromabalanceofangles,gobosandcolours rather than intensity.Anylow dimmer levels are not for acting areas but for scenery which requiresparticularlydelicatelightastheaverageageofpantosets,movingfromcitytocity,exceedstenChristmasseasons.Becausetheactingstyleisestablished,theproduction period rarely exceeds six days in rehearsal room followed by fivedays on stage. So lighting, like every other aspect, has to be meticulouslyplanned:thereisnotimeforexperiment.

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ThestagerigforBeautyandtheBeast

Pantomime fills virtually every regional theatre for about six weeks everyChristmas and it is often a child's first introduction to the theatre. It is a veryseriousbusiness.

Inthisproduction,askatingprinceprovidedatransformationopportunityforBeauty to fallasleep ina forestpaintedona frontgauzewhichcoulddissolvemagically to reveala frozenmoonlit lake.The ‘ice’was teflon lubricatedwithglycolandcoveredinalowmistofdry-ice.Lighting,includinglightning,hadacrucial role incovering thesubstitutionofprincebybeastandviceversa.Thegoodandbadfairiesenteredfromtheir traditionalOP(stageright)andprompt(stageleft)sides,bringingtheirpinkgoodyorgreenishbaddylightingwiththem—butwiththecolourfallingmostlyonthesetbecausetheircostumesdeservedtheclarityofpalelavender.Aftertheimmortals,whohavebecomemorecosilycomic during my own panto lifetime, have established the parameters of thebattlebetweengoodandevil,themagicofgauzealways,butalways,transportsus to a village square. Tradition also requires comedy scenes in school orkitchen;wehadboth.Thescenography,likemostcurrentpantomimes,adoptedaversionofthescenicstyledescribedearlierinthischapter:permanentdecorativeportals forming a masking box into which cloths and flats are flown tomeetsmalltruckspushedonthroughthewings.

Theelementsofthelightingdesignwere(allcoloursRoscosupergel):

Downlightwashes covering the stage, left, centre and right. 85 because adeepblueissobasictopaintingwithlight.19becausethewarmpigments

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inthescenicpaintneedtobestimulatedbybothredandorange.Some95to provide the green-blue that mixes well in both romantic forest andspooky supernatural scenes. Ideally all parcans, but rationalising ofavailableequipmentsubstitutesfresnelsattheupstagesideswherepunchislessimportant.

Crosslightwashes ineachbaybetween theportals.Mediumsaturation68blue, 43 pink and 14 amber, dropping the amber and reducing the pinkupstagewhilemaintainingtheessentialblue.Again,althoughparcansideal,availablefresnelsandprofilesusedupstagewherelessdancingrequireslessincisivesidelight.Downstageriggingonboomsbutupstageonladderstoallowclearanceforscenechanges.Allfocusingstraightacrosstominimisespill on hanging cloths. Parcans paired by colours, top focused to the farside and bottom to the near, with narrower angle lamps at the topscompensatingfortheincreasedthrow.

Break-up goto washes, in warm and cool, from the downstage bars andfromsidefohareindispensableforpaintingprettypictures,particularlyonhangingcanvas thathasbeenrolledor foldedfor tenmonthsannuallyforfifteenyears.Break-upsfromthelowcirclefrontcarrythewashesupintothebordersandcatchtopsofscenicflattage.

Colour washes in pink (339), reddish-blue (64), and greenish-blue (69)fromsidefoh,openfocusandhightocoverbothfullstageandfrontcloths.

Face lighting in pale lavender from foh (351) and bars (53), with somewarmingfromsidefohinrosygolden305.

Traditional footlight trough, fortuitously retainedbyHisMajesty'sandsogood for panto, whether as a strongly (95) greenish uplight for theimmortals,a touchofdeep (85)blue for the frontclothsor just some(43)pinkor(21)amberforcomedywarmth.

Battensandfloodbartocovermidandupstagehangings.Mirrorballsareanessential ingredientofpantomagic.Strobesfreezetheaction for comedy chases and provide the lightning flashes whichaccompanyprincesintobeastsandbackagain.

Twofollowspots,mostlydiffusedbuthardforacoupleofovertlytheatricalnumbers.

132cues,severalmultipartedandmostwithdifferentialup/downtimings.

ROCKLIGHTING

Forrockconcerts,thelightingrigandloudspeakerstacksformmajorfeaturesofthevisualenvironment.Thelightsarenormallyriggedontrussformationswhichare free standing, theoverhead sectionsbeing supportedon the towerunitsbywhichtheyarehoistedintoposition.Theessenceofrocklightingisitsdynamic,achieved by flashing and sequencing mass formations of parcans and by thegyratingbeamsofautomatedspotlightswiththeirextensiverepertoireofeffectscapableofmakingastrongvisualimpact.

Many musicals adopt some of the techniques of rock lighting, particularlywhen they have amusic score in the rock idiom.All control desks now havefacilities for flashing and chasing. The chase facility, which bumps selectedchannelsormemoriesupanddown in aprogrammed sequence, isparticularlyusefulforflashinglightsintempowiththemusic.Mostpopandrockrhythmisbased on a two-rather than three-beat configuration. Choreographers tend toworkonaneight-beatcount,asthefouroreightstepchaseis theflashpatternthatismostlikelytoofferacomfortablefitforthemusic.

TRADESHOWS

A whole new area of performance has developed out of the application oftheatre-staging techniques to such events as product launches and salesconferences.Lighting isused toensure thatacompany'sproductsare revealedwithdramaticeffectinanatmosphereofmaximumglamour.

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LightingOpera

I suggested earlier that opera was little different from other forms of musictheatreexceptthatitwasplayedinrepertoire.This,althoughessentiallytrue,issomethingofageneralisation.Certainly,operahasthebasicmusicalfeaturesofsheersize,exoticlocation,andprincipalsingerswhodotheirstuffatthefrontofthe stage tobenear theorchestra.However, thepace is generally slowerwithfewer but longer scenes. Any permanent masking tends to be functionallysombre rather than decorative. Some opera productions still adhere to thetradition of complete scene changes, but permanent settings with minimalrearrangementshaveincreasinglybecomemorecommon.

Thedirectorofaplayand,perhapstoalesserextent,thedirectorofamusical,have a considerable choiceof style available.But thedirectorof anoperahaslessfreedom:thestyleislargelydeterminedbythemusicalscore.Togoagainstthetimingandatmospherelaiddownbythecomposer israrelyeasyand,evenwhen possible, often disastrous. The lighting style also stems from themusic.Quick buffo comedy requires the clarity of the straight play, while sustainedromantic anguish flourishes in atmospheric backlights and crosslight. A greatdeal of opera is concernedwith tragic happenings.Much of it takes place bymoonlight,andevensomeofthedaylightscenesarelocatedfarfromtheraysofthesun.

Thecoloursarerarelyextreme:thewarmsarethetintsofthestraightplay,butthe cools become bluer as the tragedy deepens and reality gives way toromanticism.Allaspiringoperalightingdesignerscarrypalesteelfiltersintheirknapsacks,andwoulddowelltohavesheetsoftheslateblueswhichfloodthestage incoolblueyetbringawarmth toheroiccheeks.Problemsof repertoirechangeovers are discussed in a later chapter. The following case history is anexample of a small scale production mounted for a short run of consecutiveperformances.

SIROE:ANOPERAONAHUMANSCALE

ThefirstperformanceofHandel'sSiroein1728waslessthansuccessful.TakingplaceonlythreeweeksafterthepremiereofTheBeggar'sOpera,whichchangedfashion overnight, itwas poorly attended and further hampered by bedraggledstocksetsandinadequaterehearsal.Revivalhadtoawait1993whentheLondonHandel Society mounted performances in the Britten Theatre of the RoyalCollegeofMusic—Siroe'sfirstproductionwithelectriclight.LikeShakespeare'sLear, theplot featuresanabdicatingKing: in thiscasea

Persian with a pair of sons rather than daughters. Initially, and inevitably, hemakes the wrong choice but after some tortuous turns of the plot it all endshappilywithcoronationrejoicingforthegoodguy.Theactiontakesplaceinandaroundtheroyalcourt,parkandprison.SetdesignerEmmaThistlethwaiteraisedpartofthestagefloorbyaheightofonestepandthis,supportedbythepainting,gaveanillusionthattheremainingsectionofthestagewassunken.Adiagonalflatandanarchdefinedtheactingspaceandatexture-paintedgauzebackedbyaskycloth provided open or enclosed options by lighting one or the other. Theonlyscenechangesinvolveda

AscenefromtheLondonHandelSocietyproductionofHandel'sSiroeattheBrittenTheatreoftheRoyalCollegeofMusic,directedbyRichardGregsonwithdesignsbyEmmaThistlethwaiteandlightingbyFrancisReid

LightingrigforSiroe

small flown flat which could further enclose the space in front of the fixeddiagonal flat, and a prison grill dropped in to fill the arch. Furniture changeswereminimal—altar,throneandcarpet.

Within the progress of sun and moon implicit in the libretto, the lightingendeavouredtohelpfocustheactingareasandsupportthemusicalatmosphereofthearias.Warmandcoldbacklightingfrombothleftandright,enabledareastobekeyedwith sunlight (06+07)ormoonlight (68) fromeither side.Thesecolours were chosen to give the extremes required yet mix well to provide

intermediatetints.(AllfilternumbersareRoscoSupergel.)

Theshapeoftheraisedareadefinedthebreak-upofthestageintoareaswhichwere double-covered inwarm (305) and cool (64). Themidstage and upstageareaswere lit from twooverhead pipes of PC spots, using pairs in the classicMcCandlessfocusforleftandrightsidesoftheface.Thedownstageareaswerelitwithfohprofiles,focusedstraightonfromtheceilingpositionsandcrossingfrom the side galleries. In theBritten Theatre, the ceiling position nearest thestageisrathersteepandthebackpositionisratherflat,socarefuloverlappingoffocuswasrequiredinassociationwithdimmerbalancingtominimiseachangeofanglesastheactorsmovedupanddownstage.Intheinterestsofchiaroscuro,tints subtly different from the main palette were used from the foh sides (06warmand371cool)andfromthebackceiling(33warmand36cool).

The three downstage areas were sidelit neutrally (351) from ladders in thewings,whileupstageandmidstagereceivedacool(61)crosswashfromabove.Thiswasprovidedbybarndoored fresnels,but theneutral (351)crosswash fortheupstageareasusedprofiles fromabove inorder to shutter the lightoff thegauze and arch flat. In addition to assisting sculptural modelling, theseinstrumentshelpedtocoverthejoinsbetweenareasinwidescenes.Whenareasaretightlydefinedbylevels,specialcarehastobetakentoensurethatthejoindoes not showwhen these areas combine to form a larger area. To help this,severalfohwerefocusedtocovertwoareas.

There were very few specials. A pair of foh was tightly focused for theprisoner in the dungeon scene who sang his big aria on the floor at thedownstage right limit of the ‘sunken’ level, allowing full value to beobtainedfromtheshadowof theprisongrille.For thescene in the templeof thesun,aformalisedsunburstgobo(DHA400)projectedafrescoimageontothediagonalflat while a tight downlighter sculpted an altar set in front of the arch. For amomentarily short battle scene, two fresnels on low stands, upstage left anddownstageright,projectedshadowsofaswordfight.

For a scene in a moonlit garden, the ‘sunken’ section of the stage floorbecameapoolofwaterwhichwasprojectedbygobos(DHA903)givenaripplemovementbymotorisedanimationdiscs(DHA12).Thefocusofthewaterwassplit intoupstageanddownstageareas.Atreebranchwavedbyasingerinthewaterattheupstageendofthepoolresultedinthefollowingsequence:upstageripples speed up, downstage ripples speed up, upstage ripples slow down,downstageripplesslowdown.

Theskywaspaleblue-greytintedtranslucentplasticsheetlitbyreflectedlightbouncedoffawhiteclothonthebackwalkThisbouncerclothwastheunpaintedsideofanoldbackclothhungbacktofront.Withcompartmentfloods,itwaslitwiththreeblues(64,69,383)fromthetopandwithablue(74),green-blue(73)andhotsunset(19)frombelow.Onthefloortherewereapairoffloodssothatthe sunset (25) could concentrate centre before fading below the horizon.Thegauze was spotlit rather than floodlit in order to concentrate the light in thecentreandletitfadeofftothetopandsides.Fresnelsinwarm(21)andcool(74)had silk added to diffuse the light and stretch it verticallywhile profileswithroughbreak-upgobosallowedthis light tobetexturedinwarm(317)andcool(61). Balancing the light for sky and gauze allowed either to dominate. Thegauzecouldbecomesolidorvirtuallydisappeartobecomeonlyahazysoftenerwhich increased the illusion of sky depth. For the last act, when a prolongedsunset led into the moonlight scene by the water pool, a profiled groundrowbetweenskyandgauzeprovidedthesilhouetteofaminarettewhichlitup(whiteChristmastreelights)asthesunwentdown.

Of the 48 cues, about a dozen were associated with scene changes andthereforeconsciouslynoticeable.Theremainderweresubtleshiftsoffocusandatmosphereinsupportofthesingersandorchestra.

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LIGHTINGTHRUSTSTAGES

Ourdiscussionsofarhasbeenintermsofconventionalprosceniumstages.Whathappenswhenwebringtheactionforwardthroughtheprosceniumarchtowardstheaudience?Therearevaryingdegreesofdoingthis.

