The Self-Directed Search

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The Self-Directed Search: A Family ofSelf-Guided Career Interventions

Arnold R. SpokaneLehigh UniversityJohn L. Holland

Johns Hopkins UniversityThe Self-Directed Search (SDS; Holland, 1994) is a pair of booklets

that simulate career counseling, accompanied by a set of derivativetools for use with the SDS. It is theoretically based, can be self-administered, self-scored, and self-interpreted and has a substantialbase of studies examining its "functional utility" or therapeuticeffects. The SDS has been revised three times since its developmentin 1970, resulting in the latest revision or Form R (1994). Form R(1994) was created in two steps. An experimental version of theAssessment Booklet was compiled with 70 new items andadministered to 701 individuals. These data were then used toidentify good and bad items. In a second step, 2,600 students andadults from 25 states completed the final Form R. Internalconsistencies for the revised summary scales range from .90 to .94.Test-retest reliability range from .76 to .89 over a period of 4 to 12weeks. The Occupations Finder (Holland, 1994) was revised andtwo manuals created: one a technical manual and one a professionalusers guide. As in other revisions of the SDS, the goal was to makethe experience more useful to clients and to counselors.

The SDS and its derivative instruments constitute the first viable self-scoring and self-interpreting inventory developed from Hollands theory ofpersons in vocational environments (Holland, 1992). Since its developmentin 1970, the SDS has been revised and broadened three times (1977, 1985,1994) to include a coordinated set of forms and closely related productsand tools.The SDS is unique among interest inventories and has established a

special niche based upon three essential qualities. First, the SDS can be self-administered, self-scored, and self-interpreted. Indeed, completion of theinventory in every aspect is an exploratory experience. The SDS scoringsystem requires no electronics, and the scoring process is open to inspectionby the respondent, thus becoming an informational intervention in itself.

Portions of this manuscript were excerpted from a paper presented by J. L. Hollandat a symposium on Interest Measurement (W. Bruce Walsh, Chair) at the AmericanPsychological Association, August 1995, New York.

Published and copyright @ 1995 by Psychological Assessment Resources, Inc. All rights reserved.

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Second, the homogeneous and theoretically derived scales reflect theorganizing system in Hollands theory and provide the user a wide array ofderivative career tools based upon the same system. Finally, multipleempirical studies of the SDS-its structure, and especially its effects-nowexist in the professional literature, another unusual quality for a self-guiding vocational inventory.The main assumption in self-guiding inventories is that, with a minimum

of assistance, clients can engage in a systematic exploration of careerpossibilities and better understand those activities and career options thatare appropriate choices considering a clients characteristics. The publishersreports indicate that the SDS is the most widely used interest inventory inexistence. The SDS and its theoretical model can provide career assistanceto individuals, groups, workshops and classes, and the typology can also beused to organize and interpret client and occupational information in careercenters, libraries, and industry settings. This information can be used inevaluation studies, research, labor force projections, and strategic andsuccession planning. The SDS is used in an increasingly wide array ofsettings. For example, Levinson (1990) argues that the SDS is an appropriateintervention for school psychologists who want to become more involved invocational assessment.

The SDS: Form Follows FunctionsThe SDS is a pair of booklets that simulate career counseling. The

Assessment Booklet estimates a persons resemblance to six interest orpersonality types, and the occupational classification booklet (TheOccupations Finder) organizes occupations into the same six categoriesused in the Assessment Booklet. Consequently, the test-taker can completethe Assessment Booklet and search The Occupations Finder for compatibleoccupations. All forms of the SDS employ the same two-booklet system. Inaddition, a third booklet-You and Your Career (Holland, 1994b) providessupplemental information for the respondent on the theory and theinterpretation of Holland codes. The SDS contains a daydreams section inwhich the individual lists occupations under consideration. Called expressedchoices, these lists are surprisingly robust estimates of the occupationsthat respondents eventually enter (see Holland, Fritzsche, & Powell, 1994,p. 4 for a list of these studies on the validity of expressed choice). There arefour parts in the SDS that contribute to the calculation of the SummaryCode. These sections are:

1. Activities (6 scales of 11 items are endorsed like or dislike), whichmeasures personal involvement and potential (e.g., sketch, draw,paint).

