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7/28/2019 The Semiotics of Ayah
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In the very beginning of his essay on the rules of scriptural reasoning, Prof. Ochs states that the
purpose of the SSR is "to recover the practices of hearing God s speech that both preceded and
still provide the terms for modern thinking"(I). This recovery of God's speech is not to be done
in isolation from the intellectual culture of the modern academy, but is to be done in
conversation with it. Any attempt to present "God's speech" in isolation from this culture risks
sounding confessional, parochial, and emotive, thereby inadvertently reinforcing the claims of
the secularists that religion is irrational. The attempt to recover "God's speech" under these
conditions means that those engaged in this project acknowledge "that they are themselves
both instruments of modern intelligence and exponents of the scriptural reasoning that can
redeem that intelligence" (I) . The following pages contain the reflections of a Muslim on the
possible contribution that the Qur'anic narrative can make in the project of recovering "God's
speech" with the aim of redeeming the modern intelligence that has shaped the concrete
socio-historical reality in which we find ourselves. A question may emerge at the very outset in
the minds of Muslims and non-Muslims alike--a question that is not directly related to either
"God's speech" or the rules of scriptural reasoning: What is a Muslim doing in a forum largely
made up of Christians and Jews? This question is all the more pressing in light of the personal
history of the present writer who consciously avoided all such "interfaith" forums at one point in
his intellectual development. Past experience taught me that most forums were basically
"interfaith-less" forums where agnostic Muslims, Christians and Jews met to basically confirm
each others' agnosticism. So when I was approached by Prof. Ochs and Prof. Elkins after the
first semester of my studies at Drew University to participate in a scriptural study group I
instinctively hesitated. This instinctual hesitancy ran counter to another instinct of not turning
down a gracious invitation, especially when such an invitation comes from one's teacher. The
latter instinct overruled the former and I began attending the Drew University Scriptural
Reasoning study sessions from their very beginning. It was not long before I discovered, to my
elation, that this particular "interfaith" forum was unlike any other that I had known. The
unique character of this forum was due to the three fundamental pre-suppositions on which it
was based:
1)Each of the three traditions confidently asserts its claims to uniqueness, as well as universality;
2)At the same time it does not view this claim as being an obstacle to genuine dialogue,
because;
3)This dialogue is centered on the Revealed Text.
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The experience of the past three years has shown me that there are very good reasons why
Muslims should participate in the conversation related to Scriptural Reasoning. The most
important reason is that Jews and Christians have been struggling with many of the challenges
facing religion in the post-Enlightenment period for a very long time--challenges that most
Muslims have not even been aware of until very recently. At the same time Muslims have
something very important (almost unique) to offer to this conversation without which the Jewsand Christians cannot hope to effectively engage modernity/post- modernity. This Muslim
contribution is centered on the Qur'anic principle of treating the material world of nature, the
human ego, and the unfolding of the historical process in a genuinely "modernist" manner but
with the aim of explaining and explicating the spiritual verities of religion.
Spirit of Tawhid, and the Modern Fragmentation of Knowledge
A macro-view of the Scriptural Reasoning project reveals that it is an attempt to mediate the
divide that separates "religious" knowledge from "secular" knowledge in the modern academy.
This requires going beyond the compartmentalization of knowledge so characteristic of
rationalistic, Enlightenment thought and adopting a more holistic approach towardsknowledge by establishing an organic link between "religious" and "secular" knowledge. This
retrieval of the holistic vision of knowledge is in fact a manifestation of an attempt to make
Tawhid a living force in the realm of philosophy and epistemology. Tawhid refers to Unitary
Monotheism in theological language and the Unity of Being in philosophical language
(referring strictly to the fact that all of created being is the sign of the one Creator God).
