The Social Psychology of College Drinking Behavior …openknowledge.nau.edu/2644/1/Bayles_C_2013_Social_psychology... · bond with one another and enhance their social experience

Counseling and Wellness: A Professional Counseling Journal 1 2013 Volume 4

The Social Psychology of College Drinking Behavior and

Implications for Counseling

Cody Bayles

Abstract Alcohol abuse among college students comes with consequences that can be academic, social,

emotional, sexual, and physical in nature (Smith & Berger, 2010). Despite the penalties, college students

are prone to engage in risky alcohol consumption behaviors. Social cognitive theory, developed by Albert

Bandura (1989) provides a framework for understanding drinking behaviors among college students.

Triadic reciprocal determinism posits a reciprocal influence exists between a person’s environment,

personal factors, and behaviors. Prior research helps to understand the reciprocal influence between

these three areas as they relate to college students and Greek membership (Capone, Wood, Borsari, &

Laird, 2007; Phua, 2011), student housing (Hummer, LaBrie, & Pedersen, 2012), social norms (Read,

Wood, & Capone, 2005), alcohol expectancies (Wood, Read, Palfai, & Stevenson, 2001; Wardell & Read,

2012; Iwamoto, Corbin, Lejuez, & MacPherson, 2013), emotional intelligence (Ghee & Johnson, 2008;

Claros & Sharma, 2012), self-efficacy (Kuther & Timoshin, 2003), and alcohol use. Implications for

utilizing motivational and cognitive-behavioral interventions to reduce problematic alcohol use are

considered.

Several studies have been conducted identifying problems for college students related

to alcohol consumption. Murphy, Hoyme, Colby, and Borsari (2006) examined the

impact of alcohol use on quality of life in college student problems using the Quality of

Student Life Questionnaire (Keith & Schalock, 1994). The results suggested higher

levels of alcohol use problems were significant predictors of lower general life

satisfaction in college males and females (Murphy, Hoyme, Colby, & Borsari, 2006).

However, a surprising finding from this study is the absence of a direct negative

relationship or correlation between the amount of alcohol consumption and quality of

life. Hypotheses by the authors addressing this finding include the idea that

consequences of alcohol problems may be dependent upon the dose. As dosage goes

up, so do alcohol problems. The implications of this finding indicate that Cody Bayles is a Ph.D. student in the Counseling Psychology program at Northern Arizona University. Correspondence concerning this article should be sent to [email protected]..


students receive a benefit from consuming alcohol when the dosage is not at a point

that results in negative consequences. The notion that college students benefit from

drinking alcohol is not uncommon in the existing literature. Murphy et al., (2006)

identified social belonging for college men is greater in those who consume large

amounts of alcohol together. This is also evident in college women. Smith and Berger

(2010) conducted a qualitative analysis utilizing a grounded theory approach and semi-

structured interviews to identify common factors in drinking among college women (n =

10) who met criteria for high-risk use of alcohol. Criteria used for high-risk alcohol use

was based on the national standardized binge drinking definition (4 or more drinks in a

row at least one time in the last 2 weeks) and reported negative consequences

associated with drinking. The results from this study identified three common factors in

which all ten of the participants discussed matters relating to these factors. The three

factors identified include motives, the relational ritual, and consequences. The motives

for drinking include being merry, meeting others including men, and managing mood.

The relational ritual factor included drinking before going out with a close network of

friends, going out, and telling alcohol-related stories after going out. These two factors

are related to the benefits of drinking alcohol. It is implied college students are able to

bond with one another and enhance their social experience through the use of alcohol.