2. Competencies (6 scales of 11 items endorsed yes or no), whichestimates proficiencies and skills (e.g., I can play a musicalinstrument).

3. Occupations (6 scales of 14 occupational titles endorsed yes orno).

4. Self-Estimates (two ratings per type of ability and skill).


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After completing the assessment scales, the totals for the subsections ofthe SDS are transferred to a summary page and added to obtain a total scorefor each of the six types. The highest three total scores indicate the three-letter summary code for use with The Occupations Finder. The SDS takesabout 35 to 50 minutes to complete, and the hand scoring by client orcounselor generally takes about 5 minutes.

Currently, there are separate forms for middle-school students (SDSCareer Explorer; Holland & Powell, 1994) and high-school students, both ofwhich can be completed in one class period, and several forms for adults.There is a form (Form CP) for business and industrial clients who requesteda version tailored to their unique needs and concerns. There are also formsin Braille and a form for those who read below the sixth-grade level (FormE). There have been numerous translations of the SDS, and the Spanish,Vietnamese, and French Canadian editions are published in the U.S.

Derivative Materials and ToolsUser experience with the SDS has led to multiple supplementary materials

based upon the Holland theory and designed to perform a specific ancillaryfunction.

For example, an alphabetized occupational classification booklet wasdeveloped first to assist test-takers in locating occupational codes in TheOccupations Finder as the number of occupations listed increased. Demandsfor a more comprehensive Occupations Finder led G. D. Gottfredson todevelop a conversion formula to derive three-letter Holland codes for alloccupations in the U.S. labor force-resulting in the Dictionary of HollandOccupational Codes (DHOC; G. D. Gottfredson & Holland 1989; G. D.Gottfredson, Holland, & Ogawa, 1982).Because the DHOC did not allow for unique or eccentric work

environments, and because the DHOC was occasionally incomplete regardinga very specific work environment, The Position Classification Inventory(PCI; G. D. Gottfredson & Holland, 1991) was developed to permit a smallnumber of employees or supervisors (8 or 9) to rate their work environmentusing Hollands system. The PCI is an 84-item inventory containing six13-item scales corresponding to each of the six Holland work environmenttypes. Correlations between supervisor and employees ratings of the samejobs using the PCI were substantial, ranging from .59 to .79. Alphacoefficients ranged from .70 to .94 for a mixed sample of employees andsupervisors across scales. There are, as a result of the PCI, two empirical-theoretical tools for classifying any occupational environment.Three additional exploration devices include The Educational

Opportunities Finder (Rosen, Holmberg, & Holland, 1994), a classificationof 750 education and training opportunities, and its more elaboratecounterpart, the Dictionary of Educational Opportunities (Rosen, Holmberg,& Holland, 1994), and The Leisure Activities Finder (Holmberg, Rosen, &Holland, 1990), a classification of 760 avocations, hobbies, and sports.Because these devices share the same coding system and theoreticalunderpinning, clients and counselors should find these tools easy tounderstand and integrate with other information. Most SDS inventories are


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also available in different computer versions that administer, score, interpret,and embed a persons responses in the context of other client information.The Holland types can also be assessed using the Vocational Preference

Inventory (VPI; Holland, 1985), the new Strong Interest Inventory (SII;Harmon, Hansen, Borgen, & Hammer, 1994), the Career AssessmentInventory (CAI; Johansson, 1986), the new Armed Services VocationalAptitude Battery (ASVAB) workbook, a clever and colorful intervention forstudents (Department of Defense, 1993), the Vocational Exploration andInsight Kit (VEIK; Holland, 1991), and other vocational card sorts. Theinterchangeability of type scores derived from these various instruments islargely unexplored.The 1994 Edition of Form R