Tawhid is the original, fundamental theological principle of the Jewish, Christian and Islamic
traditions (the three monotheistic religions). A seemingly simple theological principle, Tawhid is
in fact the most powerful life-giving force on the intellectual and spiritual level. Unfortunately,
during centuries of decline and neglect, the custodians of this principle have forgotten its
nobility and power and have reduced it to mere theological dogmatics. Muhammad Iqbal(whose work remains the defining expression of post-foundationalist Islamic thought, even
though he died in 1938) sums up the fate of this noble concept in a couplet:
This very Tawhidwas a life giving force in past history.
What is it today? Merely an issue of theological dogmatics.
An overview of the development of human knowledge from the early-modern era to the
late-modern reveals an interesting and telling trend: in spite of intense efforts to keep it
compartmentalized, knowledge is moving towards a holistic and unitary state. If one looks at
the development of science during the course of the 20th century it appears that "science"gradually comes to resemble higher mysticism. For example, the new physics has
demonstrated that the division between matter and energy is an artificial division--matter is
merely energy trapped in a specific dimension of space-time. New research in the field of
neuroscience and psychology demonstrates that the division between rationality and emotions
is an artificial division--individuals whose emotional hemispheres in the brain are damaged
become incapable of rational thought. This means that a healthy emotional life is necessary
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for productive "rational" thought. Groundbreaking research in mathematics and computer
programming suggests that there is no such thing as a random event (i.e. Chaos theory) and
Heisenberg demonstrated long ago that completely reliable predictability is not possible. In
this last example, the implications for the debate between freewill and predestination are
intriguing indeed.
All of these examples illustrate that ideas and concepts that have been traditionally viewed as
polar opposites are now provisionally considered by scientists as differing manifestations of a
single, unitary phenomenon. Furthermore, one school of modern Islamic thought, stretching
from Muhammad Iqbal to Israr Ahmad, posits that higher physics and higher mathematics
(from the natural sciences) and higher religion and higher philosophy (from the social
sciences)--with higher psychology being the mediating medium--all converge on a common
unitary point. The thinkers belonging to this school argue that all acquired higher knowledge
points towards the same True Reality: the Reality of the Creator God.
To actually make the connection between different fields of acquired knowledge requires theaid of revelatory knowledge. Practically speaking, it is unlikely that a unifying principle can
emerge from within modern science itself to integrate the various fields of knowledge, or even
to draw provisional links between findings from different fields. The world of modern science
resembles the proverbial Tower of Babel where the scientists cannot communicate with the
social scientists, who in turn cannot communicate with the scholars in the humanities. The
situation has reached such absurd proportions that specialists within a given field of inquiry
have great trouble communicating with each other (the particle physicist may just as well be
speaking Greek when talking to a cold-fusion physicist). The phenomenon at Mt. Sinai, the
person of Jesus (may the peace and blessings of Allah be upon him), and the Qur'anic
revelation are all part of a process to remind humanity of the noble principle of Tawhid. Thisprinciple is to be the central axis of spiritual and intellectual pursuits, helping the believer to
discern order where chaos seems to reign and to draw links between phenomena that are
seemingly unrelated. It appears that any attempt to integrate modern knowledge would
require the aid of this particular revelatory principle.
The Relationship Between Revealed Knowledge and Acquired Knowledge: A Qur'anic
Perspective
The Qur'anic perspective on the relationship between Revealed Knowledge (revelation) and
Acquired Knowledge (science) can be gleaned by examining the way the Qur'an employs the
word ayah (pl. ayaat ). This word is often translated as "verse"--thus the Qur'an is composed ofmore than 6000 ayaat (verses). But the translation of ayah as "verse" is insufficient--ayah
literally means "sign, symbol, evidence." Consequently each verse of the Qur'an is actually a
"sign, symbol, and/or evidence" pointing towards the Ultimate Reality. Besides referring to the
verses of which it is composed as being ayaat, the Qur'an identifies three other sources of the
ayaat of Allah: a) the world of nature; b) the "self" of the human being; and c) the unfolding
of the historical process.