The third factor in the Smith and Berger study (2010) was consequences related

to drinking. All ten of the participants in their study spoke openly about five different

negative consequences related to consuming alcohol including academic, social,

emotional, physical, and sexual costs. Academic consequences were identified as

missing class and grades slipping. Social consequences included getting into trouble or

fighting with friends. Mood consequences were related to acting in a way that was

identified as being emotional which includes mood swings. The physical consequences

encompassed blackouts, hangovers, and general pain related to hangovers such as

puking and purging. The consequences related to sexual behavior included becoming

intimate with random partners and being the victim of a sexual assault. It is again

evident in the literature that consuming alcohol has benefits, but does not always come

without consequences for college women who drink four or more drinks in a row.


Smith and Berger (2010) explained that negative academic consequences were

a common experience among college women in their study. In a study by Porter and

Pryor (2007), the effects of binge drinking were investigated relating to academic

consequences and student engagement. Porter and Pryor identified the prevalence of

binge drinking behaviors that ranged from 30% in women’s colleges to 56% in males

attending coed colleges. The results from their study suggest that heavy episodic

drinking behavior has a significant negative effect on overall GPA as well as student

engagement. Ordinal logistic regression was used to predict the probability of GPA

change and heavy episodic drinking. In the highest level of binge drinking, the

predicted change in GPA was -0.11 (p < .01). Findings also indicated that one of the

strongest predictors of positive educational outcomes is the level of interaction between

students and faculty. Heavy episodic drinking at the highest level as evidenced by

drinking at least five or more drinks on at least four different occasions in the last two

weeks was shown to have a significant effect on the interaction level between male

students and faculty members at research institutions. Given that student-faculty

interaction is a significant predictor of academic achievement (Porter & Pryor, 2007),

this finding can be seen as a problem for males who binge drink at a high level in

research institutions.

The negative consequences of problematic alcohol use can exist on several

levels for college students. The consequences can vary in nature, but appear most

prevalent in the realms of academic functioning, social functioning, and physical health

(Smith & Berger, 2010). Despite the consequences of drinking, college students appear

to experience benefits related to alcohol use. This includes enhanced relational

bonding and social functioning. Given the benefits of alcohol use and the negative

consequences, it is important to review the literature related to theory that can

adequately explain drinking behaviors among college students so proper interventions

might be developed

Social Cognitive Theory Albert Bandura developed a psychosocial theory of development known as social

cognitive theory 1986. This theory was created to help explain human development


across the lifespan. Some of the major tenets of social cognitive theory are: a) people

learn through observation; b) learning does not always lead to changes in behavior, and

c) a triadic reciprocal relationship exists between a person’s environment, their

behaviors, and their mental processes (Bandura, 1989). Social cognitive theory assists

to explain learning and provides insight into how people may choose to behave.

A major tenet of social cognitive theory is a triadic reciprocal relationship exists

between a person’s environment, their behaviors, and their mental processes or

personal factors. Bandura asserts that not all three of the reciprocal determinants have

to be of equal strength, but the strength of the determinants can vary based on other

factors (Bandura, 1989). In the model of reciprocal determinism, the influence that

personal factors have on behaviors relies heavily on the thoughts, feelings, and actions

of a person. Expectations and beliefs are examples of cognitions that influence a

person’s behavior.

The environment has a direct influence on a person’s cognitions as their

expectations and beliefs are directly affected by social influence and persuasion. A

person’s environment affects their cognitions as perceptions of social norms are

constructed. Social norms, which are consistent with the environment, act to shape the

cognitions about their environment and self. As the environment influences a person’s

cognitions, their behaviors are then subject to be affected by their cognitions. A two-

way causal relationship then exists between the environment and their behaviors. An

environment helps to shape a person’s behavior, which in turn reinforces the norms of

the environment. Bandura refers to this concept as people being the products and

producers of their environment. The theory of reciprocal determinism may help explain

the influences behind college students behaviors related to drinking.

Social Cognitive Theory and College Drinking Behavior Much research has examined the influence of peers on the behaviors of an

individual. This research extends into behaviors related to drinking among college

students. Prior investigations have examined the influence of peers among college

students who transition from high school to college, who live in certain housing

arrangements, and who are a part of the Greek system. Prior research has provided


insight into the impact of peer influence as well as the influence of perceived norms on

college drinking behaviors (Read, Wood, & Capone, 2005; Capone, Wood, Borsari, &

Laird, 2007; Phua, 2011).