The 1994 edition of the SDS Form R is a direct descendant of the first form.The goal of the 1994 edition was, again, to make the SDS more useful for clientsand for counselors. This goal entailed multiple editorial and research tasks.The editorial tasks included clarifying the directions in the assessment

and classification booklets, revising the reading list, and updating TheOccupations Finder. The directions for The Occupations Finder were alsorevised to increase the potential for occupational exploration for men andwomen by directing test-takers to search for all permutations of theirSummary Code. Some revisions are obviously helpful; other revisions willrequire experimental evaluations to fully assess the assumed improvements.The Assessment BookletThe main research task was to increase scale validity and reliability by

trying out new or revised items, deleting weak or outdated items, andomitting items with extreme endorsement rates among either males orfemales. Because there have been nine item analyses of the four forms of theSDS by its authors and by other researchers from 1970 through 1993, it hasbecome increasingly difficult to improve the inventory using item analysis.The 1994 edition was created in two steps. In the first step, an

experimental booklet consisting of the items from the 1985 edition andother forms of the SDS, along with 70 new items, was administered to asample of 701 individuals. Subjects came from seven states. The data fromthis experimental booklet were used to identify good and bad items. Itemsthat correlated highly with the summary scales they were intended tomeasure, that improved item scale correlations, and that were endorsed byat least 5% of males and females were retained.

In the second step, a sample of 2,600 students and adults from 25 statestook the final form of the SDS Form R: 1994 Edition. This sample included1,600 females and 1,000 males ranging in age from 17 to 65 years, andwas collected from high schools, colleges, clinical and counselingpractitioners, employment services, and counseling centers. The data fromthese diverse sources were used to assess the internal consistency, concurrentvalidity, item endorsement rates, item validity, scale intercorrelations,gender and ethnic group differences, and to provide new scale norms.Percentile ranks are provided for consistency and differentiation, as well as


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for the separate sections of the SDS (Activities, Competencies, Occupations,Self-Estimates) and Summary Code distributions. Sixty-seven of 228 itemsfrom the 1985 SDS edition were replaced or revised. Internal consistenciesfor the revised summary scales ranged from .90 to .94 and for the separatesections (e.g., Activities, Competencies, Occupations, Self-Estimates) rangedfrom .72 to

.92, representing a modest increase in reliability. Test-retestreliability for a sample of 45 females and 28 males, ages 14 to 28 years,ranged from .76 to .89 over a period of 4 to 12 weeks.The Classification BookletThe classification booklet or The Occupations Finder was also revised in

1994. These revisions include:1. Addition of fast-growing jobs for the 1990s.2. Deletion of fast-declining jobs for the 1990s.3. Addition of more jobs requiring higher GED levels.4. Substitution of more common job titles for some occupations.5. Inclusion of all three-letter Holland codes (notes instructing the

reader to explore other permutations are included for codes withfewer than six jobs listed).

6. Reminders throughout the booklet to explore every permutationof ones code.

These revisions to The Occupations Finder resulted in a total of 1,335occupations, 1,315 of which had an empirical three-letter code taken fromthe DHOC. The remaining 20 codes were created by three expert raters usinga consensus procedure.The SDS Technical Manual (Holland, Fritzsche, et al., 1994) summarizes

the information and history of all SDS forms, including the 1994 edition.Detailed information on the 1994 revision is contained in the 1994 SDS TechnicalManual. Although our review focuses on the use and effects of the inventory withclients, the substantial database testing the Holland model, the characteristicsof the types, and the nature of person-environment interactions is unprecedentedas background support for a model underlying an interest inventory (Brown &Brooks, in press; Holland, in press; Osipow & Fitzgerald, in press).Most of the analyses for the 1994 edition replicate findings from earlier

versions. For example, repeated revisions to reduce gender differences in typedistributions increased the scores of both women and men, but thedifferences between the two groups remain much the same. Attempts toapply normative corrections to Holland raw scores to alter gender or racedifferences have impaired concurrent validity to a considerable extent(Swoope & Bunch, 1978). The sex differences found on the SDS appear to bestable and not artifactual. Very convincing arguments have been made forconsidering such differences as real (Eagly, 1995) and, thus, reaffirming thevalue of the SDS as one of the only remaining raw score inventories in ourfield (L. S. Gottfredson, 1983). Table 1 contains the distribution of SDShigh-point codes by gender and race in the 1994 validation sample.

