The Russian Federation

The Russian Federation

Chapter 8

8| 2Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

SECTION 1 SECTION 1

THE MAKING OF THE MODERN RUSSIAN THE MAKING OF THE MODERN RUSSIAN STATESTATE



Politics in ActionPolitics in Action• Town of Pikalyovo came to be known as a power symbol during

the economic crisis of 2009.

– Economic difficulties of BasEl Cement Pikalyovo sparked protests when city’s heating and hot water supply was interrupted and wages were not being paid.

o Pikalyovo events exemplified the continuing interdependence of politics and economics in contemporary Russia.

o Crisis required intervention of country’s top leaders.











Geographic SettingGeographic Setting• Breakup of Soviet Union resulted in 15 newly independent states.

• Russian Federation: largest successor state and largest European country, spanning 11 time zones

• Underwent rapid industrialization and urbanization under Soviet rule

• Rich in natural resources: gold, diamonds, timber, oil and natural gas

• Ethnic diversity and scope make governing difficult.– Pockets of instability on borders– Regional sphere of influence disputed



Critical JuncturesCritical Junctures The Decline of the Russian Tsarist State and the The Decline of the Russian Tsarist State and the

Founding of the Soviet UnionFounding of the Soviet Union• Autocratic system headed by tsar until 1917• Patrimonial state Patrimonial state ruling country and land

– Patrimonial state Patrimonial state —A system of governance in which a single ruler treats the state as personal property (patrimony).



The Bolshevik Revolution and the Establishment of The Bolshevik Revolution and the Establishment of Soviet Power (1917–1929)Soviet Power (1917–1929)

• Bolsheviks were Marxists.– Believed revolution reflected political interests of the working

class (proletariat),although most leaders were intelligentsia.– Slogan: “Land, Peace, and Bread”

• Strategy based on two key ideas:– Democratic centralismDemocratic centralism—hierarchical party structure with

leaders elected from below and strict implementation of party policy.

– Vanguard partyVanguard party—political party that claims to operate in the “true” interests of the group or class that it purports to represent, even if this understanding doesn’t correspond to the expressed interests of the group itself.



The Bolshevik Revolution and the Establishment of The Bolshevik Revolution and the Establishment of Soviet Power (1917–1929) (ContSoviet Power (1917–1929) (Cont’’d)d)

• Extended civil war, (1918–1921)– Introduction of war communism—state control of key

economic sectors– New Economic Policy (NEP) (1921) loosened state control

over economy but not large-scale industry

• Bolsheviks became more authoritarian through 1920s.– Lack of democratic tradition and vanguard ideology– Internal struggles after Lenin’s death, leading to rise of Stalin– Open opposition silenced by 1929

• Bolshevik revolution started international isolation.– Ceded chunks of territory to Germany under Brest-Litovsk

Treaty (1918)



The Stalin Revolution (1929–1953)The Stalin Revolution (1929–1953)• Josef Stalin brought changes to every aspect of Soviet life.• State control over all economic assets

– CollectivizationCollectivization of farms to prevent emergence of capitalist class

o Collectivization Collectivization —Removal of agricultural land from private ownership and organized into large state and collective farmso Resulted in famine and death

o People were uprooted from countryside to urban industrial life

• Party subject to personal whims of Stalin and secret police– Resistance was evasive rather than active



The Stalin Revolution (1929–1953) (ContThe Stalin Revolution (1929–1953) (Cont’’d)d)• Citizen and economy were isolated from outside world.

– Positive: Served as protection from effects of Great Depression

– Negative: Failed to keep up with economic and technological transformation in the west.

• Joined Allied Powers in 1941 in Great Patriotic War• Victory allowed absorption of new territories.

– Replicated Soviet communismo Countries with historic links to Western Europe forced changes

to Soviet model through domestic resistance

• USSR emerges as superpower.– Policies to contain expansion were implemented: Truman Doctrine,

North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and Warsaw Pact.





Attempts at De-Stalinization (1953–1985)Attempts at De-Stalinization (1953–1985)• Stalin’s system of terror destroyed initiative and participation.