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From a hermeneutical point of view it is of tremendous significance that the Qur'an declares
Divine Revelation to be composed of ayaat while at the same time informing the believer that
the world of nature, the human self, and the historical process also contain the ayaat of Allah
(swt). When discussing the "the rules for Scriptural Reasoning," the question that emerges
immediately in light of the Qur'anic use of the term ayah is: Can there be any Qur'anichermeneutics that is divorced from a proper understanding of the world of nature, the human
self, and the unfolding of the historical process? Even though it is a bit early to discuss this issue
in detail, it remains in the background for the time being--but even then it serves to focus our
discussion--as we explore the manner in which the Qur'an employs the term ayah in the extra-
Scriptural sense. In the following paragraphs, specific citations will be given from the Qur'an
illustrating the manner in which it employs the term ayah in relation to the Revealed
Scripture, the world of nature, the human self, and the historical process.
The fact that Qur'an is composed of ayaat is made clear in the following words by the Qur'an:
Ta. Sin . These are the ayaat of the Qur'an a divine writ clear in itself and clearly showing the
truth: a guidance and a glad tiding to the believers (26:1-2).
Alif. Lam. Ra . These are the ayaat of a Clear Book: behold, We have sent it down as an
Arabic Qur'an so that you might understand (12:1-2).
The following ayah expressly states who is the source and who is the initial recipient of this
Divine Writ:
For indeed, clear ayaat have We bestowed upon thee [O, Muhammad] from on high; and
none denies their truth save the iniquitous (2:99).
And again:Alif. Lam. Mim. Ra. These are the ayaat of the Book: and what has been revealed to thee [O,
Muhammad] from your Lord is (indeed) the truth yet most people will not believe (13:1).
Ayaat in the World of Nature Defined As Such By the Ayaat of the Qur'an
The foregoing self-referential discourse in the Qur'an demonstrates that the Qur'an considers
itself to be composed of ayaat that serve as signs, evidences, and pointers of the Ultimate
Reality the Reality of the Creator God. (Even though this point cannot be detailed here, it
must be mentioned that it is of great philosophical/hermeneutical significance that Qur'anic
discourse is consciously self-referential from the very outset.) In Ricoeurian terms, the ayaat of
the Qur'an are "the symbols of the sacred." In identifying the Revealed Words as such, the
Qur'an is echoing the position of other religious traditions. But the following words point in aspecifically Qur'anic direction regarding the concept of "the symbols of the sacred." After
stating that the Qur'an is composed of ayaat sent for the guidance of humanity, Allah says:
It is Allah who has raised the heavens without supports that you can see, and is established on
the throne of almightiness; and He has made the sun and the moon subservient [to His laws],
each running its course for a term set [by Him]. He governs all that exists.
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Clearly does He spell out these ayaat for you so that you might become certain that you are
destined to meet your Lord [on Judgement Day]. And it is He who has spread the earth wide
and placed on it firm mountains and running waters, and created thereon two genders of
every [kind of] plant; [and it is He Who] causes the night to cover the day. Verily, in all this
there are ayaat for people who think (13:2-3).
The next ayah goes on to detail the wonders in the plant world where all the plants arewatered by the same water from the sky, but each plant has its own distinctive taste,
characteristic, and use. The ayah concludes by saying: Verily in all this there are ayaat for
people who use their reason! (13:4)
The following ayah can be called the ayah of ayaat --in it a wide variety of "symbols of the
sacred" are catalogued from the very "profane" world of material existence, symbols that serve
as clear pointer towards a supra-material reality from "people who use their reason":
Verily, in the creation of the heavens and of the earth, and the succession of night and day:
and in the ships that speed through the sea with what is useful to man: and in the waters that
Allah sends down from the sky, giving life thereby to the earth after it had been lifeless, andcausing all manner of living creatures to multiply thereon: and in the change of the winds, and
the clouds that run their appointed courses between the sky and earth: [in all this] there are
ayaat indeed for people who use their reason (2:164).