Practitioners will find a comprehensive account of the potential applicationand interpretation of all SDS forms in the SDS Professional Users Guide


378

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(PUG; Holland, Powell, & Fritzsche, 1994). The information about the useof all SDS forms, reported earlier in manuals and guides, is now integratedinto a single guide. Although the essential findings from the SDS TechnicalManual are summarized in the PUG, its main purpose is application. Figure1, for example, taken from the PUG, is a diagram of the exploration processthat occurs when a respondent completes the SDS.

Several supplemental diagnostic indicators can be derived from the SDSscores as in the following descriptions in Table 2.

CongruenceCongruence indicates the degree of fit between an individuals personality

and the type of work or educational environment he or she inhabits (forexample, an IRC individual in an IRC environment). Congruence has beencalculated using first-letter codes, three-letter codes, and six-letter codes,but can also be estimated with the use of one of several mathematicalindexes (Brown & Gore, 1994; Camp & Chartrand, 1992).

ConsistencyConsistency is a measure of the internal harmony within an individuals

Summary Code. Consistency is determined using the first two letters of thethree-letter code on the hexagon. Types that are adjacent to each other onthe perimeter of the hexagon (e.g., Realistic and Investigative) are morecommon and, therefore, harmonious than types that are opposite each otheron the perimeter of the hexagon (e.g., Enterprising and Investigative). Anindividual with an I-E type would be inconsistent. Enterprising andInvestigative interests are not often found together and require verydifferent repertoires of behavior.

DifferentiationDifferentiation is a measure of the crystallization of interests and provides

information about the relative definition of types in an individuals profile.Differentiation can be defined as the highest minus the lowest score amongthe six types, or it can be calculated using a mathematical index. As Hollandindicated, &dquo;My purpose was to create a concept that would capture whatclinicians mean by a well-defined profile&dquo; (Holland, 1992, p. 26).Each of these indexes is calculated in the following sample case of Ruth, and

the relationships between the various indexes are summarized in Table 2.

A Sample Case Using the SDSA professional colleague, Ruth, a 43-year-old school guidance counselor

with a masters degree, completed the SDS and used the Leisure ActivitiesFinder in addition to the regular Occupations Finder. Ruth reports being verysatisfied in her job, which she has held for 3 years. &dquo;I think its perfect. I feelcompetent in it, and I think I am paid fairly. I still have a lot of things tolearn, but I look forward to learning them.&dquo; She agreed to complete the SDSin order to learn more about the instrument and its potential for use withhigh-school populations. Ruth had never taken the SDS, but was familiarwith the theory and with the SDS as an instrument. Figure 2 contains theSummary Page from Ruths SDS.


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Ruths Summary Code was SIE, and she reports being surprised at howhigh her I score was. &dquo;I think I have more I competencies than I do Iinterests.&dquo; Ruth made one minor scoring error resulting in a 1-pointdiscrepancy in her Social high-point code. In order to better interpret themeaning of these scores, we used the norm tables in the SDS TechnicalManual to calculate the percentile levels for the Summary Code scores,differentiation, consistency, and congruence. Table 3 contains RuthsSummary Codes and their percentile ranks. The SIE code is a fairly commonone, occurring in 2.22% of the 1994 validation sample. Her Social score(82%ile) is clearly a high one, though her Investigative score (78%ile) is alsohigh. Ruths differentiation score, when calculated by the traditional method(highest score [42] minus lowest score [10] = 32), is at the 74th%ile. Usingthe Iachan Differentiation Index (see SDS Technical Manual), which utilizesthe relative differentiation of the first three scores in the code from thefourth, the differentiation score is at the 97%ile-a better reflection of thehigh level of differentiation we see in Ruths code. The formula for theIachan Differentiation Index is a straightforward one:

where

X, = highest score in a profilex2 = second highest scorex3 = fourth highest score

Table 3Ruths Summary Code Scores and Percentile Ranks

Consistency for Ruths code is moderate with the first two letters of hercode SI being one removed (one apart, but not opposite or adjacent) from eachother around the hexagon-a consistency score in the 38%ile using theconsistency norms in the SDS Technical Manual. This consistency scorereflects the fact that an SI code may not comfortably fit together and mayindicate some internal friction or conflict between aspects of Ruthspersonality (SA or SE would have been more consistent).