– Unpredictability inhibited rational policy formulation

• 1953-mid 1980s: Regularization and stabilization of Soviet politics

– Terror abated but political controls remained.

• Nikita Khrushchev (1956–1964)– Revitalized Communist party, secret police (KGB)

subordinated to Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU)

– Internal structures centralized and elections uncontested



Attempts at De-Stalinization (1953–1985) (ContAttempts at De-Stalinization (1953–1985) (Cont’’d)d)• Leonid Brezhnev (1964–1982)

– Partially reversed de-Stalinizationo Tightened cultural controlso Predictable repression

• Beginning in late 1970s, aging political leadership increasingly ineffective

– Economic growth rates and opportunities for upward mobility declined.

– Resources were diverted to military sector.– Liberalization in East Europe and telecommunications made

shielding population from Western lifestyles and ideas difficult.



Perestroika and Glasnost (1985–1991)Perestroika and Glasnost (1985–1991)• Mikhail Gorbachev (1985)

– Reform program focused on economic growth and political renewal without undermining Communist party.o Perestroika (economic restructuring)

Decentralization and rationalization of economic structureso Glasnost (openness)

Easing of controls on public debateo Demokratizatsiia (limited democratization)o “New Thinking”

Received Nobel Peace Prize in 1991 Halted Military buildup, ratification of arms control

agreements, and lifting of many controls on international contacts



Collapse of the USSR and the Emergence of the Collapse of the USSR and the Emergence of the Russian Federation (1991 to the Present)Russian Federation (1991 to the Present)

• Boris Yeltsin added as nonvoting member of the Politburo in 1985 and became president in 1991 through direct popular vote.

• August 1991 conservative coup d’état temporarily removed Gorbachev from leadership.

– Yeltsin rallied opposition to coup and declared himself champion of democratic values and Russian national interest.

• December 1991 Yeltsin joined Ukraine and Belorussia leaders.– Declared end of Soviet rule and formation of Commonwealth of

Independent States



Collapse of the USSR and the Emergence of the Collapse of the USSR and the Emergence of the Russian Federation (1991 to the Present) (ContRussian Federation (1991 to the Present) (Cont’’d)d)

• Russian Federation became independent.– Yeltsin proclaimed commitment to Western-style democracy

and market reform.o Controversial and hard to implement

– October 1993 Yeltsin disbanded parliament and called new elections and constitutional referendum.

• Yeltsin unable to stop corruption, crime, social decline.– Conflict to prevent Chechnya independence– Financial crisis 1998

• Yeltsin nominated Putin as prime minister.• Yeltsin resigned 1999 and Putin elected president.




• After September 11, 2001– Putin benefited from high gas prices that poured revenue into

Russia.– First economic growth in a decade in 1999– High levels of popular support

• Putin transitioned to hand-picked successor in 2008.• Since 2000, Russia drifting toward soft authoritarianismsoft authoritarianism

– Soft authoritarianism—a system of political control in which a combination of formal and informal mechanisms assure the dominance of a ruling group or dominant party, despite the existence of some forms of political competition and expression of political opposition.




• Putin expressed solidarity with the United States in the struggle against terrorism.

– Reinforced by terrorist attacks in Russia– Withheld support of Iraq due to concerns about increasing

American influence o Additional conflict points emerged

• Hillary Clinton visits with Russia after Obama inauguration to call for a reset of international relations.





Themes and ImplicationsThemes and Implications Historical Junctures and Political ThemesHistorical Junctures and Political Themes• International support high following Soviet collapse

– Russia’s status as world power undermined by Western organization expansion

– Economic recovery and European dependence on Russian oil and gas renewed Russia’s international influence.

– Russia had difficulty asserting itself as a respected regional leader.