The transition from high school to college is a major milestone in the life of a

young adult. The adjustment can be difficult as students may move to a new city and

faced with several new tasks. One of the new tasks can be developing a peer group.

Erik Erikson’s (1950) theory of psychosocial development contends that a person who is

eighteen years old and adjusting to college would be transitioning from a stage of

developing one’s identity into a stage of developing one’s community. These stages are

known as identity vs. role confusion and intimacy vs. isolation, respectively. As a

person transitions into the latter of these two stages, they would be interested in

developing close, interpersonal relationships. It is at this junction people may feel

motivated to fit in with a particular peer group. The desire to fit in with a peer group may

lead to conformity to the group’s social norms.

Research on drinking behaviors of students transitioning from high school to

college has provided evidence of the effect of peer influences on drinking behaviors.

The effects of the environment are clear in several different studies. A study by

Capone, Wood, Borsari, and Laird (2007) investigated the effects of gender and Greek

affiliation on alcohol use and alcohol-related problems in the first two years of college as

it relates to selection, socialization, or reciprocal influences. The authors propose

gender and Greek affiliation are both associated with increases in alcohol use and

alcohol-related problems. Males in the Greek system were identified as being the

greatest risk for increased alcohol use and alcohol-related problems over the first two

years of college.

Further research has found similar results suggesting that males in the Greek

system are at the greatest risk for alcohol use. Phua (2011) studied the effects of peer

norms and popularity on smoking and drinking behaviors among college fraternity

members. Further support was established for the notion college males in the Greek

system pose the greatest level of risk for alcohol and smoking behaviors. Phua

identified popularity was another predictor contributing to increased alcohol use.


Despite the role of popularity in the increased use of alcohol and cigarettes, another

mediator was identified. Conforming to peer norms was found to mediate the effect of

popularity. Phua proposed popular members of the Greek system were more likely to

drink and smoke more because of conformity to the group’s norms regarding alcohol

and tobacco use. It is evident in the studies by Capone et al., and Phua the Greek

environment imposes a heavy influence on the drinking behaviors among college

students.

Alcohol use among students who are actively engaged in Greek life is

significantly higher than students who participate less or not at all (Cashin, Meilman, &

Presley, 1998). A study designed by Cashin, Meilman, and Presley sought to compare

reported drinking behaviors, consequences, and beliefs about alcohol use among

students based on their participation in Greek life activities. A 2x4 ANOVA was used to

analyze involvement in Greek life and gender (independent variables) and average

number of drinks per week (dependent variable) in a sample of 25,411 students from 61

universities. The results from this study provide evidence of a significant main effect for

degree of involvement in Greek life (F = 456.28, p < .001) and gender (F = 1506.52, p <

.001) on average number of drinks per week. A significant interaction effect was

identified for Gender X Involvement (F = 67.15, p < .001). The findings from this study

indicate males from the Greek system who are leaders and actively involved are at the

greatest risk for heavy alcohol use (5 or more drinks in one sitting). One way in which

this study differed from previous studies was by providing evidence that more

involvement in Greek life was positively correlated with increased drinking and negative

consequences associated with drinking.

The transition from high school to college has been the subject of much research

as drinking tends to increase during this period. Schulenberg and Maggs (2002)

hypothesize the increase in drinking is the result of increased independence and

decreased parental involvement. Given the increase in drinking during this transitional

period, it is important to identify the influence of peer groups on drinking behaviors. The

role of perceived norms and the influence of the peer group have both been shown to

have a significant role in predicting alcohol use. Hummer, LaBrie, and Pedersen (2012)


conducted a study to examine first-year college students’ perceptions of alcohol use

among other students on the same floor in their dormitory. The findings from this study

demonstrate first-year college males and females both overestimated alcohol use

behavior and permissive attitudes towards alcohol use among their peers. The

implications from this finding suggest that perceived norms among peers were strongly

related to individual drinking behavior and individual permissive attitudes towards

drinking. Students who perceived their peers to drink more than reported were shown

to engage in greater levels of drinking.