We can remove the proscenium arch altogether but still have the audiencesittinginconventionalrowsfacinganendstage.Lightingtechniquesremainthesame, except that distinctions are somewhat blurred between what wetraditionallycallfohlightsandonstagelights.

Wecankeeptheprosceniumarchbutpushthestageouttowardstheaudienceintheformofanapronstage.Lightingagainremainsstandard,althoughalotoffoh is required and there can be difficulty in getting good light positions,particularlyassuchapronsareoftenaddedtoconventionalprosceniumstages.

New lighting problems arise as soon as the stage thrusts so far into theauditoriumthatmembersoftheaudienceareseatedonmorethanonesideofthestage.Withasmalldegreeofthrust,themajorityoftheaudiencewillsitfacingthe front of the stage in a conventionalway, but a small proportionwill viewfromthesides.Asthedegreeofthrustincreases,alargerproportionwillhaveasideview.Ultimatelythethrustwillincreaseuntilwehavetotalencirclementofstagebytheaudience:theatre-in-the-round.

Whatare these lightingproblems?Whatare thebasicdifferences in lightingsuchathruststageratherthanaprosceniumstage?

Somethingsareeasier.Because theactor iscloser to theaudience,weneedless light thanwould be required in a proscenium theatre of comparable size.And,becausetheaudiencearenolongerlookingataframedpicture,thereislessproblem with the possible flattening effect of front light: thrust acting is

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inherentlysculptural.Itisnotonlydifficulttoactinasmallcorneroftheplayingareaofanythruststage,particularlytheatre-in-the-round,butitiscontrarytotheaudience-contactphilosophies towhich thrust staging is a response.Sowearelesslikelytoselectareas.

Therefore, the primary requirements of thrust or arena lighting areillumination and atmosphere. Atmosphere is normally controlled in anytheatricalsituationbybalancing

lightandshadeand/orcolour.

Atmosphereisoftentheresultofcontrastbetweentheextremesoflightandnolight— or, more likely, the balance between light and not-so-much light. Inthruststaging,atmosphereby lightandshade isdifficult toachievebecauseofthedifferentlybalancedpictures thatwouldbeofferedtodifferentsegmentsofthe audience. Because front light for one section of the audience will bebacklight for a second section and side light for a third, it is better to keep afairly uniform intensity balance from all parts of the lighting compass.Atmosphere becomes amatter of colour balance between cool andwarm.Onsmall stages, it may be possible to use a control with two presets to makepermanentbalancesincoolandwarmcoloursrespectively,andtoruntheentireperformance by changing the proportional mix of cool and warm mastersaccordingtothechangingemotionalneedsoftheplay.

Andso thekeyproblembecomestheprovisionof illuminationwithout lightshining in the audience's eyes. The easy way would be to light vertically.Certainly such light does not go into the audience's eyes, but unfortunatelyneitherdoesitreachtheactor'seyesandthisoperatesagainsttheactor'sabilityto communicate. However, this is not quite such a major problem in a smalltheatre-in-the-roundasitwouldbeinabiggishconventionaltheatre,becausetheaudience iscloser to theactorand therecanbeconsiderableupward reflectionfrom furnishings and the floor. But themessage is not that vertical lights areidealorevenacceptable:itisthatlightsforanintimatethrusttheatrecanaffordtobeata somewhat steeperangle thanwouldbeadvisable inmore traditionaltheatreforms.

Verticallight

Lightfrompositionsoutside theactingareawilllightactorsontheedgeoftheactingarealookingoutwardstotheaudience.

Light frompositions inside the actingareawill light actorson theedgeof theactingarealookinginwardstotheaudience.

Soweneedboth.

Sowheredoweanglethelightfrom?Lightfrompositionsoutside thestagearea will light actors when they are on the edge of the acting area lookingoutwards to the audience.Light frompositions inside the stage areawill lightthemontheedgeoftheactingarealookinginwards(i.e.acrosstheactingarea)totheaudience.Soweneedboth.

Wehavebeenlookingattheprobleminsection.Ifwenowconsideritinplan,wefindthat,ideally,weneedlightfromasmanysidesoftheactingareaasthereareblocksofaudience.With thecompleteaudienceencirclementof theatre-in-the-round, thiswillmean light from four sides. If audience are on three sidesonly,we should still have light from the fourth angle, otherwise one audienceblockwillhaveadifferentlylitpicturefromtheothertwo.

Theplanshowsbasicone-colouractingareacoverageforasmallthruststage.To give a complete two-colour atmospheric cover in warm and cool wouldrequiredoubletheequipment,althoughitispossibletogainalotof

AboveleftPlanshowinglightfromthefoursidesintheatre-in-the-roundAboverightPlanshowingaone-colouractingareaforasmalltheatre-in-the-round,withanadditionalcolourwashfromfourdownlighters

atmosphericcontrolbyusingabasiccoverforfacialilluminationandadjustingthecolourtonewithwashesofpositivecolourfromtwoorthreeheftydownlighters.

It is possible to reduce the number of lamps required by using only threeangleson the actor, i.e. three lampswith a separationof 120°between lamps,rather than the four lampswith a 90° separation in themannerwe have beendiscussing. I personally find balance much simpler to achieve with the four-anglesystem;balanceisparticularlyimportantintheatre-in-the-roundwhereallsections of the audience have a right to expect equality. But in a three-sidedthrustform, it isalmost inevitable thatoneaudienceblockwillbefavouredbytheactorsand theirdirector.Mypersonalpreference is toaimfora four-anglecoveragewhen the stage is enclosed by audience on all three sides.But I ampreparedtodropdowntothreeangleswhenbudgetingforenoughequipmentforthe inevitably large acting areas of thrust forms where the stage is notcompletelysurroundedbyaudienceandwheresomemembersof thataudienceare accorded that second-class status which (and I stick my neck out) isinevitableinanytheatreseatingmorethanacoupleofhundredorso,whetherinprosceniumoramoreopenform.

What of the practical physical problemsof hanging lighting instruments forthruststages?Inlarge-scalepurpose-builtthrusttheatres,accessible

PlanofpermanentrigatChichesterFestivalTheatre

lightingbridgescanbeplannedintherightpositionstogivethecorrectangle.Butmanythrusttheatresaresmall-scaleconversionsofexistinghalls.Lightsareoftenpositionedhighuponthewalls,butthismakesfortooshallowanangle.Muchmoreadaptableisascaffold-pipegridabovethestagefromwhichlightscanbehungwhereverrequiredandidealanglesdiscoveredbyexperiment.Evenifthewallpositionissuitable,trytoavoidthelimitationsofbrackets;scaffoldingbarisusuallycheaperandcertainlymoreadaptable.

Although profile spots give precise beam control and eliminate spill, Ipersonally prefer fresnels or PCswith barndoors on small thrust stages. Theyjointogethermoresmoothlyontheshort throwswhichareofteninvolved,andthe inevitable auditorium spill of stray light is not a problem because thruststaging does not attempt to disguise the existence of audience as part of thescene.

CHICHESTER—AREPERTOIRESOLUTION

Chichester Festival Theatre has evolved a system which resident lightingdesigner Nigel Hollowell Howard has formalised into a permanent rig for

providing basic actor lighting. The stage is divided into 21 overlapping areaseachofwhichislitfromthreeangleswith90°separation,correspondingto

MagicsheetshowingareaeentrepointsandchannelsfromthreedirectionsatChichesterFestivalTheatre

thethreeaudienceblocks.The64instrumentsremainpermanentlyfocusedwhileothersarehung,movedandfocusedaccordingtotheneedsofeachproduction.Profilesareusedintheauditoriumandfresnelsabovethestage.

HavinglitacoupleofpantomimesontheChichesterstage,Icanvouchforthesystem.My additions to the rig were mainly concerned with the colours andanglesassociatedwithsong,danceandmagic.Icolouredthe64permanentsinpale lavender andwhenever Iwasdarkona face, aglance at themagic sheet(seepage163)providedthechannelnumbersforthatarea.

THEMULTI-PURPOSESCHOOLHALL

Tothosefacedwiththeproblemsofamulti-purposeschoolhall,Iwouldsuggestconsideringthepossibilityofabandoningthestageandthrustingtheactioninto

thebodyofthehall.AnyonewhohasworkedontheaverageschoolstageknowswhatImeanbytheproblems.Aletter-boxstagewithenoughgreyborderstofilla Palace of Varieties and a series of grey legs, shrunken unequally at thecleaners, suspended on strange swivel deviceswhich are supposed to adapt tovarious masking configurations but have an uncanny knack of swivelling torevealallatdramaticallyunsuitablemoments.Theflatfloordoesnothingtohelpvision from anywhere beyond the first few seat rows, and, if the acoustic hasbeencalculatedatall,thenthatcalculationhasbeenbriefedtodeadenthenoiseof themultitudeduringassembly rituals.Because thehallhasbeendesignatedmulti-purpose,theonstagelightinghasalargeproportionofmini-floodswhichlightthebordersverybrightlyandtheactorsverylittle.Inthebetterhalls,thereisno chandelier between the foh spots and the stage; even so, theprosceniumopeningisoftenwiderthanDruryLaneandthefewspotsonthesidewallshavesometroubleincoveringthestage.Wheretheydo,theshadowsarelifesizeandfascinating—but hardly helpful in focusing attention on the dramatic action.Shallwethrust?

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LIGHTINGINREPERTOIRE

Mostofthelightingtechniqueswhichwehavebeendiscussingassumethatforeach production we may choose and position instruments exactly where werequirethem—eitherbyhangingarigspecificallydesignedfortheproductionor by adapting a fixed rigwith extensive additions and alterations.But this isonly possiblewhen there is to be a series of consecutive performances of thesameproduction—whethertheweeklyrunofstandardtouring,themonthorsoofaregionalplayhouseortheopenended‘nowandforever’whichisthegoalofBroadwayandtheWestEnd.

However dance and opera companies always have a repertoire of severalproductions which they perform in an irregular rotation, usually with a dailychangeover.DramainmuchofCentralEuropeisgenerallyplayedinarepertoiresystem although elsewhere in the world, including most English speakingcountries,therunofconsecutiveperformancesisnormal.

Repertoireimposesrestrictionsonallstagingdepartments.Changeovertimeisthe limiting factor.Playingadifferentproductioneacheveningdoesnotmeanthattherestofthedayisavailableforchangeover.Arepertoiretheatrehasnewproductionscontinuallyinrehearsalandtheschedulehastoprovideforthestagebeing available for the technical preparation and dress rehearsal of these newworks.

Because of the changeovers and the need for actors and orchestras to restbeforeeveningperformances,rehearsalsareextendedoveralongerperiodthantheywouldotherwisebebecauseafullstagerehearsal—technicalordress—takestwomorningsratherthanafullday.

Thereforetheafternoonchangeoversmustbehighlyorganisedintheiruseoffacilities. This implies a lighting rig where most instruments are hung in

permanent positions, probably with the amount of refocusing restricted. Theprincipal techniques used include bridges, remotely operated instruments andtapes.

BridgesOne approach, long standard in Central Europe, is to make instrumentsaccessiblebymountingthemonbridges.Theprincipalonstagelightingpositionisabridge—oftenaverticalstackoftwoorthreelevels—immediatelyinsidetheprosceniumleavingonlyenoughspaceforthehousecurtainandacoupleofsetsofflyinglines.Thebridge,althoughsuspendedtoallowheightalterations,isafirmstructureonwhichcrewcanmoveduringperformanceswithoutcausingvibrationswhichwould shake the light beams.Associatedwith this horizontalbridgeisapairofverticallightingtowerswhichcanbemovedonandoffstage.Consequentlythebridgeandtowerstructure iseffectivelyaninnerprosceniumwhich provides a frame adjustable to the size and format required by anyparticular production. If desired, the size and format can be changed betweenscenes.Thebonusforlightingisthat,asthetopcomesdownorthesidescomein,theyautomaticallybringthelightinginstrumentswiththem.

Althoughlightsonupstagebarsdonothaveaccessforfocusing,thedifferentheights of the platforms within the bridge structure provide the possibility ofalternativelightinganglesandCentral-Europeanflytowersaregenerallysohighthatflownsceneryandmaskingbordersdonotobstructthebeams.

With lighting crew on the bridge and towers, instruments may be adjustedduring quick scene changes and refocusing each one several times during aperformance allows a relatively small number to cover a lot of situations.Bridgesallowfastexperimentsduringlightingrehearsalsandaregoodforsubtlefollowing.Theirdrawbackistheamountofspacetakenupandtheirtendencytopushtheactionupstage:aproblemindrama,althoughnotsomuchinoperaanddance.

RemotelyoperatedinstrumentsWith remotely focusable instruments, access is no longer required, makingbridgesandcrewunnecessaryalthoughthebasiclightingtechniqueremainsthesame.Remotes arebecomingcommon inupstagepositions and seem likely to

supplantbridgesinthefuture.

TapesManyrepertoirestageswithoutbridgesusevariationsofthe‘tapegrid’method.A new production is lit in the normalway, focusing from ladders.After cueshavebeenplotted,thesceneryisstruckandthepositionsofthelightbeamsonthe bare stage floor are recorded. To facilitate this, two canvas strips, usuallyknown as ‘tapes’ are unrolled on the stage, one up and downstage on thecentrelineandtheotheracrossthestageonthesettingline.Thecrossingpointiszeroand the tapesaremarkedwithanumerical scale,prefixedLorR for leftandrightacrossthestageand+or—forupstageanddownstageofthesettingline.Thisprovides agrid reference for each light beam's floorposition.Notescanbemadeaboutedgeshapeandquality,perhapsaccompaniedbyadrawingwhich, in conjunction with a record of focus knob positions, allows forconsiderablerepeataccuracy.