• Russian Federation mired in economic collapse and political paralysis

– By late 1990s, public disillusioned and distrustful of leaders



Historical Junctures and Political Themes (ContHistorical Junctures and Political Themes (Cont’’d)d)• Since 2000 economic growth has returned

– Increased public confidence although still skeptical of market economy

– Survived 2008 financial crisis through plans such as Reserve Fund and Prosperity Fund (generated from high oil and gas revenues)

– Still facing major issues: inadequate levels of foreign investment, capital flight, continuing high levels of inequality, and decline in agriculture

• Russians seek new forms of collective identity.– Russian identity uncertain because of loss of superpower

status and widely accepted ideology– Differing collective identities due to internal divisions



Implications for Comparative PoliticsImplications for Comparative Politics• Transition from authoritarianism to democracy affected by:

– Tradition of strong state control– Intertwined politics, economics, and ideology

• Four transitions initiated simultaneously in early 1990s: democratization, market reform, redefinition of national identity, and integration into world economy

– Difficult to separate political and economic powero No private wealtho Corruption and crime used to maintain former privileges

– Citizens faced economic decline and ideological vacuum.o Susceptible to appeal for state control and nationalismo Current backsliding from democracy reflects pursuing so many

transitions at once.


SECTION 2SECTION 2

POLITICAL ECONOMY AND DEVELOPMENTPOLITICAL ECONOMY AND DEVELOPMENT

IntroductionIntroduction• Collapse of Soviet system 1991

– Radical reduction of state’s strong role in economic development– Opened Russian economy to foreign influence– Dramatic decline in economic performance and change in state-

society relationships

• Renewed economic growth built on energy and national resources– High levels of social inequality and corruption



State and EconomyState and Economy• Under Soviet command economy important economic assets

belonged to state.– Economic plans defined production goals.– Prices controlled by state– Foreign relationships channeled through central economic

bureaucracy

• Successes under Soviet model: rapid industrialization, social welfare and mass education, low levels of inequality

– Over time unable to maintain increased domestic prosperity and competitive products for export



State and Economy (ContState and Economy (Cont’’d)d)• Yeltsin endorsed radical market reforms market reforms

– Market reformsMarket reforms—A strategy of economic transformation that reduces the role of state in managing the economy and increases role of market forces.

– Four pillars to program: o lifting price controlso encouraging small private businesses and entrepreneurso privatizing most state-owned enterpriseso opening the economy to international influences



State and Economy (ContState and Economy (Cont’’d)d)• Privatization was rapid.

– Privatizing state industries, known as insider privatization.insider privatization.o Insider privatizationInsider privatization——transformation of formerly state-owned enterprises

into joint-stock companies or private enterprises in which majority control is in the hands of employees and/or managers.

– First stage of privatization created joint-stock companies.joint-stock companies.o Joint-stock companiesJoint-stock companies—a business firm whose capital is divided

into shares that can be led by individuals, groups of individuals, of governmental units.

– Citizens were issued a privatization voucher.privatization voucher.o Privatization voucherPrivatization voucher—certificate to be used to purchase shares in

state enterprises undergoing privatization.

• By 1990s Russia was in severe depression.





State and Economy (ContState and Economy (Cont’’d)d)• Second stage of privatization in 1995 allowed firms to sell shares.

– Unattractive to investors as many firms would require large fusions of capital to update technology

– Loan for shares helped secure position of elite.

• Key obstacle to market reforms was weakness of state institutions, which fed corruption and crime.



State and Economy (ContState and Economy (Cont’’d)d)• Central state in Moscow had difficulty exerting authority in relation

to regional authorities and in the face of increasing power of business oligarchs.oligarchs.

– OligarchsOligarchs—small group of powerful and wealthy individuals who gained ownership and control of important sectors of Russia’s economy in the context of privatization of state assets in the 1990s.

– Rich foreigners, Russian bankers, and outspoken journalists became arts of the Russian mafia.mafia.

o MafiaMafia— A term borrowed from Italy and widely used in Russia to describe networks of organized criminal activity.





State and Economy (ContState and Economy (Cont’’d)d)• Financial crisis in August 1998 caused by government’s inability to

pay creditors creating pyramid debtpyramid debt– Pyramid debt Pyramid debt —a situation when a government or organization

takes on debt obligations at progressively higher rates of interest in order to pay off existing debt.

– Government forced radical devaluation of ruble.

• Economic growth revived in 1999.• Vladimir Putin became president in 2000.

– Legislative reforms to spur economic recoveryo Simplification of tax system to increase compliance and enforcement

– Budget deficit to budget surplus– Russia is a high “state capture economy.state capture economy.”

o State capture economyState capture economy—The ability of firms to systematically turn state regulations to their advantage through payoffs to officials.