Finally, if we presume the work environment of a counselor to be S, orSER using the DHOC (G. D. Gottfredson & Holland, 1989), we can calculate


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congruence using the Zener and Schnuelle conversion, which would yield acongruence level at the 73%ile, or we can use the Iachan congruence formulawhich is calculated using Table 4.

Table 4Calculation of the Iachan Agreement Index

The Iachan procedure yields a congruence score at the 90th%ile-again,a better estimate of the degree of congruence in the profile and moreconsistent with the clients self-expressions regarding her satisfaction withher job. A somewhat different work environment profile for a counselorwas generated by a sample of 11 counselors in the PCI manual and isreproduced in Figure 3. Use of the profile from the PCI manual wouldresult in even higher congruence estimates for Ruth.Ruth used the Leisure Activities Finder to explore avocational activities and

discovered three that seemed interesting to her-Social Activism, Self-HelpGroups, and Adult Education. Indeed, Ruth reports having engaged in eachof these activities at one time in her life and had worked in adult educationfor several years. Ruth did note that many of the activities she was interestedin were SR in nature-a reflection of her outdoor interests and, interestingly,consistent with the counselor type.

In short, Ruth has a highly differentiated three-letter code with a strongSocial component. She demonstrates many of the skills associated withthe Social Holland type, including strong interactive skills with a widerange of individuals and very good counseling skills. She is congruent,though moderately inconsistent in theoretical terms, and her profile isquite consistent with her self-reports regarding her feelings about her job.The Influence of Self-Guiding InterventionsThere is now little doubt that self-help interventions are generally

associated with positive outcomes (Ogles, Lambert, & Craig, 1991; Scogin,Bynum, Stephens, & Calhoun, 1990), but that such interventions vary inquality (Ellis, 1993) can be oversold and misused (Rosen, 1988, 1993) or evenemployed exploitively. Clearly the number of careful evaluative studies isdisproportionately small considering the extraordinary number (Rosen,1993) of self-help interventions used today. As Rosen (1993) indicated, the


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psychology establishment has failed to promote the benefits and increase theuse of effective self-help interventions.As Spokane (1990) argued earlier, the career arena is one enterprise in

which self-help has been carefully and systematically applied. This isespecially true for the SDS. Meta-analytic data (Oliver & Spokane, 1988;Spokane & Oliver, 1983) confirm that counselor-free career interventions aremodestly effective at a cost ($1.21 per client contact hour) less than one tenththat of counselor-involved interventions.The SDS not only exceeds any reasonable standards for these self-help

interventions (Spokane, 1990), in many respects it has set the benchmark.Tinsleys excellent (1984) paper on test interpretation cautioned that thecounselor (presumably also the client) should fully understand the meaningof test scores, encourage client feedback, show the client the profile, keepthe clients goals in mind, and so forth. Similarly, Pope (1992) argued thatlack of feedback was the most neglected aspect of assessment and outlined10 fundamentals of this feedback process, including framing the feedback,misuse of feedback, documentation of records, and assessing andunderstanding client reactions. The SDS ensures many of the essentialcomponents that Tinsley (1984) and Pope (1992) discussed. The four keyelements that a self-guiding career inventory should include are: (a) providea cognitive framework for understanding tests scores, (b) provide a directlink to a valid job classification system and educational options, (c) providereferral information, and (d) provide evidence for the effectiveness of theintervention.

Studies of the Effects and Outcomes of the SDSAlthough the psychometric properties of the SDS are important, the

influence of an interest inventory-how it affects a respondents thinking,feeling, and action-is an equally important aspect of validity. The nearlytwo dozen studies of the effects of the SDS reviewed in Holland, Fritzsche,et al. (1994) are unusual in not just the psychometric properties of theSDS, but also its functional or clinical utility. It is worth noting that nonegative or deterioration effects have been found in using the SDS, althoughthere is some evidence that the SDS may be more effective as a stand-alone intervention with certain kinds of clients.The first of a series of &dquo;effects&dquo; studies (Zener & Schnuelle, 1976) compared

the SDS, the VPI, and a no-treatment control with high-school students andfirst used a new measure of congruence. Both the VPI and the SDS wereeffective in comparison to a control condition in generating occupationalalternatives. This large scale experiment and other studies suggest that theSDS: &dquo;(a) increases the number of career options an individual is considering,(b) increases satisfaction with a vocational aspiration, and (c) increasesself-understanding&dquo; (Holland, Fritzsche, et al., 1994, p. 53). Several studiesfound, surprisingly, that the effects of the SDS on career outcomes wereequivalent to those achieved with a counselor (Krivatsy & Magoon, 1976).