The fact that both Revelation and Creation ultimately proceed from the Word of Allah
explains the fact that Qur'anic discourse uses the term ayah to refer to both both serving as
"symbols of the sacred." Commenting on the Qur'anic view of the "profane" world of nature
and its relation to the transcendent "spiritual" reality, Karen Armstrong notes:
The Koran constantly stresses the need for intelligence in deciphering the "signs" or "messages"
of God. Muslims are not to abdicate their reason but to look at the world attentively and with
curiosity. It was this attitude that later enabled the Muslims to build a fine tradition of naturalscience, which has never been seen such a danger to religion as in Christianity. A study of the
natural world showed that it had a transcendent dimension and source, which we can talk
about only in signs and symbols.[38]
Human Identity: The Second Source of Ayaat "Outside" the Qur'an
Modern anthropological, psychological and sociological research has shown that we cannot
speak of the human identity in isolation from the "profane" natural environment. Depending
on the context, the term "identity" refers to the self, the ego, the corporate dimension and so
on. It is well established that the natural environment profoundly shapes human identity.
Following the logic of the Qur'an, this leads one to believe that even this "profane" dimension
of human identity would contain ayaat that are "symbols of the sacred," because it is a part ofthe natural order. As if to draw our attention to the fact that human identity cannot be
considered in isolation from the world of nature, while at the same time instructing us that the
world of nature and human identity are "symbols of the sacred," the Qur'an states:
And among His wonders is this: He creates you out of dust--and then, lo! you become human
beings ranging far and wide! And among His wonders is this: He creates for you mates out of
your own selves, so that you might incline towards them, and He engenders love and
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tenderness between you: in this, behold, there are ayaat for people who think! And among His
wonders is the creation of the heavens and the earth, and the diversity of your tongues and
colors: for in this, behold, there are ayaat for all who have knowledge. And among His wonder
is your sleep, at night or in daytime, as well as your [ability to go about in] quest of some of
His bounties: in this, behold, there are ayaat for people who [are willing to] listen! (30:20-23)
Imagine for a moment that this passage is specifically addressing you as an individual: what,therein, are the implications of a plain sense reading of the text? "My wife/husband, the love
and tenderness that bind us, the language that I speak, the color of my skin (my ethno-
linguistic heritage), my routine of sleeping in order to refresh myself, my quest to earn a living
for my family all of these are the ayaat of Allah."
The following is another example of a very "mundane" thing that has been designated as
being among the ayaat of Allah by the Qur'an:
O Children of Adam! Indeed We have sent down on you a garment to cover your nakedness
and as a thing of beauty: but the garment of God-consciousness is the best of all. Herein is one
of Allah s ayaat, so that happily they may remember (7:26).In this passage the very clothing that human beings wear as a means of modestly covering
their physical beauty, is called an ayah of Allah.
While one dimension of human identity is profoundly shaped by the natural environment, in
Qur'anic symbolism the part of the human being that has been "created out of dust/mud,"
there is another dimension that is "not of this world." This dual nature of the human being is
clearly indicated by the following instruction given by Allah to all who were present, as He was
putting the "finishing touches" on the newest of His creatures, Prophet Adam (as):
And lo! Your Lord said unto the angels: "Behold! I am about to create mortal man out of
sounding clay, out of dark slime transmuted; and when I have shaped him fully and breathedinto him of My spirit, fall down before him in prostration!" (15:28-9)
Along with being made of dust/clay/mud, the human being also contains the very spirit of
Allah--the spirit establishing the human link with the spiritual realm, just as the dust/mud
establish the human link with the natural/material realm. As the foregoing discussion has
shown, the "mundane" dimension of human identity contains numerous "symbols of the
sacred," so it is to be expected that the spiritual dimension of human identity also has a close
relationship to the sacred. Just how intimate this relationship is can be inferred from the
following ayah:" . . . and do not become like those who forget Allah, whom He therefore
causes to forget themselves: it is they, they who are truly depraved (59:19)". Among humans
beings there is a category of people who are completely oblivious of their own "selves". It isobvious that there is no human being who is oblivious of his/her own "physical self"--the "self"
that needs sleep, food, drink, etc.--because every human consciously tends to the needs of the
physical self. But there is a category of human beings who are oblivious of their spiritual selves-
-that part of the self that is directly related to the very "spirit of Allah" . This spiritual self is so
intimately related to Allah that Allah is warning humanity that forgetting Allah necessarily
entails forgetting this spiritual self. And forgetting the spiritual self creates a vacuum that is
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filled with a wide variety of theories that reduce the human being to an economic animal, a
social animal, reasoning animal, sexual animal, etc. Whereas the dimension of human identity
that is related to the natural order contains "symbols of the sacred," the spiritual dimension of
human identity has an even more direct relation with the sacred.