Itmaybenecessarytomakefinaladjustmentstoafewinstrumentsafterthesceneryhasbeenset,particularlythosehighlightingascenicfeature,orperhapsnarrowlymissingscenery.Butthemajorityofthefocusingisaccomplishedveryquicklysinceladderscanbemovedrapidlyonaflatstagefreeofscenery.Withveryaccuratepositionrecording,itisevenpossibletofocuswithoutladdersbytemporarilyflyingthebarsintoaprecisedead(trim)atwhichalltheadjustmentscanbe reached.Byschedulingstaggeredmealbreaks, thechangeoverworkofthelightingandsceniccrewscanbeintegrated.Ifagridismarkedonthesafetycurtain,furthertimecanbesaved,sincethefohcanbefocusedwhilethecurtainisdownandthescenicfitupcontinuesbehind.Itmayevenbepossibletofocuswhiletheorchestrarehearses.

ControlAs noted when discussing control systems, boards for repertoire theatres areequippedwithsecondarymemories toprovidelibrarystorage.Inearlysystemstape was sometimes used but disc is now standard. As part of the dailypreparation for a repertoire performance the appropriate disc is used toprogramme the board's primarymemory. Once the focus is complete and thescenery in position, asmany cues states as possible are checked through—aquick process using a sequential push— so that intensity adjustments due to

newlamps,cleanedlenses,minorfocusvariations,etc.,maybemade.Thesearememorised for today'sperformanceonly: for each subsequentperformance thestartingpointisthemasterdisc.Severalcopiesofthemasterdiscsare,ofcourse,keptunderappropriatesecurityprocedures.

RepertoiretouringThe tape system is also used for touring, particularly by opera companies,althoughparticularcareisrequiredinbalancingmemoriesbecausevariationsinstage dimensions and facilities mean that scenery can rarely be placed inidenticalpositions indifferent theatres.Althoughtheonstage lightingpositionscanbevirtually identical eachweek, the fohwill varywidely.However if thestagerigistouredwithitsownboard,thetheatre'sownfoh,onthehouseboard,canbeaddedquicklyandbalancedwiththebasicpicturesalreadyplottedwithinthe touring board. Use of a theatre's own board has been simplified by thedevelopmentofsoft-patchingfacilitieswhichalloweverylighttohavethesamechannelnumberineachtheatre.

ManytouringtheatresintheUnitedStatesfeedtheirfohthroughaplugand-socket panel system at the side of the stage. Thismakes it easy to divert anyselectedfohchannelstoatouringboard.Thiswouldseemtobeapracticewhichcouldwithadvantagebecomemoreuniversal.

RiggingFast efficient rigging, whether for repertoire or on tour, is essential for timesaving.Traditional theatre is benefiting from adopting techniques used for theone-night-standrocktourswheresectionsoftrussingcompletewithinstrumentsand multi-connection sockets have simplified the rigging process— both fortouring and for hanging extra lighting bars or trusses position during repchangeovers.

ThefutureNew technologies in rigging and remote focusing are combining with designdiscipline to reduce changeover times while offering lighting with lesscompromisethanhashithertobeenunavoidableinrepertoiresituations.

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COMPUTER-AIDEDLIGHTINGDESIGN

Videoscreenshavebecomeanindispensablepartofourlives.TheVDUiswellestablished in stage lighting as the standardmethod of displaying operationalinformationoncontroldesks,particularlychannellevelsandcueprogress.Nowthe personal computer is becoming essential support for both lightingmanagementandlightingdesign.

LIGHTINGMANAGEMENT

Several software programmes have been written to aid management of thelightingprocess,particularlyinorganisingpaperwork,keepingituptodateandprintingitout.Instruments,accessoriesandfiltersarenotonlylistedbutmaybecheckedagainst stocks to calculate instant informationonhowmuch is leftorwillneedtobeacquired.

With computer drawing systems, instrument symbols can be positioned asrequired on the drawing and the usual data such as colour, channel number,gobo,etc.,entered.Thesoftwareenablesvarious listings tobeproduceddirectfromtheplaninthecomputer.

Softwareisalsoavailabletotracktheprogressofeachlightineachcue,withinstant information displayed on screen or in print. This information may besortedbywhatevercategoryismostusefultothedesignteamatanyparticularphaseofthelightingprocess,whetherbefore,duringorbetweenrehearsals.Thiscan include keeping track of the channels which are in use or changing.

Developmentsinremotelyfocusablespotlightsresult inevenmoreinformationtobekepttrackofduringlightingsessionsandsubsequentrehearsals.Withbigrigs,pencil andpaperareno longer fast enough tokeep the informationup todateandaccessible.

Information access is further improving with equipment suppliers offeringcatalogues in the form of computer software, either onCD-ROMor by directdeliverythroughe-mail.

LIGHTINGDESIGN

Most of these lighting management techniques use information technology tospeedupprocesseswhichhavehithertobeendonemanually.Theendproductisvirtually the same paperwork as that formerly produced by laborious writing.However, computer-aideddesignalsooffers thepossibilityof actualhelpwithdecisions which have traditionally had to bemade on a basis that included alargeelementofguesswork.

Of particular interest is the possibility of assessing the effects of variouslightinganglesbymanipulatingadynamicgraphicvideodisplay.Computerscanbeprogrammedtolookatacross-sectionofthestageintermsoftheinteractionofbeamangle,throwandspread.Theseprogrammesholdthecharacteristicsofmanycommonlyusedspotlights,includingtheirbeamanglesandtheamountofilluminationforanygiventhrowdistance.Alternativelythisinformationmaybekeyedinforanyparticularpieceofequipment.Theessenceoftheoperationisthe same as using standard drawing techniques. Ifwe know any two of beamangle,throwdistanceandspread,wecanfindthethird.Wecanalsoexperiment,simply and visually, by using the computer's cursor to move the spotlightpositionaroundthetheatreandmovetheactorupanddownstagewhilekeyingin alternative beam angles for the spotlight. The early programmeswere two-dimensional,butsystemsarenowabletoprovideathree-dimensionalisometricview of the beams and the shadows they cast. Since the screen displays adrawing which changes automatically and immediately in response tomovementsofthecursor,theseprogrammesofferconsiderableassistancetothelightingdesignerinagonisingoverthebestlocationsforinstruments.

For the positioning of spotlights, various interacting factors have to beweighedagainsteachothertoestablishthebestcompromise.Atwhatanglewillthelightfromaparticularpositionhitanactorataparticularpointonthestage?

Will it throwanawkward shadow?Howbiganareawill result fromdifferentbeamangles?Whatshapeofbeamsplodgewillbethrownonthefloorfromthisobliqueangle?Orthatone?Transferofdesignworkfromslowdrawingboardtofast video screen offers the possibility of allowing the consequences of suchcriticaldesigndecisionstobediscoveredinstantly.

The screen accommodates any size of rig plan andyou zoom in andout ofvarious sections asyouworkon them, expanding the images to a comfortablesize for eyeballing. Instrument symbol positions are manipulated by editingroutines which allow a plan to be developed, altered and amended, with thedesigner working on the lights singly or in groups, moving them around andgradually adding data (filters, gobos, channel, etc.) as decisions are made.Programmesareawareofsuchfundamentalsasnotputtinggobosinfresnelsoririsesinparcansandtheyknowthecharacteristicsofspecifiedinstruments:theywill,forexample,refuseinstructionstodemonstratea30°beamanglefromanSL11/26.

Whencompleted,anylightingplanbecomesthemastersourceofinformationforthepracticalrealisationofthedesign.Listingsarerequiredinmanyformatsin order to prepare equipment and accessories. The traditional way is timeconsuming and prone to error: it is very easy for eyes and brains tomiscountfilters,irisesandhookclampsonabigplan,butthisisjustthesortofworkatwhichcomputersexcel.

WYSIWYG

Wysiwyg (what you see is what you get) is a system offering visualisation,drawinganddatamannagement.Wisiwygisthecompletepackagebutthe

Someofthepossibilitiesofcomputer-generatedlightingschedules(Wysipaper)

Wysiwygscreenshowing(left)planand(right)isometricforthecomputer-generatedlightingimageonthecoverofthisbook

drawing (wysicad) and paperwork (wysipaper) elements may be used

independentlyofthevisualisationfacility.

Wysipaper is a dedicated spreadsheet for keeping track of all relevant dataincluding pan, tilt, focus, filter, patching, etc. From this information, allnecessaryschedulesofequipment,accessories,filters,etc.,canbeoriginatedandupdatedwithafewclicksofthemouse.Wysicad,withitsvastlibraryoflightinginstruments and rigging, enables drawings to be prepared on-screen, withviewingintwoorthreedimensions.

Wysiwygvisualisation isfully interactivewithmost lightingdesks,enablingtheeffectoflightingcuestobesimulatedonthePCscreenasadynamicdisplaywith the ‘real timings’ of the developing light plot. The display of eachinstrument's intensity, colour, beam angle, image size, gobo, etc., makes itpossibletocheckmanyaspectsoftheeffectivenessoftheproposedrigwithoutgoingnearthestageorhanginganylights.Thetimingofcuesequencesmaybecheckedagainstscript,music,actionandvisualeffectiveness.

While such a system offers considerable benefits for designing withconventional lights, it is particularly effective for dealing withmoving lights.Withwysiwyg's autofocus facility, all attributes can be accessed bymouse sothatcomplexmovingbeampatternscanbepre-plottedandrehearsedonscreenpriortoriggingonthestage.

BENEFITSANDLIMITATIONS

Techniques suchas theseare just an indicationof the technology that isbeingdevelopedtoaidthelightingprocess.However,itisimportanttorememberthatacomputerismerelyadevicetoremovesomeofthegrindandguessworkfromthecrafttoallowmaximumconcentrationontheart.Acomputercanonlymakelogicaldecisions,whereasartdependsonillogicaldecisionsmadefromthesoul.

18____________________

SQUAREONE

In the old days, standard stage lightingwas a straightforward business of flatcolour washes. Throughout the ages, there have been occasional focusablesystems using complex rigs of candle wicks, oil lamps, gas mantles, oxy-hydrogen limes and carbon arcs. But until quite recently, a lot of lightingconsistedofwashesfrombattens,footlightsandwingfloods.

Nowthismaynothavebeenselectiveorsculptural,and itwasonlycrudelyatmospheric–butitwasquick.Modernspotlightingequipmentiscapableofproducingsplendidlighting,but

it takes time toprepare.This timecanbemadeavailablewhen thereare tobeseveralconsecutiveperformances,butsuchtheatreisthetipofahugeicebergofstagelightingusers.Whereislightingtimetobefoundinthemulti-purposehallfortheone-night-standplay,forthevarietybill,fortheend-of-termprize-giving,forthesymphonyconcert,forthecountryandwesternevening,forthe…?

In offering a good spotlight rig to such a stage,we aremaking available apossibilityofgoodlighting–butapossibilitythatcanonlyberealisedwiththeexpenditureoftimeandexperience.Intheaveragesituationonsuchastage,thistime/experiencemayonlybepossessedbyafewuserswhowillachievemarvelsbutwill leave the equipmentwith specialised settings totally useless for otherfunctions.

The joy of floodlighting was its ‘back to square one approach’. It was not(indeeditcouldnotbe)angledorfocused:youjusthungitup,pluggeditinanditwasreadytoproduceallthelightingthatitwascapableofproducingbyjustjugglingwiththedimmers.

Itisthis‘backtosquareone’thatweshouldattempttoapplytothelightingof

the multi-use stage. A standard approach to the problem has been to place anumberoffloodsamongthespotsontheprinciplethat,nomatterhowthespotsareset, ifyouturnonthefloodsyouwillgetsomesortof light.Unfortunatelythese floods tend to throwmore lightonto the adjacentborders thanon to theactingarea.

Therefore, I would like to suggest that multi-use stages should all have asquareone settingfor theirequipment.Thereshouldbe littleornorestric-tiononthemovementorfocusingofthelightinginstrumentsbyspecificuserswhentime is available.But, after use, each one must be returned to its square oneposition,colour,andfocus.

Variety will require its traditional red, white and blue approach. Plays arelikely to call for more subtle facial coverage in warm and cool, while basicselectivity on a small stage with bad sightlines often boils down to aconcentrationofactionandaudienceattentionby ‘takingdown theedges’.Anorchestralconcertrequireswhiteverticaldownlightandprize-givingisbasicallythe same plus enough foh to help us see the platform party's faces withoutdazzlingthem.

A possible way in which this square one approach might be adopted issuggestedinthefollowinglightingrig.Aswitheveryotherriginthisbook,itisnotputforwardastheideal,butasapossibilitytostimulateideas.The test of such a rigwill bewhether users can comeon stage half-anhour

beforecurtain-upandgetsomereasonablyappropriatelighting.

TYPICALBASICSQUAREONERIG

Thirtycontrolchannelsof2.4kWmaximum.Forsmallerstages,theunitswouldberatedat500or650watt.Asthestageincreasesinsize,certainunitscouldbeprogressively uprated to 1 or 1.2 kW.The two-digit colour filter numbers areRosco and the three-digit are Lee; these are not equivalents but have beenchosenasanindicationofthetypeofcolour.