The role of social norms in one’s choice to engage in drinking behaviors can be

attributed to different sources among college students transitioning from high school

including active and passive social influences (Read, Wood, & Capone, 2005). Active

social influences refer to situations in which alcohol is actively offered. This is important

to distinguish because college students are apt to find themselves in an environment

where alcohol offers are unconcealed. Passive social influences refer to social

modeling and social norms. The findings from Read et al., provide evidence for the

effect of Bandura’s triadic reciprocal determinism theory on the drinking behaviors

among college students. The environment and personal factors were shown to have an

effect on students drinking behaviors as active alcohol offers and perceived social

norms resulted in greater alcohol use.

Additional research has focused on drinking behaviors during the transition from

the last month of high school to the first month of college in females. LaBrie, Huchting,

Pedersen, Hummer, Shelesky, and Tawalbeh (2007) examined drinking behaviors in

this population and were able to report several findings. College females’ drinking

behaviors during the first month of college are significantly predicted by their previous

drinking history while in high school. This finding suggests females who drink in high

school are more likely to increase alcohol consumption during the first month of college.

Even after controlling for several factors such as prior drinking history and family

income, LaBrie et al., identified the intention to pledge to a sorority among college

females significantly predicted an increase in alcohol use. This finding provides further

evidence for the reciprocal effect of one’s environment and personal factors on their


behavior. This study provides evidence that the perception of drinking behaviors in the

Greek system influences college females’ choice to engage in elevated drinking

behaviors over the first month of college.

The study by LaBrie et al., adds to the study conducted by Capone et al., as

drinking behaviors in Capone’s study were found to be greatest in the Greek system. It

is apparent in the study by Labrie et al., that college females perceive the environmental

influence of the Greek system and engage in behaviors that are believed to be

congruent with the desired or intended environment. This finding provides support for

the notion the Greek system is among the greatest risk for elevated drinking in first year

college students. The evidence of the effect of perceived social norms and peer

influences on individual behavior is apparent in college students as they transition from

high school to college and especially for those who intend to pledge to the Greek

system. These findings are consistent with prior research on a false consensus effect in

which students commonly overestimated the commonality of their own drug or alcohol

use on their peers (Wolfson, 2000). False consensus occurs when people choose to

identify with others based on having similar behaviors of their own. An understanding of

the false consensus effect helps to explain why college females who intend to join a

sorority may drink more.

The Influence of Positive Alcohol Expectancies on Alcohol Use The effects of peer influence and social norms are evident not only in first year

college students, but in students at all stages in their college career in various

environments. Wardell and Read (2012) examined the role of social norms and positive

alcohol expectancies (PAEs) in college students between the ages of 18-24 over the

first three years of students’ college careers. Positive alcohol expectancies include

items such as mood management, social lubrication, and performance enhancement. It

was hypothesized that PAEs are more stable whereas norms are more dynamic and

change over time. The results suggest positive alcohol expectancies do indeed remain

more stable over time and social norms tend to be more dynamic indicating a reciprocal

influence between quantity of drinking norms and drinking quantity. Peer perceptions

are also related to this concept as people who are at a greater risk for a substance use


disorder, misperceive alcohol use norms to a greater extent than those who are not at

risk (Lewis & Mobley, 2010). As perceived norms of quantity and positive expectancies

increased, so did the amount of alcohol used by college students. The reciprocal

influence was evident as norms related to quantity increased when the quantity of

alcohol consumed increased as well. These findings demonstrate further evidence of

the triadic reciprocal influence between individual factors, environments, and behaviors.