Society and EconomySociety and Economy• Achievements in social reform: : Free health care, low-cost access

to essential goods and services, partially-paid maternity leave, child benefits, disability pensions, and mass education

• System was plagued with shortages.– For example: housing and medical services

• 2005: Monetarization of social benefits– Tried to replace free social services with modest monetary

paymento Followed by mass demonstrations



Society and Economy (ContSociety and Economy (Cont’’d)d)

• New programs to address inadequacies in social sector and reduce population decline announced in 2005

– Four priority areas: health care, education, housing, agricultureo Doubling of monthly child support payments and large monetary

bonus for women having a second child

o Design of a program of free land allocation for house/dacha construction when a third and every subsequent child is born







Russia in the Global EconomyRussia in the Global Economy• Economy isolated during Soviet period

– Ruble nonconvertible and foreign trade channeled through state organs

• Western governments were committed to technical and humanitarian assistance during 1990s.

– Government had difficulty meeting conditions.

• Russia had problems attracting foreign investment due to continued uncertainty and instability of government policy.

• Shift in geographic focus of foreign trade• Position in international political economy undetermined

– Well positioned but limited by industrial capacity– Dependent on leader’s ability to respond to domestic challenges

and differentiate export base


SECTION 3SECTION 3

GOVERNANCE AND POLICY-MAKINGGOVERNANCE AND POLICY-MAKING

Organization of the StateOrganization of the State• Prior to Gorbachev’s reforms, the Communist Party of the Soviet

Union, which dominated the state, was hierarchical. – Comprised of:

o Politburo (top organ and decision maker),

o Central Committee (broader political elite, regional party leaders and representatives of various economic sectors.)

o Soviet state structures (with little decision-making authority), the Supreme Soviet (rubber-stamp body)

State positions were appointed through the nomenklatura nomenklatura system. NomenklaturaNomenklatura—selection in Soviet Period under which

the Communist Party maintained control over the appointment of important officials in all spheres of social, economic, and political life.



Organization of the StateOrganization of the State• Russian constitution of 1993

– Only symbolic; many principles were ignored– Provided for legislative, executive, and judicial, but no separation

of powerso Courts had no authority to protect provisions.

– Affirms principles of liberal democratic governance– President and executive branch have strong powers.

o Executive dominant, but still dependent on the agreement of the legislative branch to realize its programs.

o Powers of president were augmented with Putin’s presidency to address weakness of central state authority.





The ExecutiveThe Executive• Semi-presidential system with strong president

– President is head of state.o Responsible for foreign policy, relations with regions, security

– Prime minister appointed by president; approved by lower house o Head of government (the state Duma); responsible for economy

• President is directly elected every four years with two consecutive term limit.

• President’s most important power—Power of decree– Allows bypass of uncooperative or divided parliament– Force of law until legislation is passed but less respect


The Executive (Continued)The Executive (Continued)

• President can also declare

state of emergency,

impose martial law, grant

pardons, call referendums,

and suspend actions if

they contradict the

constitution or federal laws.




The National BureaucracyThe National Bureaucracy• 2004: Reform unsuccessful in improving efficiency

– Ministries concerned with policy functions– Services and agencies monitor functions or implementation.

• Ministries other than prime minister do not require parliamentary approval.

– Prime minister recommends; president appoints.– Restructuring to induce political loyalty or signal priorities;

referred to as silovikisiloviki.• SilovikiSiloviki—derived from the Russian word “sil”, meaning “force”,

Russian politicians and governmental officials drawn from the security and intelligence agencies, special forces, or the military, many of whom were recruited to important political posts under Vladimir Putin.



The National Bureaucracy (ContThe National Bureaucracy (Cont’’d)d)• Patron-client networks—clientelistic networks clientelistic networks

– Reflect importance of personal career ties

• Merit-based civil service a goal• Bureaucracy has low level of respect and high levels of

corruption.



Public and Semipublic InstitutionsPublic and Semipublic Institutions• Limited sectors of economy remain under state ownership.