Foh–sidesApairofprofilespots(33or153)coverdownstagecentreinwarm,andapairof

profiles(61or202)coverthesameareaincool.Fourprofilespotspickupthecorners inaneutral lavender (54or136)whichblends inbothwarmandcoolsituations.Onespecialeachsidemaybefocusedasrequired.

Foh–centreBecausethesidewallsinsuchhallsareusuallytoofartothesideinrelationtotheproscenium, it isdesirable thatsomeformof ‘fill’ light isprovidedfromacentral ceiling position close to the stage. Such positions often have accessproblems, but this has become easier with longer-life halogen lamps. Thesuggestionisapairofpinktintedfresnels(36or110) tofloodtheentirestagefront,andaprofilespotwithcolourchangerfocusedtocentrestage.

Asquareonelightingrig

Onstage–baroneThreefresnels inpink/red(36or110incentre,46or128atsides)arefocusedverticallydownwards toproduceawashofwarmlighton thestagebutnotontheborders.Threefresnelsdothesamethinginblue(64or161incentre,68or165atsides).Fourprofilesfloodacrossthestageinaface-lightingwash.Two

specialsmaybefocusedasrequired.

Onstage–bartwoApairofdownlightingfresnels inrubyred(46or128)andoneinblue(68or165).

Onstage–barthreeThree sections of 3-colour batten to flood backcloths, drapes, etc. A pair ofdownlighting(andslightlybacklighting)fresnelsinpink(36or110).

OnstagesidelightingOneprofilespoteachsidewithcolourchanger, focusedacross thefrontof thestage.Four‘dip’plugsavailableforextraequipment.

METHODOFUSING

Plays(Inthefollowingpriority,subjecttotimeavailable.)Usebasiccovercircuits3–12inclusive,17and28,25and26.Focus27–30askeys(windowsetc.).Focus15and16.Reset13and14toface-lightinganglesandre-colourthemwithpalerfilters.Dittofor19and20.Focus1and2.Rearrangeas

CIRCUTT LOCATION LANTERN COLOUR FOCUSING1 Auditoriumside

wallProfile Optional Special

2 ” ” ”3 2×Profile 61 Centredownstage4 ” 33 ””5 Profile 54 Rightdownstage6 ” 54 Leftdownstage

6 ” 54 Leftdownstage7 ” 54 Leftdownstage8 ” 54 Rightdownstage9 Auditorium

centre2×Fresnel 36 Flooddownstage

10 Profile Colourchanger

Centredownstage

11 BarI Fresnel 54 Upstageleft&centre

12 ” 54 Upstageright&centre

13 3×Fresnel 46+36 Vertical14 ” 68+64 ”15 Fresnel Optional Special16 ” ” ”17 Fresnel 54 Upstageleft&

centre18 ” 54 Upstageleft&

centre19 BarII 2×Fresnel 46 Vertical20 Fresnel 68 ”21 BarIII Batten 85 Floodbackcloth22 ” 68 ””23 ” 25 ””24 2×Fresnel 36 Vertical&

downstage25 Perch Profile Colour

changerAcrossstage

26 ” ”” ””272829 Dips Foraccessoryandspeciallighting30

N.B.‘left’and‘right’refertoactors'leftanfrightmuch of the installation as time permits to the play's special requirements –rememberingtoallowtimetosetitbacktosquareoneafterwards.

VarietyBasicredcover–circuits9,13,19,24.

Basicbluecover–14and20.

Colourvariations–10,25,26,21,22,23.

Full-up–Add4to8,11,12,17,18.

Crosslightingfromspotsonstands(27to30)wouldaddinterest.

RockandpopPutsaturatedcolours intomost instruments,particularly thoseabove thestage,refocusing them to light vertically down. Take advantage of the flashing andchasingfacilitieswhichareafeatureofallmodernlightingcontroldesks.

ClassicalconcertsOrchestral andchamberconcerts requirecleardownlighton themusicwithoutshining in theplayers'eyes.Takecoloursoutof13,14,19,20,24andothers,refocusingasnecessary.

MeetingsTakethecoloursoutof14and20.Possiblywarmupwithatouchof13,19and24. Use as much foh (particularly circuits 9 and 10) as you dare withoutdiscomforttothespeakers.

Andwhenyouhavefinishedtonight'sshow–setitallhacktosquareone.

AFLEXIBLEMULTI-PURPOSERIG

Abiggermulti-purposerigoffersthepossibilityofprovidingforagreaterdegreeofflexibilitywithoutresetting.Agoodapproachistoincludeenoughparcanstocoverthestagewithanoveralldownlightingwash.Withoutfilters,theseparcanswillgiveagoodwhitelightformusicreading–indeeditmaybetoobrightandneedalittlecheckdownonthedimmers.Withsaturated,near-primarycolours,the parcans will give the positive colour mixes required for most kinds ofmusicalproduction.Thiswillenablethe

Aflexiblemulti-purposerig

fohprofilesandthespotbarfocusspotstobe‘squareone’setforageneralfacecoverage, warm and cool. The spot-bar profiles are basically intended forspecials,andifthereisareasonablestockofinstrumentsavailablefordips,theside lighting can normally be left in position,with the downstage possibly onperchboomsandtheupstageonladders.

19____________________

PROJECTIONANDEFFECTS

Paintingorphotographingasceneonaslideforprojectionisneitheraneasynoracheapsubstituteforsolidscenery.Ifprojectionisembarkeduponitmustbeasa production style, probably because the script demands a wide range ofinstantlychangeablelocationsand/ortheluminousqualityofaprojectedimageisappropriate.Projectionisoftenreferredtoas‘backprojection’but,unlessweuse 35mm carousel-type projectors (see below), there is rarely enough stagedepth to project onto the screen from behind. Standard projection is morefrequentlyontothefrontofthescreenandsincesuchprojectionnormallyhastobeatanobliqueangle,theslidesneedtobespeciallypreparedtocounteractthedistortionintroducedbytheangledthrow.Sceneprojectorshavespecialopticalsystemstoproduceanevenlightovertheslideareaandtherearespecialcoolingarrangements,usuallyinvolvingfansandheat-resistantglasses, toprotecttheseopticsandtheslide.Itisdifficulttogetenoughprojectedbrightnesstobalancewiththeactorlight,andsoscenicprojectorstendtobephysicallybig,themorepowerful ones using discharge-lamp sources. These use slides up to 24 cmsquarewhichcanbehand-paintedasanalternativetophotography.

Anyonecontemplatingprojectiononthesmallerstagewoulddowelltodeviseaprojectionstyleusingstandard35mmmagazineprojectorssuchastheKodakCarousel.These are not suitable for covering an entire backcloth, but excitingthingscanbedoneby incorporatinga screen—ora seriesof screens— inanon-naturalisticsetting.Thesescreenscanoftenbeangledtowardstheprojectortomakecorrectionagainstdistortionunnecessary, and theprojectors are smallenough to conceal within the set. 35mm slide material is cheap and easy toprepare with a standard camera, and experiments can be carried out in thekitchenathome.

Eventhebiggeststagesemploythe35mmcarousel.Thetotalpicturetofillthe

screen is composed by joining a series of individual images from a bank ofseveralcarouselprojectors.A‘grid’ofnineiscommon,inthree

ThePaniBP4witha4kWHMIdischargelampistheinternationalstandardinstrumentforhigh-intensityscenicprojectioninlargetheatresandoperahouses.

TheKodakCarouselisprobablythemostversatileunitavailableforimageprojection.TheLightworksDaylightSlideProjectorisanadaptationoftheCarousel,usinga400wattMSRprojectionlamptodoublethenormalscreenbrightness.

rowsofthree.Doublinguptoallowcrossfadingbetweenpicturesmakesatotalof eighteen projectors. A computer controls the crossfades between theprojectors and advances the slide magazines. Since all the projectors can beindividually faded, combination into a single total picture is just one of thepossibilities.Sequentialchangingofindividualprojectorscanbeusedtosupporta documentary or narrative production style. Images may be built up fromfragments or given a feeling of movement by flip-flopping backwards andforwardsbetweenslightlydisplacedpicturesofthesamesubject.Apartfromtheobvious production flexibility of such a system, it has technical advantages inthat carousels placed behind a screen not only require a very short throwdistance but, because projection is straight on rather than at an angle, pre-distortionof the slide isnot required.Although thedetailedmovementsof thesequences arememorised in the computer, an operator starts each part of thesequence to co-ordinate with the actors' timing. Since the carousels can holdmany slides, a much more fluid projection system is possible than withconventionalscenicprojectorswhichuntilrecentlydependedonhand-changingofslides.

PROJECTIONSCREENS

Ofalmostoverridingimportanceintheuseofprojectionis thesurfacethat theimage fallsupon.Thebest imagesareproducedon specialprojection sheetingwhich is available in different types of material according to whether theprojectionistobefromthefront,fromtherearorboth.Amajorproblemwithscreens is that they tend to look like screens and when there is no projectedimagetheylooklikeblankscreens.Blackrear-projectionscreenproducesgoodhigh-contrast images andbecomes inconspicuouswhennot lit.However, evenwhen a screen has a matt surface there is a tendency to shine a little and toproclaimitselfasascreen.Onepossibilityistohangablackopen-meshedgauzein front of the screen and perhaps even paint it lightly with dyes. A blackprojectionscreencanalsobebacklitasagoodsky.

Whenusingatranslucentscreen(blackorpalegrey-blue)asaskycloth,youcanobtainsmoothlightingcoveragebyhangingfloodsimmediatelyupstageoftheskyclothandbouncingtheirlightfromaplainwhitereflectorcloth.Withthelight source between screen and bouncer, no light spills downstage and soparticularlycleansilhouettescanbeobtainedagainstthesky.

Aprojectionscreenneednotfillthestage;partofthescenecanbedesignedtotransformintoascreenwhenrequired.Or, if the image isnon-realistic, itmaymakeitsimpactbybeingprojectedontothescene—projectedtexturesontorealtexturescanbevisuallyexciting.Therehavebeenscreenscomposedofneutralwalls with a series of various-sized doors: a window is projected which thenopens and someone looks out, but in the next scene a doormay be projectedwhichopensforanactortowalkthroughetc.Projectionscreencanbecutintostrips so that actors may walk through the projected image; in its mostsophisticated form slit rubber has been used, so that the screen imageimmediately springs closed and the actor seems to have appeared by magic.Projectionhasmanypossibilitiesifwethinkofitasanotherimaginativetoolforthestage,notasanalternativetoconstructionandpaint.

SHADOWPROJECTION

Thistypeofprojectionisoftencalled‘Linnebach’,afteritspioneer.Thepictureis painted on a large piece of rigid transparentmaterial such as perspex. Thelightsourceisalampinablackboxwithoutlensesorreflector.Aseparatestandis required for the large slide as the distance between source and slide variesconsiderablywith the throwdistance to the screen.The systemworksbest for

rather impressionistic subjects, and the whole process, including angulardistortion of the painting, is best carried out on an experimental basis.Fortunatelythesizeofthe‘artwork’makessuchexperimentrelativelyeasy.

GAUZES

Gauzescancreatesomeoftheatre'smostbeautifulmagic.Theprincipleisthat,ifwelightonlythefrontofthegauze,wewillseeonlythepicturepaintedonthegauze.Butifwefadeoutthisfrontlightandbuildlightonthescenebehind,thegauzewillbecometransparentanditspicturewilldisappear.

There are two basic forms of gauze. One, often called English ortransformation gauze, is rather like net and has more holes than thread. Theother,Americanorhansengauze,isthickerandhasawoventexturewithmorethread than holes. Choice depends uponwhich picture ismore important: thefrontor thedissolve. Ifwehavea longscene in front followedbyashortonebehind,thenthethickerwovengauzeisbetter.

Straight-on frontal lighting will tend to go through the holes to reveal thescenebehind.Lightfromsidesandtop,skimmingalongthesurfaceofthegauze,will not pass through. However it is very difficult to paint, store and hang agauzewithout introducingcreases.Sidelight isdisastrousforshowingup thesecreases,sowenormallyhavenoalternativebuttouseacertainamountoffrontallight.Toovercometheproblemoflightpassingthroughthegauzeandrevealingthe scene or preparations behind, it is usual to hang a black cloth behind thegauzetoallowactorstogetintopositionunderworklight.Theaudience,whodonot have our knowledge of what is behind the gauze, are more aware ofmovementthanvagueshadowyimages.Thisblackclothisflownjustbeforethedissolve.

Tomake a dissolve (sometimes known as a ‘bleed’)work properly, carefultimingisessential.Thesequenceisusually:

Mostdissolvefailuresaretheresultofthedirectorallowinginsufficienttimeforthesequencetobeproperlypaced.

Gauze is often used in non-transformation situations. As an alternative tocanvas forpaintedbackcloths, it canprovide an interesting texture for light tofall upon, particularly for rather impressionistic vistas.A plain gauze hung infrontofabackclothorcycloramaissometimesusedtogiveasofteningeffect.

EFFECTS

Ihope that thepointhasbeenmade, and isbeing rammedhome, that lightingmustbean integralpartof theproduction.This isespecially trueofeffects—thereisnothinglikeadisplayofdriftingcloud,fallingsnoworexcessiveforkedlightning to distract an audience from contact with actors and script. Suchgoings-onmuststemnaturallyfromtheproduction:theymustneverbegraftedonjusttodecorateorenliventheproceedings.