The Unfolding of the Historical Process: The Third Source of Ayaat Outside the Qur'anWhile the natural world and the human self contain "symbols of the sacred," the unfolding of
the historical process contains the record of the consequences of not paying heed to the Reality
towards which these symbols point. Therefore a special relationship is established between the
ayaat of Allah and the historical process the historical process provides the stage on which the
functionality of these ayaat can be observed. The following passage illustrates this relationship
as it concludes by encouraging the individual to travel around the earth and study the fate of
those who came before:
And indeed, within every community have We raised up an apostle [entrusted with this
message]: "Worship Allah, and shun all transgression!" And among those [past generations]
were people whom Allah graced with His guidance, just as there was among them [many aone] who inevitably fell prey to grievous error: go, then, about earth and look at what
happened in the end to those who gave the lie to the truth! (16:36)
In the many passages that encourage the individual to study the fate of previous civilizations,
the Qur'an specifically draws attention to the fate that befell those who rejected the Revealed
Word and the reality of Resurrection. This fact strengthens the link between the historical
process and the world of nature as being "symbols of the sacred." In the passages cited above
that refer to the ayaat of Allah in the world of nature; the passages immediately following
often draw the individual s attention to the reality of Resurrection. In the same way the
passages that encourage the individual to study the unfolding of the historical process
specifically mention the claim of the unbelievers that Resurrection will not take place. Forexample, a little after the passage just cited (16:36), the attitude of the unbelievers towards
Resurrection is described in these words: "As it is, they swear by Allah with their most solemn
oaths, Never will Allah raise from the dead anyone who has died" (16:38). In the following
passage the Prophet is being directly addressed because he is distressed at the fact that the
unbelievers are not paying heed to his message. Allah draws the Prophet s attention to the
events of the past as a means of firming up the Prophet s resolve to continue the mission. Allah
says:
And, indeed, before your time [O, Muhammad] prophets have been derided--but those who
scoffed at them were [in the end] overwhelmed by the very thing which they were wont to
deride. Say: "Travel through the earth, and look at what happened in the end to those whogave the lie to the truth" (6:10-11).
It is well known that Prophet Musa (as) was sent to the Israelites with a number of different
miracles and ayaat in order to impress upon them the verity of the Message that he was
carrying. In addition to these miracles and ayaat, the Qur'an points to something else that
Musa (as) was to employ in his efforts to convey the Divine Message to the Israelites: "the days
of Allah." The Qur'an states:
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And, indeed, We sent forth Musa with Our ayaat [with the instructions]: "Lead thy people out
of the depths of darkness into the light, and remind them of the Days of Allah!" Verily in this
[reminder] there are ayaat indeed for all who are patient in adversity and deeply grateful [to
Allah] (16:5).
This passage clearly differentiates between two categories of ayaat: a) the ayaat that were in
the form of miracles and b) the ayaat that come to one's attention as one ponders over theunfolding of the historical process. During times of extreme hardship and tribulation that is
being incurred due to loyalty to the Divine Message, the believers are encouraged to recount
the "days of Allah" in order to draw strength and patience that will allow them to persevere
during the difficult times. These "days of Allah" contain ayaat, just as the Revealed Word, the
world of nature, and the human self contain ayaat--"symbols of the sacred" that lead the
seeker towards the Ultimate Reality. Just as the Qur'anic command to study the world of
nature inspired the Muslims to develop a fine tradition of the study of the natural sciences, the
Qur'anic command to ponder over the "days of Allah" and to "travel through the land"
inspired the Muslims to develop a fine tradition of historiography and travel memoirs (the
most famous being the one by Ibn Batuta).