– Direct state or municipal ownership of assets or majority control or shares

– Economic sectors include telecommunications, public transport, electronic media, and energy.

– Education and health-care services provided by tax-supported agencies

– Public or semi-public agencies offer services at lower price but with lower quality.

• Many parts of social infrastructures under public or semi-public control

– Soviet-era social services administered through workplace

• Officials are appointed by political authorities.



Other State InstitutionsOther State Institutions The Military and Security OrgansThe Military and Security Organs• Since Sept. 11 attacks, Russian has shared information with its

Western allies.– Crime rate and terrorist bombings have not elicited popular

concern for civil liberties.– Citizens believe that crime is rampant and that police are

corrupt.

• Political power and prestige of the military have declined, in part as a result of its failure to implement successful strategy in Chechnya.

– Concern over deteriorating conditions of nuclear arsenals and security



The JudiciaryThe Judiciary• Historically judicial independence and rule of law poorly

understood• Constitutional Court formed 1991

– Decisions binding– Suspended by Yeltsin but 1993 constitution provided again– Judges nominated by president and approved by Federation

Council– Resolves conflicts over individual rights and conformity of

regional laws with constitution but cautious in confronting executive branch

• Alongside the Constitutional Court is extensive lower and appellate courts with Supreme Court at pinnacle.

– Commercial courts formed in 1995



Subnational GovernmentSubnational Government• After Russian Federation became an independent state,

Russia’s problems with constructing a viable federal structure resurfaced.

– Extreme example is Chechnya and civil war.– Complicates political relations with other territories

• Putin identified uniform federal-regional relations with uniform legal principles as priority.

– “Power vertical”—integrated structure of executive power from top (national) to local.

– Second set of changes: weakening the independence of governors and republic presidentso Governors are now nominated by president and approved by

regional legislature.



U.S. Connection: Federalism ComparedU.S. Connection: Federalism Compared• Russia is a federal system federal system according to its constitution.

– Federal systemFederal system—political structure in which subnational units have significant independent powers; the powers of each level are usually specified in the federal constitution.

– Some of its units are called republics (21); others are oblasts (49) (regions), krais (6) (territories), one autonomous republic (1), autonomous okrugs (4), and cities of federal status (2).

• Difficulty with controlling laws within regions– As regional laws sometimes deviated from federal laws, bilateral

treaties would sometimes grant special privileges, producing what is called asymmetrical federalism.asymmetrical federalism.

o Asymmetrical federalismAsymmetrical federalism—a form of federalism in which some subnational units in the federal system have greater or lesser powers than others.



The Policy-Making ProcessThe Policy-Making Process• Policy-making occurs through formal and informal mechanisms.

– Legislation may be proposed by president, his administration, regional legislatures, individual deputies, and some judicial bodies.

• Under Yeltsin conflicts with Duma made process contentious and factious.

• Duma generally supported Putin.• To become law a bill must:

– Be approved by both houses of Parliament in three readings.– Get signed by president.– If president vetoes, same wording can be passed by two-thirds

majority of both houses.



The Policy-Making Process (ContThe Policy-Making Process (Cont’’d)d)• Many policy proclamations are made through presidential or

governmental decrees, without formal consultation with the legislative branch.

– Process involves closed-door bargaining rather than open process of debate and consultation.

• Policy implementation inefficacy is an ongoing problem.– Commitment to reestablishing law and order has been an

important justification for the centralization of power.


SECTION 4SECTION 4

REPRESENTATION AND PARTICIPATIONREPRESENTATION AND PARTICIPATION

Introductionntroduction• Glasnost sparked new public and private initiatives.

– Restrictions on formation of social organizations were liftedo Large number of groups appeared.

– Hope for civil society although only small numbers actively engaged

o Civil societyCivil society—Refers to the space occupied by voluntary associations outside the state. The term is similar to society, although civil society implies a degree of organization absent from the more inclusive term society.

Short lived: Demands of everyday life, cynicism about politics, and increasing controls on political opposition led many people to withdraw into private life.