MovingeffectsMoving-effectsattachments,usuallyin theformofamotor-drivendisc,canbefittedtothefrontofscenicprojectors.Severalvarietiesofcloudareobtainable,andthereareflames,rain,snow,waves,runningwater,etc.Theseeffectsusuallylookattheirbestwhenslightlyoutoffocus.Afuzzyimpressioncanoftenlookmorerealthanahardaccuratepicture:experiment!Depthtoamovingprojectionusually comes from superimposing several machines with slightly differentfocuses.

Traditional effectsprojectionsusuallyproduceapictureof theactual effect.However,itisoftenmoreappropriatetoshownottheactualphenomenonbutthelightthatitcasts.Thusaflickeringlightisoftenmoreconvincingthanapictureoftheflamesthemselves,andshimmeringlightreflectedoffwaterconveysmorethanapictureofthewateritself.Firelightcanshimmerifaflagoffabricstripsiswaved in front of a spotlight; this requires a particularly conscientious andsensitiveoperator.Watercanshimmeriflightisbouncedoffareflectivetrayofwater.But amore reliable (and lessmessy)way is to use amotorised flickerwheel.Thetraditionalmodelincludesabreak-upglassandfitsontothefrontofafresnelandtheeffectbecomesflameorwater(clearorstagnant)byselection

ofanappropriatecolourfilter.Newerflickerwheelsfitprofilespots,allowingachoice of appropriate gobo.Devices are now available to rotate gobos up anddownbyvariablespeedmotorsorto‘yo-yo’apairofgoboswithareciprocatingmotion.

Movingeffect(WhiteLight)

Gobosmaybegivenmovementbyrotatingananimationdiscinfrontofthelens…

orbyrotatingthegobowithinthegateofthespotlight(DHALighting)

LasersLaserscanbeprogrammedtoproducethree-dimensionalimageswhichhoverinthe airwith a unique luminous quality. Their dynamicwave patterns, such asundulationsandperspectivetunnels,areparticularlyeffectiveasarethedartingbeamsproducedbyreflectionoffasequenceofmirrors.

Lasers can also be used to project moving graphic images generated bycomputer.Thelaser-generatingequipment isfairlybulkybut thebeamscanbetransmitted along fibre optics and projected from small heads positionedunobtrusivelyatthefrontofthestageinthecornersadjacenttotheprosceniumarch.WiththistechniquearecentproductionofDickWhittingtonhadratimageswhich ran along sewer pipes painted diagonally in perspective across a two-dimensional front cloth. The rats diminished in size with the perspective anddisappearedatthevanishingpointofthepainting.

The low-powered lasers used in theatre require some smoke in the air pluscareful balancing of the other light if they are to register tomaximum effect.Lasersareexpensiveanddangerous;theyshouldonlybeinstalledandoperatedbylaserspecialists.Thereisalwaysanabortbuttontobehitimmediatelyifthe

laserbeamstopsmoving.

PsychedelicsSomeoftheextrememoving-lighteffectsareperhapsclosertodiscothequethanstage. However, I remember a splendid production of A Midsummer Night'sDream which made extensive use of colours constantly breaking up anddissolving, bymeans of moving prisms. Oil-and-water mixtures may be usedwithdyesandfilterstoproduceinterestingrandomcolourpictures.

LightningAveryhighpercentageoftheoperaticrepertoirecallsforheavenlyinterventionintheformoflightning.Therearetwoforms—forkandsheet.

Forklightningisaprojection:eitheraslideinaconventionalprojectororagobocut-outinaprofilespot.Thebuildanddecaytimeofalampfilamentslowsdown the flash time if wemake and break the electrical supply. This can beovercomebyreplacingthelampwithastrobe,ortheflashingcanbedonebyashutter or a piece of hand-held card. An operator is useful because the forkshouldbemovedtoadifferentpartoftheskyforeachlightningburst.

Sheetlightningisjustarapidseriesofflashesofintensewhitelight,andthesimplestlamptoflashistheover-runphotographiclampknownasaPhotoflood.Thisistheonlytypeoftungstenlampwithaconvincinglyfastonandoff.Whenflashingsheetlightning,bewareshowingupthestagemaskingarrangementsinsilhouette.Thebestplaceforsheetlightningisprobablybehindagroundrowatthebottomof thesky.Strobesareoftenusedandanumberofelectronic flashdevices are available. These give a short intensive flash, butwith a regularityrelatedtothespeedofrecharging.Truelightninghasanirregularrhythm.

StrobesStroboscopesgiveafastseriesofveryshortlightflashes.Underthislight,actionappears to be frozen into series of jerky movements similar to early silentmovies.Theeffectmustbeusedsparingly,foritcaninducesicknessorevenfitsinmembers of the audience. For this reason, some licensing authorities insistthatflashratesdonotexceedeightpersecond.

FlashingandchasingModerncontroltechnologysimplifiestheflashingandautomaticsequencingoflights into patterns such as those where a series of lights appears to ‘run’ or‘chase’. Even quite simple control desks now have these capabilities, eitherincorporated in the desk or available as an add-on unit. The use of such lightmovements has become standard practice in popular music presentations andsomeofthetechniqueshavebeencarriedoverintostagemusicals.Theycanbeveryeffectiveformusicalnumberswithastrongrhythmicbeatifusedsparingly:likeeverythingelse,over-usequicklybluntstheimpactoftheeffect.

BlacklightCertainmaterialswill fluoresceunderultraviolet (UV) light.AspureUV isaharmfulradiation,speciallamps,withfilteringincorporatedintheglass,mustbeusedforstageUV.Theeasiesttypetouseisthe4ftUVfluorescenttube.Forthebest results, everything should be black except the bits which are treated tofluoresce. Fabrics which react to UV are available, as are paints and dyes.Materialswhichhavebeenwashedincertaindetergentstendtofluoresce.

The most common use of UV is the type of pantomime underwater scenewhereUVlightistheonlylightsourceonanotherwiseblacked-outstage.ThemostsophisticateduseisintheBlackTheatreofPrague,whereacombinationofUV and a little careful directional light from the wings is used to sustain anentireevening'sentertainment.

FibreopticsThesmallestavailablepointsoflightarethoseattheendsofopticalfibres.Thefibresmaybefedtotherearofapieceofsceneryandterminatedintinyholestomake line patterns from dots of light. The individual tails are grouped into aharnessandleadbacktoaunitwherelightisfocusedontotheendofthefibresby a special heat-filtering reflector. A rotating colour wheel provides thepossibility of a changing colours. Fibre optics are particularly effective forskyclothswhere theyhave supplanted the traditionalpea-bulbs.The fibres canbeterminatedonablackskyclothinrandomorderorintheformationofspecificconstellations. With a realistic sky, the use of two almost similar steelsalternatinginthecolourwheelwillgiveaconvincingtwinkle.

Fibreopticsonasceneryflat

Smokegenerator(JemStoge-Hazer)

SmokeandmistNo type of smoke which produces acrid fumes is acceptable for stage use.Smoke to disperse through the atmosphere is produced by smoke generatorswhich vaporise a special non-toxic smoke fluid by propelling it over a heatedelement. A low-lying rolling mist can be obtained by lowering dry-ice intoboilingwater.Theresultantvapourisheavierthanairandrollsacrossthestagefloor. (Beware—dry-iceburnsfleshandmustneverbeusedwithoutstudyofthemanufacturer'srecommendationsforsafestorageandusage.)

Alltypesofsmokemustberehearsedandperformedwithparticularcareandsensitivity. Their action depends on somany factors, particularly atmosphericchanges,thattheycanneverbeentirelypredictable—alittletoomuchcanfillnot just the stage but the auditorium.An effect that was intended to help theproductionthensucceedsinkillingitoff.

BangsandflashesAlthough not really lighting effects, the electrics department is usuallyresponsible forproducingbangs, flashes, flaresandpyrotechnicdisplaysofall

kinds.Meticulous attention to safety is essential in handling this sort of stuff,with particularly careful study of the manufacturer's instructions for eachspecific product. Flash-boxes and bomb-tanks are fired from special controlboxeswhichareonlypoweredwhenanenablingkeyisinserted.

Portablecontrolboxwithkeylockandsafetyindicatorsforfiringpyrotechnics(SystemPDSbySkyhighStageFX)

Podforsealedflash-powdercartridges(SkyhighStageFX)

Thiskeyshouldonlybeinsertedwhenapyrotechniccueisonstandby.Anyoneloading flashes or bombs should ensure that the system is isolated: not only

removingthekeybutkeepingitintheirpocketuntilloadingiscomplete.

Older-type flash-boxes were constructed of fireproof materials and hadterminals across which a piece of fuse wire was used to ignite a plasticteaspoonful of the special powder. Today's types, known as ‘pods’, aremuchsaferandmorereliable:ameasuredamountofpowderpre-loadedinanenclosedplug-in capsule is fired by a low voltage.Bombs (often called ‘maroons’) arefiredinspecialtankswithwire-meshcoverings,anditisimportanttocheckthatno-onegoesnearthetanksatfiringtime.

OthereffectsAerosols of cobwebs and melting snow are just some of the many assortedeffects tobefoundin thecatalogues.The‘confetticanon’whichfires½kgofconfetti oncue isdramatic, if limited in application, and there is evena soap-bubblemachinewhichmustsurelyhaveaShakespeareanapplicationifsomeonecanhitupontherightproductionstyletousetherainboweffectsproducedwhenlighthitsthebubbles.Thebubbles,floatingdownfromabovethestage,addtothe illusion in any underwater scene; but don't hang themachines on lightingbarswheretheheatwillburstthebubbles.

Anythingispossiblesolongaswerememberthateffectsmustbeapositivelyintegratedpartoftheproduction,notjustadistractingdecorativeaddition.

AutomatedlightingAvoidingtheuseofeffectsjustforthesakeofeffectcanbeparticularlydifficultwhen automated lights are available. The ease with which they can gyrate,changecolour,strobeandrotatetheirgobospresentsconsiderabletemptationtodo this just because it is possible. Nevertheless, automated lights do presentsomereallynewopportunities.Justoneexample:forthefirsttimeforkedgobolightingcanstrobewithouthittingthesameplacetwice.

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COMFORTANDCONFIDENCE

Spotlights in idealpositions.Pointedprecisely.Angles just right.Beamssoftlytuned.Coloursdelicatelytoned.Areasclearlyselected.Atmosphereappropriate.

Enough? Not quite. There is another vital ingredient. The actor must feelcomfortableandconfident.

Lighting that is ‘comfortable’ to an actor is in fact rather in the nature of acontrolled discomfort. Or perhaps ‘professional discomfort’ would be a moreappropriatephrase.Actorsneedtofeelatouchofglareintheeyestobelievethatcharactercanbeprojected.Asensitiveactorfeelsthelight-feelsitenoughtobeawareof thedegreeofpersonalvisibilitybutnotwhether thebalancebetweenactors is correct. A sensitive actor who has studied lighting will develop anawarenessofthesculpturalqualityofthelightintheactingenvironment.(Aside:it ismysadpersonalobservation thatmostactingschools teach lessabout thenatureofdesignthanmostdesignschoolsteachaboutthenatureofacting.)

Apart from sensing the eye light, actors may need some help in feelingcomfortable.Forexample,insomeauditoria,thefohlightinganglesfromceilingbridges and side-wall booms can be excellent for lighting design but leave adisconcertingblackholejustwheretheaudienceis.Especiallyincomedy,thereislittlecomfortinstandingonastagetoembraceanaudiencevoidframedbyaseries of lighting arches (rather like goal posts) getting larger as they recedefromtheactor—amostdisturbinginversionofthelawsofperspective.

ThereisapossiblesolutionthatIhaveusedwithsomesuccess—althoughIhave tomeasure that successby thecheerfuluncomplainingdispositionofmyactorssinceanydiscussionwiththemmightdestroythecheat(buthonestcheat)uponwhichthemethodisbased.Asfrequentlyobservedinthisbook,horizontallightingfromthefrontofalowbalconyisunsuitableasacomponentofnormal

actorlightingwhetherforvisibility,sculptingoratmosphere.Well,atleastfromtheaudienceviewpoint.Buta littleglowcanbecomfortingtotheactors,fromfresnels on a flooded beam angle but with the top and bottom barndoorssquashedtoaslotandhittingstraightin,nocrossing,ateyelevel.Averysmallproportionof the total light.With 50or 60 foh from top and sides bashing inwithpalesttintsataboutpoint8,Ihaveusedhalf-a-dozenfresnelswithmiddle-saturationfiltersataboutpoint2½.

Alowintensityoflightfromthisangledoespracticallynothingfortheactorexcepthelpinducesomecosycomfort.Withfiltering,thetechniquecanbeusedto encourage the actor to feel chilly misery but this is rarely required sincesadness tends to be a more introverted emotion than joy. On the other hand,happinessandcomedyaresomewhatdependenton theactorreceivingpositiveresponse of the kind that does not come from a void: eye-level light helps toprovideanaudiencefocus.

Actorcomfortwasanimportantfunctionoffootlights.Theyoftengavemorepositivehelp to theactor in thisway than theirnegative influenceas abarrierbetweenactorandaudience.

Inpassingitshouldperhapsbenotedthatwhereaslightfordramaexercisesinschools is often used to create aworking ambience for the actors (there is noaudience),itissurprisingthatlightingisnotusedmoreoftentocreateaworkingambiencefortheactorsintheworkshopsessionsthatarenowaregularpartofthe creative process in the rehearsal room. There seems to be some case forsimpleemotionallightingfromtimetotimetostimulatethesearchforcharacter.Oncediscovered,thecharacterhastobeprojectedbytheactor'stechnicalwaysand means. At this point the lighting would become an aid for the audienceratherthantheactor.ButIfantasise.