Positive alcohol outcome expectancies have been researched to identify

whether they act as a mediator between social influences (active and passive) and

alcohol use. Wood, Read, Palfai, and Stevenson (2001) found strong evidence for

perceived positive alcohol outcomes acting as a mediator between socio-environmental

factors and individual drinking behaviors. It is again hypothesized personal factors play

a mediating role between one’s environment and one’s behaviors. Evidence from this

study suggests that PAEs influence college students’ decisions to drink alcohol as the

results indicate the use of alcohol is increased when the positive expectancy value of

one’s expectations are increased.

A connection between the roles of social norms and PAEs is evident in the

articles by Wardell et al. (2012), and Wood et al (2001). According to Wardell et al., the

reciprocal determinism theory, developed by Bandura, helps explain the role of social

norms as they influence college drinking. However, the effect of positive alcohol

expectancies was not deemed to have a reciprocal influence with alcohol use. PAEs

influenced alcohol use, but not the converse. Wardell and Read (2012) hypothesized

norms and PAEs differ in their nature. Norms are dynamic and fluid changing over time,

whereas PAEs are more concrete and stable. Wood et al., found a reciprocal influence

between PAEs and alcohol use, whereas Wardell et al., did not. One hypothesis

regarding the stability of PAEs is PAEs are stable for people by the time they reach

college. Wardell et al., proposed that PAEs are more fluid in younger adolescents who

are experimenting with alcohol. By the time young adolescents reach college, the PAEs

have been solidified and are not as subject to changing. The existing body of literature

has additional support for the reciprocal influence of social norms and alcohol use,


whereas the support for the reciprocal influence between PAEs and alcohol use is not

as well documented.

The role of positive alcohol expectancies in college men has also been

researched to identify whether PAEs mediate the relationship between masculine norms

and alcohol use. Iwamoto, Corbin, Lejuez, and MacPherson (2013) identified the

masculine norms of playboy and risk taking were both associated with higher levels of

alcohol use when controlling for Greek involvement. These two norms were also

positively correlated with positive expectancies. Findings from this study suggest

positive expectancies work to mediate the relationship between masculine norms and

alcohol use. Seeing that PAEs may be more stable by the time students reach college,

it is evident in this population that PAEs are related to alcohol use. These results are

consistent with Bandura’s theory on social learning and the role that positive alcohol

expectancies play in mediating the association between personal factors and problems

resulting from alcohol use (Borsari, Murphy, & Barnett, 2007).

The Role of Personal Factors in Drinking Behaviors Personal factors such as psychosocial and social cognitive variables are both

shown to have an effect on college drinking behaviors (Kuther and Timoshin, 2003).

Psychosocial predictors for drinking include levels of self-efficacy, anxiety, depression,

social support and assertiveness. Social cognitive predictors refer to expectation,

evaluation, and norms (parental and peer). Previous studies identified mixed results for

the role of expectation in alcohol use. Positive alcohol expectancies have been found to

predict alcohol use in college students, but conclusive evidence for a reciprocal

influence does not exist. The conclusions from this study provide evidence for the

influence of social cognitive predictors, especially expectations of the likelihood of

positive and negative consequences on increased alcohol use in college students.

Psychosocial predictors accounted for 1% of the variance in self-reported drinking with

social support being the only significant predictor (Kuther & Timoshin, 2003). This

notion provides further support for social cognitive factors such as expectation,

evaluation, and norms being factors leading to increases in drinking behavior.


Kuther et al. (2003) examined the roles of negative alcohol expectancies to

determine their effect on alcohol use. Their findings suggest college students who

evaluate negative consequences in a more positive light tend to drink less. These

results appear to be counterintuitive, but consistent with prior literature, as perceived

negative consequences of drinking have provided mixed results (Kuther, 2002). Alcohol

use and self-efficacy were also related as people who perceived less control over their

drinking displayed lower levels of self-efficacy. This was also related to negative

consequences as measured by the Comprehensive Effects of Alcohol Questionnaire

(Fromme, Stroot, & Kaplan, 1993). The Comprehensive Effects of Alcohol

Questionnaire measures students’ perceptions of positive and negative consequences

as they relate to drinking along with the likelihood of these consequences occurring.