The Rules for Scriptural Reasoning--Some Preliminary Remarks
At this point in the discussion we can offer some preliminary proposals regarding the rules of
Scriptural Reasoning, as we attempt to articulate a language that will allow us to speak
"religiously" in the modern academic setting. A look at the unfolding of the discourse above
provides important insights into the very basic rules of Scriptural Reasoning. The most
important and fundamental rule is to recite the Revealed Word and listen carefully to the
discourse contained therein there can be no genuine understanding without sincere attention
being given over to the Revealed Word. The terms of this first rule are contained in the very
first words that were revealed to the Prophet, thus commencing his prophetic ministry inMakkah:
Recite in the name of you Lord, who has created--created man out of a germ-cell. Recite--for
your Lord is the Most Bountiful One who has taught [man] the use of the pen--taught man
what he did not know (95:1-5).
After taking the Scriptural discourse seriously, we began with posing a question about the
Scripture, and used the Scripture itself to answer the question: how does the Scripture employ
the term ayah ? The discussion of the Qur'anic use of the term "ayah" began by an exploration
of the Qur'anic text itself--this provides us with the second most fundamental rule of Scriptural
Reasoning. The most authentic commentary on the Scripture is the Scripture itself. The way
the Scripture employs a certain term or phrase at one place is clarified and detailed by theway it uses the same term/phrase at another place. To understand the Scripture it is of
pressing importance to do a great deal of cross-referencing--as one part of the Scripture
details, highlights, illuminates other parts, and is illuminated by other parts. This means that
we have to meet the Scripture on its own terms, leaving aside other terms, methodologies,
and/or theories that we might be tempted to bring to the table. If we look at this rule in a
vacuum it appears to be exceedingly dangerous in that the possibility of tunnel vision, and
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being wrapped up in a limited frame of reference is all too obvious--if the Scripture offers the
most authentic commentary on itself, why go anywhere else? And it is a socio-historical reality
that some approaches to Scriptural exegesis exhibit this very "narrowing" characteristic. But as
the subsequent discussion showed this "narrowing" approach is actually a betrayal of the logic
of Scriptural Reasoning. The Scripture itself repeatedly recommends, commands, and
challenges the student to consider the ayaat of Allah that are contained outside the Scripture,in the world of nature, in the human self, and in the unfolding of the historical process. In other
words the ayaat of the Qur'an inform the individual that these ayaat complement and are
complemented by "extra-Qur'anic ayaat."
At this point we can formulate the third rule of Scriptural Reasoning: Proper study and
understanding of the Scripture requires pro-active interaction with the natural, human, and
historical sciences. The importance of the third rule can be demonstrated by referring to the
second. In the second rule we stated that the Scripture itself was the most authentic
commentary on the Scripture. According to this rule, the entire project of Scriptural Reasoning
would be jeopardized if we ipso facto bracketed one portion of the Scripture and said that wewill not refer to this portion as we study some other section of the Text. By its very nature, such
"bracketing" would compromise the integrity of the project. In the same way, Scripture has
informed us that the world of nature, the human self, and the historical process also contain
"symbols of the sacred" in the same way that the Revealed Word itself contains/is a "symbol of
the sacred." Our inability and/or refusal to take these extra-Scriptural "symbols of the sacred"
into account as we are doing Scriptural Reasoning would profoundly limit and circumvent the
integrity of the project as a whole. It is also almost self-evident that talking religiously in
modern academia requires that we incorporate the extra-Scriptural "symbols of the sacred"
into our discourse, if we are to be genuinely both instruments of modern intelligence and
exponents of the scriptural reasoning that can redeem that intelligence (I).