Whatisnotfantasyisthatthetransferfromtherehearsalroomtothestageissomethingofatraumaticexperienceforanyactor.Itisnoteasytocometogripsquicklywiththeprojectiondemandsofanauditorium,whileacclimatisingtoatechnological environment where various elements have to be integrated witheachotherandwiththeactorsinwhatisoftenaludicrouslyshorttime.Thisiswhere confidence is vital. The actors must have confidence in the lightingdesigner.Indeedtheactorsmusthaveconfidenceinthewholeproductionteam.Perhaps in theory it might be enough for the actor to have confidence in thedirector who controls the whole production team. But increasingly complextechnologyandevertougherschedulesmeanthatthedirectorjusthastodelegatelargeareasofresponsibilityinordertoconcentrateonthetotality.

Lightingisaparticularlyimportantelementintheconfidencearea;mostothercontributionsproducedesignsinagraphicformwhichisunderstandabletothenon-specialist.Theperformancescanbeseengrowingintherehearsalroomandthe set, costume and prop designs taking shape in the workshops. But thelighting design cannot be realised until a very late point in the productionprocess.

Intensive planning is the main requirement to overcome this, but actorconfidenceisavitaladjunct.Theactormustbeabletoacceptfromthelightingdesigner,‘Yes,wehaveaproblemhere,butweareworkingonitandtheideawillwork.’Themainway tobuildconfidence isnaturally toensure thatat thenext rehearsal all is right. But actor confidence must be sufficient to surviveseveral interventions of Murphy's Rehearsal Law which states that unrelateddisasterstendtooccurtothesameactoratthesamecuedaily.

Actor/lighting designer confidence can come in various ways. A little,inevitably,fromreputation(butthishasbeenknowntoworkinversely!)Mutualconfidenceiseasierinacompanywithregularactorsandstaff.Otherwiseitisamatter of the lighting designer showing concern by frequent attendance atrehearsals.And talking to the actors informally from time to time—showinginterest, knowledge and concern for the actor's problems. The actor is rightlyworriedbythemassofanonymousfacesthatcansurroundaproductiondeskinanotherwisedarkenedauditorium—wearing‘cans’andchantingnumbers.Butifthefacesarefamiliarandhavesharedabeer,ajokeandamoan,thethreatisdiminished. It may be a much frayed cliché, but we need to repeat it daily:theatreisapeopleindustry.

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AGENDAFORAPOST-MORTEM

Ialwayshope to learnbymymistakes—andbymysuccesses,especially theunexpected ones. Ideally the teamwould sit down a couple of days after theopening night to pick over the bones of the production period. But usuallyeveryoneistoobusywiththenextshow—orjustwantstoforgetthisone.Foranyonewhowantsapost-mortem,grouporindividual,Ioffer,asanagenda,myownchecklistdevelopedwhilelookingoutofthetrainwindowonthewayhomefromfortyyearsofproductions.

Howwelldidthelightingservetheproduction?Inaims?

Intheachievementoftheseaims?

Didwemakegooddecisionsaboutthestyleoflightinglook?Didthelightingsupporttheactorsininterpretingthescriptand/orscore?

Couldithavebeenmoreatmospheric?

Ormoreselective?

Wasittoonaturalistic?

Ornotnaturalisticenough?

Wasitconsistentthroughout?

And did we resist the temptation to superimpose effects because thetechnologyhappenedtobeavailable?

Didwegetourprioritiesright?Orweretheresomebrieflovelymomentsattheexpenseoftherestofthe

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evening?

Howgoodwasourdivisionofthestageintoactingareas?Werethereenoughareas?

Ortoomany?

Anddidtheseareasconformtotheactormovements?

Andthedivisionofthestageintocolours?Diditprovidetherightmixingpossibilitiesintherightplaces?

How closely did the performance lighting match the ideas of the originaldiscussions?

Werethedifferencesduetochangesinideasastheproductiondevelopedinrehearsal?

And, if so, were we flexible enough in observing these changes andadaptingourplannedlighting?

Howmanyproblemswerecausedbythearchitectureofthevenue?Couldthefohlightingpositionsbeimproved?

Orcouldwehavemadebetteruseoftheavailablepositions?

And didwe always choose the best compromisewhen selecting hangingpositionsonstage?

Couldthelightshavebeeninbettercondition?Optically(dirtylensesorreflectors)?

Mechanically?

Electrically?

Didthefocusingprogresssmoothly?Witheachlightabletodoitsplannedjob?

Orweretheresometimesobstaclessuchasbordersorflatsintheway?

Andifso,shouldwehaverealisedthisinadvance?

Howwastheplotting?Did the ‘palette’of focused lightsprovideeverything thedirectorand therestofthedesignteamhopedfor?

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Andwereweflexibleenough indeveloping ideas rather thansticking toorigidlytoouroriginalconcept?

Howwereourcommunications?Did theactivitiesof the lighting teamcausemany surprises to eachotherandtotherestoftheproductionteam?

Wereweonschedule?Ordidweplantotrytodotoomuchinthetimeavailable?

Wereweonbudget?Ifnot,wheredidwemiscalculate?

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LIGHTEDUCATION

Onthewhole,Ibelievethatcareersinstagelightingareforthosewhomightbedescribedas ‘theatrepeoplewhowork in lighting’ rather than ‘lightingpeoplewhoworkintheatre’.

LIGHTINGTECHNICIANS

A career as a theatre lighting technician is an ambition that is relativelystraightforwardtoachieve,providedthatonehas:

aninterestin,perhapsevenapassionfor,theatre

adeterminationtoworkintheatrelighting

anaptitudeforadjustingandmaintainingsmall-scalemechanicalequipment

anaptitudeforcommon-senseelectricalandmechanicaltroubleshooting

asensitiveeye

asensitiveear

physicalstamina

agoodheadforheights

an acceptance ofwork patternswhere hours are often long, irregular andunsocial,withperiodsofshortintensepressurepunctuatedbylongperiodsofstandingby

Untilveryrecently,trainingforlightingcrew,likemostworkinthetheatre,was

based on the informal apprenticeship basis of learning on the job. Thistraditionalmethodisstillpossible,althoughamoreformalapproachisbecomingincreasingly common throughout the theatre industry. Several colleges offercourses which provide an introduction to theatre and its basic lighting and toelectrical theory and practice. There is often an element of secondment intotheatresonablockorday-per-weekbasis.Theelectricalcontentofmostofthesecourses is geared to elementary procedures for the maintenance and safeoperationofstagelightinginstallations.Studentswhowishtoprepareforalifeintheatreelectricsbystudyingingreaterdepth,particularlythosewithastrongaptitudeformathematics,mayconsidertakinganon-theatrecourseinelectricalorelectronicengineering.Thisalsoofferscareeroptionsbeyondthesomewhatprecarioustheatreindustry.

Different job opportunities for members of theatre lighting crews (usuallyknownas‘theelectrics’)offeralternativeworkingpatterns.Somepeopleliketheroutine of producing theatres which present their own plays; others preferworkinginareceivingtheatrewithamixedprogrammeoftouringshows,whilemanyoptforafreelancecareer. It isamatterofpersonalpreference, linkedtosuchconsiderationsastemperament,familycircumstancesandjobsatisfaction.

In-service training courses are likely to become an increasing feature oftheatre education. They offer a particularly effective way of building onexperienceandacquiringknowledgeofnewtechnologiesandskillsinhandlingandmaintainingnewequipment.

LIGHTINGDESIGNERS

Buthowdoesonebecomea lightingdesigner?The traditionalpathhasbeenamixture of chance and persistence.Whileworking in various areas of theatre,particularly in electrics or stage management and occasionally in set design,peoplediscoveraninterestinlightandanaptitudeforhandlingit.Developmentas a lighting designer then becomes a process of persistence: first to be givendesignopportunitiesandthentolearnfromtheseopportunities.Inthebeginningthereisaconsiderableelementofchance:particularlybeingintherightplacesattherighttimestogetopportunitiestolightshows–andparticularlytodosoinasympathetic environment. But a major problem is that, whereas actors,musicians,setdesignersandcostumierscanbeauditioned,bythetimealightingdesigner'swork is seen, it is usually too late to substitute an alternative. This

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naturallyencouragestheatremanagementstoplaysafeintheirchoiceoflightingdesignerandreducesopportunitiesfornewpeople.

Chance and persistence are likely to remain major factors in careerdevelopmentbutarebecominglessofanormalwaytogetstarted.Althoughaproportionofactors,designersand technicianshavealwaysemergedby routesotherthanthroughtheformaltheatreeducationalsystem,andsomewillalwayscontinue to do so, the theatre industry is moving towards more structuredmethods of educating its personnel. Lighting design is no exception. Indeedthere are several reasonswhy lightingdesign courses are an areaof educationparticularly,evenurgently,inneedofdevelopment.

My generation of lighting designers grew up in parallel with the greattechnological surge of the last forty years. We started to light with a smallamountofsimpleequipment,graduallylearningbyon-the-jobdiscoveryasrigsgrewinsizeandtechnologicalsophistication.Theadvancesintechnologywereparalleledbyageneraldesireofproductionteamstoexpandthecontributionoflight to the stage environment. Our aspirations had clear goals provided byAppia,Craigandthemanyotherswhohadbeenfrustratedbythetechnologyandproductionattitudesoftheirtime.Withtheartandthesciencebecomingcloselyinteractiveandfeedingeachotheraswejuggledthedesirablewiththepossible,thedevelopmentpacewasveryquick.Today'syoungdesignersare facedwithexpectationsof ahigher lightingquality andmore complexequipmentoptionsfor achieving it. Although some problems have gone – particularly thelimitationsof theoldcontrolboards–new lightingdesignershave to takemygeneration'spointofarrivalastheirpointofdeparture.Andso,beforestarting,theyhavetoassimilateaconsiderableamountoftheknow-howthatweacquiredexperimentallyoveralongperiod.

What personal qualities and aptitudes would seem desirable in a potentialprofessionallightingdesigner?Iwouldsuggest:

acommittedinterestinallaspectsoftheatre,andtheperformingandvisualartsgenerally

adeterminationthatputsbeingalightingdesignerbeforefinancialsecurityandascheduledsociallife

acapacityforstronglyimaginativevisualthinking

an aptitude for absorbing the possibilities and limitations of varioustechnologies, both new and old, for designing and managing lighting'scontributiontostagedperformances

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an ability to relate to, andworkwith, the othermembers of creative andinterpretativeteams

articulacyinasking,explaininganddiscussing

I would not claim particularly high personal ratings on this list and I haveomitted the particular aptitude which I lack and have regretted increasinglythroughoutmyworking life.Andwhat is that? Iwish I could draw.Somuchdiscussion about light has to be in verbal rather than visual terms.Light is sodifficulttoputintowordsthatweareneversureifwemeanthesamething–inmyexperience,werarelydo.Iwouldlovetobeabletosketchalternativeswhilewetalk.‘Doyoumeanthisordoyoumeanthat?’Myidealdirectorwouldpickup a pencil and say, ‘Well, I rather see it like this.’Although scenedesignershavetheability,surprisinglyfewdrawlight.Buthowhelpfulitiswhentheydo.

LIGHTINGDESIGNCOURSES

Working as part of a lighting team will always continue to be a learningsituation,particularlyobservationofcauseandeffect.Buthowcanwepreparepeople to benefit from this and provide them with a structured learningexperience which will lead them gradually towards lighting publicperformances?

LightingdesignhaslongbeenanestablishedmajorstudyinmanyAmericanuniversitytheatredepartments.But,untilrecently,mostoftherestoftheworld,includingBritain,hasofferedveryfewcourseopportunitiesfor lightingdesignstudents. Stage management, technical and design courses contained lightingelements but there was no established tradition of specialised training fordesigners.However,withHongKongandHelsinkiaspioneers,lightingdesignhas now become an internationally recognised study which includes severaldegreeprogrammesinBritishtertiaryinstitutions.

How should such courses be constructed? Is lighting design an appropriatespecialist study tomakebeforeembarkingonaprofessionalcareer?Orshouldpotential lighting designers begin with more general theatre studies and thenreturntocollegeforspecialiststudyaftersomeexperiencesofworkingintheatrewhichwould enable them to reaffirm, or even discover, lighting interests andaptitudes?

Perhaps lightingdesigneducation shouldbeas flexible aspossible,offering

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foundationandspecialistcourses.

FoundationlightingdesigncoursesEssentially a pre-career-entry study, but also available in more concentratedformforthosewhoalreadyhaveconsiderabletheatreexperienceandnowwishtospecialiseinlighting.Thesecourseswouldinclude:

a wide introduction to theatre embracing its histories, philosophies,aspirationsandachievements

anunderstandingoftheprocessesoftextanalysis,directionandacting

astudyoftheworkingsandinterrelationshipsofallthestagingdepartments

anexplorationofthefundamentalsoflightingdesign

LightingdesignspecialistcoursesTaken after a foundation course, with or without an intermediate period ofprofessionalwork, thesewould be based as far as possible on discoverywithstudents placed in structured situations offering an opportunity of discoveringratherthanreceivinginformation.Therewouldbe:

a major emphasis on lighting real productions under the supervision ofexperiencedprofessionaldesigners

astrongcoreoflaboratory-typeprojectsdevisedtopresentopportunitiesforthe lightingprocess tobeexplored in awide rangeof alternative lightingstyleswithdiscoverybasedprimarilyontherelationofcauseandeffect

considerable emphasis on teamwork,with students taking on the role ofdesignleaderinrotation

a gradual build-up in the complexity of projects, but including anoccasional return tobasics; also anoccasionalworking in styles favouredbytherestofaproductionteamalthoughcontrarytothelightingdesigner'spersonalinclinations

theoreticalstudiesinsupportofpracticallighting,includingscriptanalysiswithwritersanddirectors,pictorialanalysiswitharthistorians,paintersandsculptors, and lighting history researched on the principle of ‘to move

forward,firstlookback’.