The LegislatureThe Legislature• Federal Assembly

– Federation Council (upper house) represents federal units.o Two members per unit, but selection varied until recently

One appointed by regional executive and one by regional legislature

May be exchanged for political loyaltyo Compliant and party factions not significant



The Legislature (ContThe Legislature (Cont’’d)d)– Duma (lower house) chosen through proportional representation proportional representation

(PR)(PR)o Proportional representation (PR) Proportional representation (PR) —Political representation in which

seats are allocated to parties within multimember constituencies, roughly in proportion to the votes each party receives; encourages the election to parliament of more political parties than single-member-district winner-take-all systems.

o Name emphasized continuity with Russian tradition.o Factions unite deputies, same or allied parties.o Council (10 members) and committees (32)o Elects own speaker (or chair)o Demographic of population not fully reflected

– Elections at least every four years



The Legislature (ContThe Legislature (Cont’’d)d)• Parliament can only exercise constitutional powers effectively if it

acts in unity.– In practice presidential veto can override.– Override of veto requires two-thirds members of both houses to

support original wording.– Each house has authority to confirm presidential appointees.

• Conflict between legislature and president frequent in 1990s– Cooperation with Putin because two-thirds tied to faction closest

to president

• Minimal ability of society to affect policy decisions– Blocs and parties are isolated from public and not popularly

respected.



Political Parties and the Party SystemPolitical Parties and the Party System• Shift from single-party to multiparty system following collapse of

communism– Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) dominated state

and institutions, defined ideology, ensured supporters occupied important offices.o No accountability measures

– National competitive elections with confusing array of political organizations

• Parties formed around individuals without social base or stable constituency.

– Deeply rooted political identifications not formed– Many citizens don’t understand interests or parties.



Political Parties and the Party System (ContPolitical Parties and the Party System (Cont’’d)d)• Religion not basis for political identity• Ethnic and regional parties not significant • Nationalist sentiments crosscut economic ideologies:

– Traditional left—critical of market reform and often mildly nationalistic

– Liberal/reform forces—support assertive Western-type market reform and political norms

– Centrist “parties of power”—representing the political elite– Nationalist/patriotic forces—concerned with identity issues and

national self-assertion





The Dominant Party—United RussiaThe Dominant Party—United Russia• Dominant partyDominant party—a political party that manages to maintain

consistent control of a political system through formal and informal mechanisms of power, with or without strong support from the population.

• United Russia politically dominates at national and regional levels.

– Associated with Putin– Built effective political machine– Poorly defined program emphasizing uniqueness of Russian

approach, order and law, and moderate reform– Broad electoral support



Other Parties Represented in the State Duma Other Parties Represented in the State Duma (2007–2011)(2007–2011)

• Communist Party of the Russian Federation (CPRF)– Social costs of the reform process among party’s concern.– Support strongest among older Russians, economically

disadvantage, and rural residents.

• Liberal Democratic Party of Russia (LDPR)– Neither liberal, nor particularly democratic; characterized

more as nationalist and populist.– Appeals to anti-Western sentiments that grew during decline

from superpower status, working-class men, and military personnel.

– Concern: breakdown of law and order.

• A Just Russia– Espouses support for socialist principles



The Liberal-Democratic Parties: MarginalizedThe Liberal-Democratic Parties: Marginalized• The Liberal Democratic Party: A Nationalist Patriotic Party

(those who most strongly support Western economic and political values)

• Neither liberal nor democratic but nationalist and populist– Anti-Western sentiments– Strong among working-class men and military personnel– Marginalized since 2003– Organized under a variety of party names: Russia’s Choice,

Russia’s Democratic Choice, Union of Rightist Forces, and Yabloko party.

– Espoused commitment to traditional liberal values, such as limited economic role of state, support for free-market principles, and protection of individual rights and liberties



ElectionsElections• National elections have extensive media coverage and begin

up to a year in advance.• Recent concerns about fairness of elections• Until 2007 Duma combined proportional representation with

winner-take-all districts and voter option to vote against all candidates or parties– Now national proportional representation with minimal threshold

for representation of each partyo Parties required to include regional representatives

• Electoral success of opposition parties declining due to support for Putin and lack of appealing program or candidate

• Russia has not experienced real transfer of power.