Fretz and Leong (1982) confirm the results of earlier studies by Power,Holland, Daiger, and Takai (1979) and Takai and Holland (1979) and foundthat self-guiding interventions were most effective with high identity, low


388

indecision clients and that following intervention, clients generally foundone additional option that they would not have otherwise considered. Task-oriented individuals (Investigative and Conventional types) seem to performbetter on the SDS than did socially oriented individuals (Social andEnterprising types) (Kivlighan, Hageseth, Tipton, & McGovern, 1981).Most recently, Gati & Blumberg (1991) created two algorithms to score the

SDS subscales and summary score, with the finding that career counselorsidentified more fields than did the algorithm because they employed a lowercutoff score for consideration. Indeed, counselors were very flexible and,generally, overinclusive in identifying relevant fields from the SDS protocol.

These effects studies, although a relatively small fraction of the researchconducted on Hollands theory, establish the functional utility of the SDS.A great deal remains to be done in determining which aspects of interestinventories promote exploration and aid in decision-making and encouraginggreater use of self-guiding interest inventories.

The Present and Future of the SDSThe SDS is an inventory with desirable psychometric characteristics

that incorporates a persons history of vocational daydreams, which canbe used to increase predictive validity and to form an impression of aclients goals and background and that encourages the immediatepreliminary exploration of more than 1,000 occupations. Because it is self-scored and can be interpreted by many, perhaps most, clients, it encouragesactive participation in the resolution of career problems and questions.

In addition, the effects of the SDS on the test-taker are now documentedby 22 experimental studies. The interpretation of the SDS scales is alsosupported by a substantial literature examining the RIASEC typology.Most recently, the relationship between the &dquo;Big Five&dquo; personality factorsand the RIASEC types continues to both clarify the interpretation of thetypes and contribute to our understanding of the nature of, and overlapbetween, interests and personality.References

Brown, D., & Brooks, L. (in press). Career choice and development (4th ed). San Francisco:Jossey Bass.

Brown, S. D., & Gore, P. A. (1994). An evaluation of interest congruence indices: Distributioncharacteristics and measurement properties. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 45, 310-327.

Camp, C. C., & Chartrand, J. M. (1992). A comparison and evaluation of interest congruenceindices. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 41, 162-182.

Department of Defense. (1993). Exploring careers: The ASUAB workbook. HQUSMEPCOM/MEPCO, Chicago: Author.

Eagly, A. H. (1995). The science and politics of comparing women and men. AmericanPsychologist, 50, 145-158.

Ellis, A. (1993). The advantages and disadvantages of self-help therapy materials.Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 24, 335-339.

Fretz, B. R., & Leong, F. T. L. (1982). Career development status as a predictor of careerintervention outcomes. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 29, 388-393.

Gati, I., & Blumberg, D. (1991). Computer versus counselor interpretation of interestinventories: The case of the Self-Directed Search. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 38,350-366.


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Gottfredson, G. D., & Holland, J. L. (1989). Dictionary of Holland occupational codes(2nd ed.). Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.

Gottfredson, G. D., Holland, J. L., & Ogawa, D. K. (1982). Dictionary of Holland occupationalcodes. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.

Gottfredson, L. S. (1982). The sex fairness of unnormed interest inventories. VocationalGuidance Quarterly, 31, 128-132.

Harmon, L. W., Hansen, J. C., Borgen, F. H., & Hammer, A. L. (1994). Strong InterestInventory: Applications and technical guide. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.

Holland, J. L. (1985). Manual for the Vocational Preference Inventory. Odessa, FL:Psychological Assessment Resources.