The major problem of teaching lighting is the extensive resources required.Althoughmuch can be done in a small studio, access is required to stages ofdifferent form and size. These resources need to be made available forconsiderableperiodsoftime.Multiplythetimenormallytakentorigandlightaproductionbythenumberofstudentsinvolved.Evenwithoutamarginaddedforexperiment,itcanbeseenthatalotofresourceistakenupbyasmallnumberofstudents. Five or six is not just the ideal size of a lighting group to alloweveryone a chance – it is virtually the maximum size to let everyone reallybenefit.Onthisbasisitwouldseemthatreallyconcentratedspecialisttraininginlighting design can only really be made available to a very small number ofpeople.Thisprovidesanotherreasonforsuggestingthatstudyinglightingdesignin depth should be a postgraduate and/or post-experience study for thosewhohavedemonstratedaptitude,preferablyinaworkingtheatreenvironment.

However,toreturntothethemeoftheprologuetothisbook,Ifirmlybelievethat all theatre education (including acting) should include a considerablelightingcontent.

GLOSSARY

actingareaTheareaofthestagesettingwithinwhichtheactorperforms.Also,anobsoletetypeoffixed-focusinstrumentusedfordownlighting.

advancebarAspotbarhungwithintheauditorium,closetotheproscenium.apron The part of the stage projecting towards or into the auditorium. Inprosceniumtheatres,thepartofthestageinfrontofthemainhousecurtain.

attributesThecontrollablefunctionsofaremotelyoperatedspotlightincludingpan,tilt,focus,shuttering,goboselection,diffusion,filtering,etc.

backingScenerybehindadoor,window,fireplaceorsimilaropening.Also,themoneyinvestedinacommercialproduction.

backlight Light coming from behind scenery or actors to sculpt and separatethemfromtheirbackground.

barAhorizontalmetaltubeofscaffoldingdiameterforhanginglights(pipe inNorthAmerica).

barndoorAfour-shutterrotatabledevicewhichslidesintothefrontrunnersoffresnelandPCfocusspotstoshapethebeamandreducestrayscatterlight.

battensLengthsofoverheadlightingfloodsarrangedin3or4circuitsforcolourmixing.Also,lengthsoftimberatthetopsandbottomsofcloths.

beamangleTheangleoftheconeoflightproducedbyaspotlight.beamlight A lensless spotlightwith parabolic reflector giving intense parallelbeam.

blacklightUV(q.v.)bleedseedissolveboardAcontractionofswitchboardordimmerboard.Thecentralcontrolpointforthestagelighting.

boomAverticalpole,usuallyofscaffoldingdiameter,formountingspotlights.

boomarmAbracketforfixingspotlightstoaboom.bordersNeutralordesignedstripsofmaterialhungabove the stage to formalimittothesceneandmaskthetechnicalregionsabovetheperformancearea.

borderlightsNorthAmericantermforbattens(q.v.)brail To pull suspended scenery or lighting upstage or downstage from itsnaturalfree-hangingpositionbymeansofshortropelinesattachedtotheendsoftheflybar.

breastTopullsuspendedsceneryorlightingupstageordownstagefromitsfreehanging position by means of a rope line passed across the fly bar'ssuspensionlines.

bridge An access catwalk, passing over the stage or incorporated within theauditorium ceiling, usually to facilitate spotlight focusing. Also, elevatorswhichraiseandsinksectionsofastagefloor.

build (1) An increase in light intensity. (2) To construct a scene from itscomponentparts.

channel The control path from the desk to each dimmer or attribute. Thesimplest systems have a dimmer dedicated to every channel but in moreadvancedsystemsthereisaprocessingcapabilityofassigningeachdimmertoanychannel.

channelaccessThemethod(levers,pushes,keyboard,etc.)inamemorysystembywhichindividualchannelsarebroughtunderoperatorcontrol.

chaseToswitchlights,usuallyelectronically,inaloopedsequencesothattheyappeartobe‘chasing’eachother.

cheat A change made very slowly in the hope that the audience will not beconsciouslyaware.

checkAdecreaseinlightintensity.CIDAtypeofhighintensitydischargelamp,normallyinterchangeablewithCSIlampsbutofferingalightapproximatingmoretodaylight.

circuitAcompletepathfromtheelectricalsupplytothelight.Whensuchapathincludesadimmer,itshouldbecalledachannel,butthewordcircuitisoftenusedlooselytoincludechannel.

colourcallAlistingofallthecolourfiltersrequiredineachlightinginstrument.

colour-correctionfiltersAlthoughintendedprimarilyformatchinglampswithdifferentcolourtemperatureinfilmandvideostudios,thesefiltersfinduseonthe stage, particularly for increasing the ‘whiteness’ of white by adding atouchofpalestblue.

colour temperature A method of measuring (in Kelvin units) the spectralcontentof‘white’light.

control surface Any device such as lever, push, wheel, rocker, mouse, pen,cursor, etc., used as an interface between an operator's fingers and aprocessing system which activates dimmers or motors controlling lightinginstruments.

crossfadeA lighting changewhere some of the channels increase in intensitywhileotherchannelsdecrease.

CSI(compactsourceiodine)Atypeofhigh-intensitydischargelamp(cannotbedimmedelectrically).

cue The signal that initiates a change of any kind.Lighting cue is a changeinvolvinglightintensityalterations.

cycloramaAplainclothextendingaroundandabovethestagetogiveafeelingofinfinitespace.Thetermisoftenratherlooselyusedforanyskycloth,eitherstraightorwithalimitedcurveattheends.

darkAtheatretemporarilyorpermanentlyclosedtothepublic.dead(1)Theplottedheightofapieceofsuspendedsceneryorbaroflights(triminNorthAmerica).(2)Discardeditemsofscenery.

dichroicColourfilterswhichworkbyreflectingunwantedpartsofthespectrumratherthanabsorbingtheminthemanneroftraditionalfilters.

diffuserAfilter,oftencalledafrost,whichsoftensalightbeam,particularlyitsedge.

dimmerAdevicewhichcontrolstheamountofelectricitypassedtoalightandthereforetheintensityofthatlight'sbrightness.

dips Small traps in the stage floor giving access to electrical sockets (floorpocketsinNorthAmerica).

directional diffuser A filter which not only softens the beam but spreads italongachosenaxis.

directorThepersonwiththeultimateresponsibilityfortheinterpretationofthe

scriptthroughcontroloftheactorsandsupportingproductionteam.

discharge lamps Special high-powered light sources whose use is normallyrestricted to follow spots and projection because of difficulties in remotedimmingbyelectricalmeans.

dissolve Lighting a scene behind a gauze tomake the scene gradually visiblethroughthegauze.

downstageThepartofthestagenearesttotheaudience.ellipsoidalStrictlyatypeofreflectorusedinmanyprofilespotsbutextendedinNorthAmericatocoverallprofilespots.

falseprosceniumAportal(q.v.),particularlyoneinthedownstagearea.flashoutTocheckwhether lights areworkingby switching themononeat atime.

floatsJargonforfootlights.floodAsimpleinstrumentgivingafixedspreadoflight.flysTheareaabovethestageintowhichscenerycanbeliftedoutofsightoftheaudience.

focusing Strictly speaking, the adjustment of lights to give a clearly definedimage;butusuallyusedtocoverthewholeprocessofadjustingthedirectionand beam of spotlights in which the desired image may be anything butclearlydefined.

fohAll instrumentswhichare‘frontofhouse’, i.e.on theaudiencesideof theproscenium.

followspotAspotlightwithwhichanoperatorfollowsactorsaroundthestage.footlights Long strips of flooding equipment along the front of the stagearrangedin3or4circuitsforcolourmixing.

fresnelspotAspotlightwithsoftedgesduetofresnellenswhichhasasteppedmouldingonthefrontandatexturedsurfaceontheback.

frostAdiffuserfilterusedtosoftenalightbeam.FUF(full-upfinish)Anincreasetobrightlightoverthefinalbarsofamusicalnumber.

fuseAprotectivedevice,eithercartridgeorpieceofspecialwire,whichmelts

whenitsratedelectricalcurrentisexceeded.

gateTheoptical centreof aprofile spotwhere the shutters arepositionedandwhereanirisorgobocanbeinserted.

gauze Fabric which becomes transparent or solid under appropriate lightingconditions(scriminNorthAmerica).

gelstringAsequenceoffilterstapedtogetherforuseinascroller(q.v.)goboAmaskplaced in thegate (q.v.)of aprofile spotlight for simpleoutlineprojection.Alsoused,withsoftenedfocus,totexturethebeam.

gridThearrangementofwoodenormetalslatswhichsupportthepulleyblocksoftheflyingsystem.

groundrowAlowpieceofscenerystandingonthestagefloor.Alsolengthsoflightingplacedonthestagefloor.

group A subdivision, temporary or permanent, of the channels in a controlsystem.

HMIAtypeofhigh-intensitydischarge lampusedmainly inscenicprojectionandfollowspots(cannotbedimmedelectrically).

hook clamp A clamp for fixing an instrument to a horizontal bar, usually ofscaffoldingdiameter.

houselightsThedecorativelightingintheauditorium.instrumentAstagelightingunit,suchasaspotlightorflood.AnAmericantermcomingintoincreasinginternationaluse.Seealsolanternandluminaire.

irisAnadjustablecirculardiaphragmtoalterthegatesizeinaprofilespot.Alsothe muscle-operated diaphragm in the human eye which adjusts the eye'saperturetochanginglightintensities.

isoraAplasticskycloth,litfrombehind.kilowattseewattageladderA framework in the shape of a ladder (but not climbable) for hangingsidelighting.

lamps The light sourcewithin an instrument (q.v.), but sometimes used as analternativetotheword‘instrument’.

lanternAluminaire(q.v.)designedoradaptedforstageuse.Atraditionalword

nowbeingovertakenby‘instrument’.

Leko North American term for a type of ellipsoidal profile spot. Use oftenextendedtoallmakesofellipsoidal.

limesJargonforfollowspotsandtheiroperators.linearfloodAfloodusingalongthindouble-endedhalogenlamp,allowingthereflectortobedesignedforanincreasedbeamspread.

loadThelightscontrolledbyanindividualdimmerandlimitedbytheratingofthatdimmer.

luminaireThe internationalword for any lighting instrumentof anykind (notjustthespecialisedlightinginstrumentsusedinthetheatre).

magic sheets Originally a simplified light plan for quick reference, butincreasingly a control surface (q.v.) providing direct channel access bytouchingsymbolsonaplan.

markingPlacingsmalldiscreetmarksonthestagefloor(temporarilywithtape,more permanently with paint) to aid the positioning of scenery and propsduringachange.

masking Neutralmaterial or scenerywhich defines the performance area andconcealsthetechnicalareas.

masterAleverorpushwhichoverrides(or‘masters’)acompletepreset(q.v.),orgroupwithinapresetorselectedmemory.

memory Lighting control systems where channel intensities for each cue arefiledautomaticallyinanelectronicstore.

multiplexing Passing control instructions, particularly to dimmers or remotelyfocusable lights, by sending all information in digital format along a singlepairofscreenedwires.

OPThe‘oppositeprompt’sideofthestage—stageright,i.e.actor'srightwhenfacingtheaudience.

paletteThe rangeof individual lightbeamsprepared formixing to ‘paint’ thestagepicture.

panHorizontal(left/right)movementofaninstrument.parcanThe simple instrumentwhichholds a par lamp and therefore does notrequireanyopticalsystemoflensesorreflectors.

parlampAsealed-beamlampwiththefilamentcontainedwithinthesameglassenvelopeasanopticalsystemproducinganear-parallelbeam.

patching A sort of central ‘telephone exchange’ where dimmers can beconnectedtoappropriatesocketoutlets.Seealsosoftpatch.

PCseeplanoconvexandprismconvexpebbleseeprismconvexlens.perches Lighting positions (often on platforms) at each side of the stage,immediatelybehindtheproscenium.

pilotsLow-intensityorbluelightsaroundthesidesof thestagewhichdonot illuminate theactingareabutallowtheactorstomoveaboutsafely.Seealsoworkinglights.

pipeTheNorthAmericantermforbar(q.v.).pipe enbds Spotlights on the ends of lighting bars, crosslighting to modeldancers'bodies.

planoconvexlens(PC)Alenswithoneflatsurfaceandonecurvedsurface.ThePC lens and the fresnel lens are the alternatives normally used in stagespotlights.

playback The part of a memory system where memorised lighting states arerecalledtocontrolthelightonstageviamasterleversorpushes.

portal Framed masking border bolted to framed masking legs, often givendecorativetreatment.

practicalAlightfittingwhichisnotmerelydecorativebutiswiredtolightup.Alsousedforanypropwhichworks.

prefocus cap A special lamp cap which ensures that the filament lines uppreciselywiththeopticsofaspotlight.

preset(1)Anythingwhichispositionedinadvanceofitsbeingrequired—suchas props placed on the stage before the performance. (2) A control systemwhereeachchannelhasmorethanonelevertoallowintensitylevelstobeset(i.e.preset)inadvanceofacue.

prismconvexlensAPClensincorporatingsomediffusioninitsstructure.Alsoknownaspebbleconvex.

profile spot A spotlight which projects the outline (i.e. the profile) of any

chosen shape and with any desired degree of hardness/softness (in NorthAmericaoftencalledellipsoidalorleko).

profiled cue A lighting change where the rates of increasing and decreasingintensitiesaccelerateordecelerateduringtheprogressofthechange.

prosceniumtheatreThetraditionalformoftheatrewheretheaudiencesitinasingleblockfacingthestage,withafairlydefinitedivisionbetweenaudienceandstage.Thepositionofthisdivisionisknownastheprosceniumandtakesmanyformsfromadefinitearch,notunlikeapictureframe,toanunstressedterminationofauditoriumwallsandceiling.