Reliability indices for expectancy and value were calculated using test-retest analyses.

The reliability ranges were r = .66-.72 (positive expectancy), r = .59-.78 (positive value),

r = .75-.81 (negative expectancy), and r = .53-.65 (negative value) (Fromme, Stroot, &

Kaplan, 1993). Students who become more familiar with the negative consequences of

drinking begin to perceive these consequences as neutral and no longer negative. This

in turn leads to perceptions of lessened control over drinking and a diminished level of

self-efficacy. Social cognitive predictors for drinking appear to have a significant effect

on alcohol use among college students. Self-efficacy acts as a mediator between

evaluations of negative consequences of drinking and self-reported levels of drinking

suggesting college students begin to view negative consequences in a more favorable

light when they feel less control over their drinking.

Emotional intelligence is another personal factor that has been researched as

having an influence on alcohol use. Ghee and Johnson (2008) found emotional

intelligence held a mediating role between peer norms and alcohol use. The authors

suggest college students with higher levels of emotional intelligence demonstrate less of

an association between the variables of peer norms and alcohol use. The opposite was

evident as well. Students with lower emotional intelligence demonstrate a greater

relationship between peer norms and alcohol use.


The findings from Ghee and Johnson’s study are consistent with a study by

Claros and Sharma (2012) that the self-efficacy variables of perception, utilization,

regulation, and management of emotion were significant predictors of alcohol and

marijuana use. High scores of emotional intelligence are positively associated with

abilities to successfully cope with life’s stressors. Claros and Sharma identified

students with higher scores of self-efficacy were associated with lower scores on the

Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT). The four factors of emotional

intelligence (perception, utilization, regulation, and management of emotion) may help

students to be aware of peer norms and make choices related to alcohol use that result

in fewer or less severe consequences.

Self-efficacy, emotional intelligence, and other personal factors influence the

choices that college students make with regards to drinking. Merrill, Read, and Barnett

(2012) researched the role of subjective evaluations of recently experienced

consequences and the effec8t that may have on college students’ decisions to drink

throughout college. The results from this study suggest that students drank less, which

correlated positively with fewer alcohol related consequences, when they evaluated

their recent consequences as being negative. Merrill et al., hypothesized college

students who choose to view their consequences as being aversive are more likely to

engage in behavioral changes to avoid risks. These results are consistent with some of

the prior literature on the effects of negative alcohol expectancies, but they don’t parallel

the findings from Kuther et al., (2003).

Kuther et al. (2003), found that students who view negative consequences in a

more positive light tend to drink less than their peers. Merrill et al., (2012) identified

negative subjective evaluations of consequences tend to lead to less drinking as

subjective evaluation scores across weeks were associated with lower alcohol

consumption (p = .01) and fewer alcohol consequences (p = .002). The result from

these two studies both lead to the same result which is less drinking, but the means to

achieve this result are different. In one case, a favorable interpretation of negative

consequences leads to less drinking and in the other case, a less favorable

interpretation of negative consequences resulted in less drinking. A connection may be


made between the consideration of negative consequences and reduced alcohol use.

This connection may help to inform the development of further risk reduction and

alcohol-based treatments for college students.

Excessive alcohol use during college years is a norm perceived as being a part

of the entire college experience. Students may hold beliefs that all their peers drink and

the overuse or abuse of alcohol is a common experience among other students.

Alcohol abuse among college students often results in consequences that can be

perceived as positive or negative. Positive consequences may include the belief that

students function better socially, may manage their mood better, and have greater

social experiences. However positive the experience may be, it is also evident that

alcohol abuse comes with negative consequences that are academic, social, emotional,

physical, and sexual in nature.