Holland, J. L. (1991). Vocational Exploration and Insight Kit. Odessa, FL: PsychologicalAssessment Resources.

Holland, J. L. (1992). Making vocational choices: A theory of vocational personalities andwork environments (2nd ed.). Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.

Holland, J. L. (1994a). Self-Directed Search Form R: 1994 edition. Odessa, FL: PsychologicalAssessment Resources.

Holland, J. L. (1994b). You and your career. Odessa, FL: Psychological AssessmentResources.

Holland, J. L. (in press). Making vocational choices: A theory of vocational personalities andwork environments (3rd ed.). Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.

Holland, J. L., Fritzsche, B. A., & Powell, A. B. (1994). SDS technical manual. Odessa, FL:Psychological Assessment Resources.

Holland, J. L., & Powell, A. B. (1994). SDS Career Explorer. Odessa, FL: PsychologicalAssessment Resources.

Holland, J. L., Powell, A. B., & Fritzsche, B. A. (1994). SDS professional users guide.Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.

Holmberg, K., Rosen, D., & Holland, J. L. (1990). The Leisure Activities Finder. Odessa,FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.

Kivlighan, D. M., Jr., Hageseth, J. A., Tipton, R. M., & McGovern, T. V. (1981). Effects ofmatching treatment approaches and personality types in group vocational counseling. Journalof Counseling Psychology, 28, 315-320.

Krivatsy, S. E., & Magoon, T. M. (1976). Differential effects of three vocational counselingtreatments. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 43, 112-118.

Levinson, E. M. (1990). Vocational assessment involvement and use of the Self-DirectedSearch by school psychologists. Psychology in the Schools, 27, 217-228.

Ogles, B. M., Lambert, M. J., & Craig, D. E. (1991). Comparison of self-help books for copingwith loss: Expectations and attributions. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 38, 387-393.

Oliver, L. W., & Spokane, A. R. (1988). Career counseling outcome: What contributes toclient gain? Journal of Counseling Psychology, 35, 447-462.

Osipow, S. H., & Fitzgerald, L. (in press). Theories of career development (4th ed.). Boston:Allyn & Bacon.

Pope, K. S. (1992). Responsibilities in providing psychological test feedback to clients.Psychological Assessment, 4, 268-271.

Power, P. G., Holland, J. L., Daiger, D. C., & Takai, R. T. (1979). The relation of studentcharacteristics to the influence of the Self-Directed Search. Measurement and Evaluation inGuidance, 12, 98-107.

Rosen, G. M. (1988). Self-help treatment books and the commercialization of psychotherapy.American Psychologist, 42, 46-51.

Rosen, G. M. (1993) Self-help of self-hype? Comments on psychologys failure to advanceself care. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 24, 340-345.

Rosen, D., Holmberg, K., & Holland, J. L. (1994). The educational opportunities finder.Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.


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Scogin, F., Bynum, J., Stephens, G., & Calhoun, S. (1990). Efficacy of self-administeredtreatment programs: Meta-analytic review. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice,21, 42-47.

Spokane, A. R. (1990). Self-guided interest inventories as career interventions: The Self-Directed Search. In C. E. Watkins & V. L. Campbell (Eds.), Testing in counseling practice (pp,285-316). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Spokane, A. R., & Oliver, L. W. (1983). The outcomes of vocational intervention. In W. B.Walsh & S. H. Osipow (Eds.), Handbook of vocational psychology (Vol. II). Hillsdale, NJ:Erlbaum.

Swoope, K. F., & Bunch, S. C. (1978, April). Raw score and percentile norm coding of theHolland Vocational Preference Inventory and implications for counseling women. Paperpresented at The American Educational Research Association, Toronto, Canada.

Takai, R., & Holland, J. L. (1979). Comparative influence of the Vocational Card Sort, theSelf-Directed Search, and the Vocational Exploration and Insight Kit. Vocational GuidanceQuarterly, 27, 312-318.

Tinsley, H. E. A. (1984). Test interpretation. Unpublished manuscript, Southern IllinoisUniversity.

Zener, T. B., & Schnuelle, L. (1976). Effects of the Self-Directed Search on high schoolstudents. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 23, 353-359.


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The Self-Directed Search