PSThe‘promptside’ofthestage—stageleft,i.e.actor'sleftwhenfacingtheaudience.

pyrotechnicsBombs,bangs,flashesetc.,usuallyfiredelectrically.ratingThemaximumandminimumpowerinkilowattsthatcanbecontrolledbyacircuitordimmerchannel.

recordToplotacuestatebyfilingitintheelectronicdatastorageofamemoryboard.

resistance dimmer An older mechanical form of dimmer which reduces theflowofelectricitytoalightbyprogressivelyconvertingthesurplusintoheat.

rigger's control A remote portable hand-held control unit which allowschannels or groups to be switched from the stage for focusing when thecontrolroomisunmanned.

rim light Backlighting which creates a ‘rim’ of light around the actors toseparatethemfromtheirbackground.

rock boards Control boards with particularly flexible facilities for ‘playing’channels or groups and for setting up complex sequences for flashing andchasing.

saturation rigA type of lighting installation in a repertoire theatrewhere themaximumnumberofspotlightsareriggedineveryavailableposition.

scatterLow-intensitylightcastoutsidethemainbeamofaninstrument.screwcapAsimplelampbase,usedonlyforbattens,floodsandolderspotlighttypes.Seealsoprefocus.

scrimTheNorthAmericantermforgauze(q.v.)

scroller A colour changer in which a roll of filters is taped together andpositioned by a very fast motor activated by digital signals from a controlsystemwhichincludesamemoryfacility.

shinbustersLow-levellightsatstage-floorlevel,usedmainlyfordance.sightlinesLinesdrawnonplanandsectiontoindicatelimitsofaudiencevisionfrom extreme seats, including side seats, front and back rows, and seats ingalleries.

silksDiffusionfilterswhichstretchthelightinachosendirection.slotsSidelightingpositionsincorporatedwithinauditoriumwalls.softpatchAnelectronicfacilitywithinacontrolsystemtoallowdimmerstobeallocatedtochannelsasrequired.

solid state A situation, particularly in intensity control, where all action iscarriedoutelectronicallywithoutmovingparts.

spigotAnadapterscrewedtothehangingboltofaninstrumenttoenableittobemountedonafloorstand.

spillStrayorscatterlightoutsidethemainbeam.spotlightAninstrumentgivingcontroloftheangleoftheemerginglightbeamandthereforeofthesizeofarealit.

spot lineA temporary line dropped from the grid to suspend something in anexactspecialposition.

standing Scenery (‘standing set’) or light (‘standing light’) which does notchangeduringtheperformance.

strobe A device giving a fast series of very short light flashes under whichactionappearstobefrozen.

theatre-in-the-roundAformofstagingwheretheaudiencetotallyencircletheactingarea.

throwThedistancebetweenalightinginstrumentandtheactororobjectbeinglit.

thrustAformofstagewhichprojects intotheauditoriumsothat theaudienceareseatedonatleasttwosides.

thyristor An electronic device which chops the wavelength of an alternatingcurrentandhasbecomethestandarddimmer.

tiltVertical(up/down)movementofaninstrument.transformation An instant scene change, often effected by exploiting thevaryingtransparencyofgauzeunderdifferentlightingconditions.

trim TheNorthAmerican term for the height above stage level of a hangingpiece of scenery, lights or masking (the equivalent in Britain is one of themeaningsofdead).

tripeSeveralcablesfroma lightingbar tapedtogetherfromtheendof thebaruntil the position where they are plugged into the socket outlets of thepermanentwiringinstallation.

trussAframeworkofalloybarsandtriangularcross-bracing(allofscaffoldingdiameter)providingarigidstructure,particularlyusefulforhanginglights.

tungstenlampsOldertypeoflamps(thestagetypesarehigh-wattageversionsof standard domestic lamps) whose tungsten filaments gradually lose thebrightnessoftheirlightoutput.

tungsten-halogen lampsNewer lamps (nowvirtually standard in professionaltheatre)whichmaintaintheirinitialbrightnessoflightoutputthroughoutlife.

upstageThepartofthestagefurthestfromtheaudience.UVUltravioletlight(fromwhichharmfulradiationshavebeenfilteredout)usedtolightspeciallytreatedmaterialswhichfluoresceonanotherwiseblackenedstage.

variable-beam profile A profile spotlight using a type of zoom (q.v.)arrangement where the differential movement of two lenses allows widevariationsinbothbeamsizeandquality.

VDU (visual display unit) A television-type monitor screen in which all theinformation stored in a memory system can be displayed, including thechanging channel levels during a cue and the channel levels filed in anymemory.

wash lightGeneric term for automated spotlights producing a soft edgebeamsimilartoafresnelordiffusedplanoconvex.

wattageThepowerofconsumptionofalamp,orthemaximumavailablepowerfromadimmer.Akilowatt(kW)is1,000watts.

waysThenumberofchannelsinacontrolsystem.wingsThetechnicalareastothesidesoftheactingarea.Also,scenerystanding

wheretheactingareajoinsthesetechnicalareas.

workinglightsStagelightsindependentofthemainproductionlightingsystem.Switchedfromthepromptcorner,butsometimeswithanoverridingswitchinthecontrolroom.

zoomAdifferentialmovementof two lenses inanoptical system. Ina simplezoom, the lenses are moved independently, but in more complex forms asingle movement alters the size of the beam while the image remains inconstantfocus.Usedinadvancedprofilespotsandsceneprojectors.

INDEX

Pagereferencesinboldaretoentriesintheglossary.additivecolourmixing76,77advancebar203angles84,89,119,120areas6,95,118,119,196architecture65–68,124,197atmosphere6–10,36,77,92,134,160–162,174,196attributes203,31–33,37auditoriumlights—seehouselightsautomatedlights31–36,153,169,172,192

BCcap27backings203,117backlight203,5,13,24,60,160backprojection—seeprojectionbalance4,127ballet135bar47–51barndoor203,15,16,86,163battens203,13,152beamangle203,15,20,21,85beamlights203,23–25,27beamquality11,17beamshape10,11,18blacklight203,188

bleed—seedissolveboom203,47,48,66,68,136borderlights204borders204,11,13boxset113,129brackets49,117brail204breast204Brecht76bridges204,65,66,68,163,166build204,37carousel180ceiling85,86,126channel204,37–39,41,42channelaccess204,40chase204,188check204,37checklists101,102,106,112,196,197,200–202chiefelectrician91choreographer92,153CIDlamp204,74circuit204,37clarity79clouds185colour10,74–83,93,95,116,124,152,157,158,160,197colourtemperature204,74,78compartmentfloods13computers37,39,42,169–173,182consciouscues7,8controlsurfaces44correctionfilters74,78,82crossfade205,7,36,39,52,83

CSIlamp74cue205,37,96,97,110,111cuesynopsis96–98,118,132cyclorama205,83dance8,135–137,141dead205definitionofstagelighting9designer(lighting)90–98,170–173,199–202designer(scene)90–98,114dichroic205,34,35,80diffuser205,17,19,70dimensionallighting—seesculpturallightingdimmers205,37,41,45,52–53digitaldimmers45diplesscrossfade42dips52directionoflight10,56–68,122directionaldiffusers205,137director205,90–98dischargelamps205,27–30,34,74,80,180dissolve151,183,184

effects93,94,184–192ellipsoidal205ESCap27

foh205,52,65–67,141,150,159,168,175,193falseproscenium205fansetting121,122,133,135fibreoptics189filmandTV5

filters—seecolour,diffuser,silksflash188flashbox190,191floats205—seefootlightsfloods205,11,13,94,95,116,152fluidity7,10focusspots14–16focusing205,31–36,68–71,104–106,136,197followspots205,26,27,152footlights206,13,27,124,152fresnelspots206,15–18,86,94,95,141,163frontcloths139frost206fuse206gate206,18gauzes206,183,184GEScap27gel31,32,74getout112gobo206,18,19,23,31,72,152,186graphplot112groundrow206,52,116grouping206,39halogen206,20,27–30hardpatch53hire100,101,112hookclamp206,47–50houselights206,4industrialshows—seetradeshowsinstruments206,11

integraldimmers45intensity3,4,10iris(eye)206,4iris(spotlight)206,27isora206joysticks44

keyboard41keylight115,133ladders206,68lamps206,27–30lanterns206,11lasers187librarystorage167lightentertainment148,149lightingdesigner—seedesigner(lighting)lightning151,180,187,188,192limes207linearfloods207,12,13Linnebach183loads37lowvoltage24,29luminaire207,11magicsheets207,108manualcontrols38,39,43maroons190,191masking207,139,143master207,38,42McCandless61,157memorycontrols207,39,45,108,110

micro-processors45Mini-2control148mist190movingeffects185–187multiplexing207multi-purposehalls67,164,174–179musicals138–149

naturalism79,93,113,115,141,196

OP(sideofthestage)207opera8,138,154–158operetta138organisation99–102

PC(lens)207,14–18,163PS(sideofstage)208palette207,79,80,141pan207,11,31,32pantomime149parcans207,24,25parlamps207,24parabolicreflector24patching207,53pebble207perches207,123phasing55photometry3,4pilots207pipe(bar)208,47pipeend208,136,137plan84,93,108,126,127,131,142,143,146,147,150,151,156,161–163

pianoconvex(lens)208,14–18playback208,40–42plays113–134,177plots107,109,197portal208,145,147practicals208,115,124prefocuscap208preheat43presetting208,38,39prismconvex(lens)208profilespot208,18–23,94,95projection180–183proscenium208,4,125,132psychedeliceffects187pyrotechnics208,190,191rain185rating208,37realism—seenaturalismrecord208,40,41rehearsals93–95,106–111,148remotecontrol(boards)37–45remotecontrol(lights)31–36,72,166,169rental—seehirerepertoire36,39,165–168resistancedimmers208rigger'scontrol208,46rigging47–50,102–104,168rimlight209rock209,43,152,178safety50,53,54,103,106scatter209sceneprojection—seeprojection

schedules36,100,197screens182,183screwcap209scrim209scrollers209,31,32,136sculpturallight4–10,80,81,86,87,92,120,159,174sections(drawings)160,161,174selectivity5–10,86,92setting—seefocusingshadowprojection183shadows56–65,137shinbusters209,136shutters18silks(filters)209simplicity64,65slides180slots209smoke26,190snow185soapbubbles191softpatch209,53solidstate209specials95,136spigot209,48spill209spots209stagemanagement90,91,93,94,111strobes209,188style8,9,76,89,92,113,115,124,132,138,140subconsciouschanges7,8subtractivecolourmixing76swatchbooks78,80symbols94,95

tapefocusing166–167technicalrehearsal110television5texture18,19,23,36theatre-in-the-round209,5throw209,19thrust209,5,159–164tilt210,11,31,32timing42,43,97touring54,167tradeshows153transformation210,150truss210,50tungstenhalogenlamps210—seehalogentungstenlamps210UV188upstage210VDU210,42,169variable-beamprofilespots210,19,20,22variety148,178visibility3,4

washlights210,35water185wattage210,15,17,23ways210,37wheels41whitelight8,9,127wings210wiring51–55

zoom211,19,20,22

WEBSITES

EquipmentmanufacturersA.C.LightingLtd www.aclighting.co.ukADBLightingSystems www.adb.beArri www.arri.comAVABTranstechnik www.transtechnik.comAvolites www.avolites.comBytecraft www.bytecraft.com.auCastLighting www.castlighting.comClayPaky www.claypaky.itCompuliteSystems www.compulite.comDHALighting www.dhalighting.co.ukETC www.etcconnect.comJemSmokeMachines www.martin.dkLeMaîtrespecialFX www.lemaitrefx.comLeeFilters www.leefilters.comLightingInnovation www.lightinginnovation.atMartinProfessional www.martin.dkTheMovingLightCompany www.moving-light.co.ukNorthernLight www.northernlight.co.ukOptikinetics www.optikinetics.comLudwigPani www.pani.comRoscoLaboratories www.rosco.comSelecon www.selecon.comStrandLighting www.strandlighting.comSkyhighStageFX www.skyhighfx.comJamesThomasEngineeringLtd www.jthomaseng.comVari-Lite

Vari-Lite www.vari-lite.comWybron www.wybron.com

OrganisationsAssociationofLightingDesigners www.ald.org.ukAssociationofBritishTheatreTechnicians www.abtt.org.ukProfessionalLightingandSoundAssociation www.plasa.orgUnitedStatesInstituteforTheatreTechnology www.usitt.org

PublishersA&CBlack www.acblack.co.ukEntertainmentTechnology www.etnow.comFocalPress www.focalpress.com