Implications for Counseling Bandura’s theory of triadic reciprocal determinism helps to explain drinking

behavior among college students. In his theory, a reciprocal influence exists between

the environments, behaviors, and personal factors of a person. This is evident in

several studies as alcohol use is related with consequences and higher levels of use

among first year students who plan to pledge to a Greek organization and among

students who are already a part of the Greek system. This is an environment that

poses a risk for college students and has a reciprocal influence on the perceptions,

expectancies, and outcomes of college students. An understanding of the students who

are at the greatest risk for excessive alcohol use, and what helps to determine this risk

may then help to build effective interventions. Using social cognitive theory as a

foundation, it is important to build interventions that effectively help students evaluate

their environments, their behaviors, and their cognitions or beliefs that lead to risky

alcohol use. Given college students who abuse alcohol may lack coping strategies

(Britton, 2004), it is important to develop interventions that teach skills to reduce risky

behavior and how to consume alcohol in a more responsible manner.

Given the dynamic nature of the reciprocal influence between socio-

environmental factors, individual factors, and personal factors, it is important to develop


interventions that address all three of these types of influences. Interventions that

address socio-environmental factors can help create awareness for students as to how

their environment shapes their behavior. Addressing issues related to active influences

such as direct alcohol offers can help students make choices as to what environments

will be most conducive for their well-being. Students can make plans that will help

reduce the possibility of experiencing negative consequences. This may include having

a predetermined time to leave, a predetermined and reasonable set amount of drinks to

consume, and having a friend to be accountable in that environment. It is also

important to address passive influences such as social modeling and social norms.

Social norms interventions are currently a popular way of trying to help college students

lessen their drinking by offering them statistics and norms of campus drinking

behaviors. Read, Wood, and Capone (2005) suggested it might be best to narrow the

scope of the norms presented to college students because they identified social

influence factors are stronger as they are closer to the individual. Given these findings,

it may be better to offer norms based approaches tailored for specific populations as

they relate specifically to individuals. Students interpret these norms with more

meaning as they self relate as opposed to norms as they relate to less intimate groups

or typical college students on a campus wide level.

Interventions seeking to help college students reduce excessive alcohol use can

also be developed to address personal factors and behaviors. Given the role of

perceived positive/negative consequences of alcohol use, it may be helpful to address

these expectancies utilizing a motivational and cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT)

framework. A motivational approach can help reduce ambivalence to change by

engaging the client, focusing on issues that a client may want to change, evoking

motivation to change, and planning steps to achieve change (Miller & Rollnick, 2002). A

motivational counseling approach utilizes open-ended questions, affirmations,

reflections, and summaries. The purpose of a motivational approach is to reduce

ambivalence to change and building enthusiasm about working towards change. A CBT

approach can help identify the connections between personal factors (cognitions) and

behaviors related to drinking. A cognitive-behavioral approach may include discovering


triggers for excessive alcohol use, expectations related to excessive alcohol use, past

experiences (positive and negative) of excessive alcohol use, and how those in turn

lead to engaging in behaviors that are consistent with a social environment in which

excessive alcohol use is present.

By practicing safe behaviors related to alcohol use, students may then develop a

greater sense of self-efficacy. Since levels of self-efficacy were correlated with levels of

alcohol use (Kuther & Timoshin, 2003), it may be important for college students to

develop self-efficacy through practicing new skills and experiencing rewards or success

related to their new behaviors. Rewards or successes can be experienced through

optimal social functioning without the presence of negative consequences. Utilizing

Bandura’s model of triadic reciprocal determinism, it is helpful to understand college

students behaviors related to drinking as they relate to socio-environmental factors,

personal factors, and individual behaviors. An understanding of the presence of these

three types of influences can then allow for efficient interventions to be developed and

utilized so that college students may reduce the excessive and risky use of alcohol.

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