Political Culture, Citizenship, and IdentityPolitical Culture, Citizenship, and Identity• Attitudes toward government have endured since tsarist period

– Acceptance of personalistic authority, centralized leadership, desire for authoritative source of trutho Soviet regime embodied these in egalitarianism and collectivism.o Collapse of communism discredited Soviet ideology for Western

political and economic values.

• Support for liberal democratic values– These include independent judiciary, a free press, basic civil

liberties, competitive elections, and strong political leadership.o Putin espoused concept of sovereign democracy.sovereign democracy.

Sovereign democracySovereign democracy—adaptation of democracy to Russian traditions and not Western.

• Distinction between ethnic and civil identities important– Increasing concerns about Russian nationalism





Interests, Social Movements, and ProtestInterests, Social Movements, and Protest• Hope that activism would provide foundation for fledgling civil

society – Prior to 2006: Organizations must register with and form

relationship with local government

– 2006: New legislation regulating organizations

• Government attempted to channel public activism through official forums, such as Civic Forum and Public Chamber.




SECTION 5SECTION 5

RUSSIAN POLITICS IN TRANSITION RUSSIAN POLITICS IN TRANSITION

Political Challenges and Changing AgendasPolitical Challenges and Changing Agendas• Russia’s future path unclear

– In 1996, five possible scenarios were presentedo Stable progression toward marketization and democratizationo Gradual introduction of “soft authoritarianism”o Return to extreme authoritarianismo Disintegration of Russia into fiefdoms or de facto stateso Economic decline, civil war, military expansionism

– As of this writing, “soft authoritarianism” is most likely, but could return to more democratic.


RUSSIAN POLITICS IN TRANSITIONRUSSIAN POLITICS IN TRANSITION

Russia in the World of StatesRussia in the World of States• Westernization in early 1990s produced ambiguous results.

– Severe recession leading to requests for international credits and assistance

– Russian protests against international developments indicated resentment and powerlessness.

– September 11 provided opportunity for cooperative ventures.– New tensions with United States









Terrorism: The Russian CaseTerrorism: The Russian Case• Attacks in Russia initially had indigenous roots in the separatist

region of Chechnya.• Because of great ethnic diversity, government has been careful

not to fuel anti-terrorist rhetoric with Anti-Muslim tone.– Ethnic profiling has tainted both government actions and

popular sentiments.

• Russia must reestablish itself as a respected regional leader.– Efforts to strengthen ties include Commonwealth of

Independent States (1991), joined later by Collective Security treaty Organization (CSTO), the Eurasian Economic Forum, and the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO).



Terrorism: The Russian Case (ContTerrorism: The Russian Case (Cont’’d)d)• Russia’s reset of relations to establish equal footing with the

United States suggests positive trajectory.• Democratization declining

– Exercise of public power marked by corruption, big money, and lack of accountability

• New political identities still being constructed– Preoccupied with everyday challenges– Appeal to nationalism can be powerful.

• Russia still in transition– Better capability to adapt to change and uncertainty than

North Americans



Russian Politics in Comparative PerspectiveRussian Politics in Comparative Perspective• Intertwined politics, economics, and ideology affected political

change and made democratization more difficult.– The further east in Russia, the more difficult the transition

o European Union accession motivated reforms.o Shorter term of communist ruleo History of ties and cultural exposure to Western Europe

– Economically, countries that liberalized least suffered less severe recessions because state institutions were more fully intact.

• Russia demonstrates importance of political institutions in democratization.

– Weakness led to social dislocation, corruption, and poor adaptation to market.



Russian Politics in Comparative Perspective (ContRussian Politics in Comparative Perspective (Cont’’d)d)• Russia progressing economically but regressing politically

– Attempt to construct democratic institutions has been characterized by:o political crises, o weak representation of popular interests, o executive-legislation conflict, o faltering efforts at constitutional revisiono corruption.

• Russia has avoided domestic violence and civil war.• Russia will continue to be key regional force in Europe and Asia by

virtue of size, energy, resource, large and highly skilled population and its nuclear arsenal.

– Ambivalent to accepting crucial norms that would underlie effective and enduring relationship with the West

Documents

The Russian Federation