The role of wood energy in Asia.pdf

7/30/2019 The role of wood energy in Asia.pdf

1/109

THE ROLE OF WOOD ENERGY IN ASIA

FOPW/9

THE ROLE OF WOOD ENERGY

IN ASIA

written by

Prof. Thierry Lefevre

Jessie L. Todoc

Govinda Raj Timilsina

Centre for Energy-Environment Research & Development

Asian Institute of Technology

Bangkok, Thailand

under the supervision and coordination of

Miguel A. Trossero

Forestry Department

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

Rome, Italy

tree.gif

(1262

November 1997

Table of contents

OREWORD

HAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background

1.2 Objectives of the study

1.3 Scope of the study

le:///C|/Miguel/Cursos%20Posgrado%20Brasil/Recurs...ico/Biomassa/Wood%20Energy%20in%20Asia/W7519e00.htm (1 of 5)14/11/2006 06:06:07 p.m


2/109


1.4 Methodology

1.5 Overview of the report

HAPTER 2: WOOD ENERGY DATABASE

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Description of the presentation of the database2.3 Description of the various databases

2.4 Comparison of the various databases

2.5 Best estimate for wood energy use

HAPTER 3: ANALYSIS OF THE PAST AND PRESENT ROLE OF WOOD ENERGY IN A

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Socio-economic background

3.3 Energy indicators

3.4 Consumption of wood energy

3.5 Wood energy consumption in households

3.6 Wood energy consumption in rural industries and commercial/public applications

3.7 Evolution of Wood Energy Consumption

3.8 Rural and Urban Wood Energy Consumption

3.9 Woodfuel Flow

3.10 Woodfuel Supply

HAPTER 4: ANALYSIS OF THE FUTURE ROLE OF WOOD ENERGY

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Macro factors affecting wood energy consumption

4.3 Micro factors affecting wood energy consumption

4.4 Wood energy outlook

HAPTER 5: IMPLICATIONS FOR THE FORESTRY SECTOR, CONCLUSIONS AND

ECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Fuelwood supply from forests

5.3 Implications of the scenarios

5.4 Impact of rural and urban fuelwood consumption

http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-


3/109


5.5 Enhancing the sustainability of woodfuel supply

5.5 Conclusions and recommendations

IST OF REFERENCES

PPENDICES

Appendix 1: Overview of databases in similar format

Appendix 2: Projected fuelwood consumption

Appendix 3: Comparison of projected fuelwood consumption

Appendix 4: Projected traditional energy consumption

IST OF TABLES

Table 2.1: Heat Value of Fuelwood

Table 2.2: Main Sources of Wood Energy in CEERD/AIT Database

Table 2.3: Total Amount of Wood Energy in Databases per South Asian Countries in 1994

Table 2.4: Total Amount of Wood Energy in Databases per Southeast Asian Countries in

1994

Table 2.5: Total Amount of Wood Energy in Databases for China in 1994

Table 3.1: Land Area and Population Data

Table 3.2: Urban Population

Table 3.3: Real GDP Growth and Sectoral ContributionsTable 3.4: Energy Indicators

Table 3.5: Pakistan Household Energy Consumption by Fuel and by Area

Table 3.6: Estimated Household Fuel Consumption, 1989, Philippines

Table 3.7: Percent of Households Using Each Fuel, Philippines

Table 3.8: Summary Wood Energy Information from Energy Balance Tables

Table 3.9: End-use Energy Consumption by Income Categories, India

Table 3.10: Share of Each Fuel for Different End-use in Urban Households, India

http://-/?-http://-/?-http://c%7C/Miguel/Cursos%20Posgrado%20Brasil/Recursos%20e%20Oferta%20de%20Energia/ENE%205704%20-%20Am%E9%B2%A9co/Biomassa/Wood%20Energy%20in%20Asia/w7519e13.htmhttp://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://c%7C/Miguel/Cursos%20Posgrado%20Brasil/Recursos%20e%20Oferta%20de%20Energia/ENE%205704%20-%20Am%E9%B2%A9co/Biomassa/Wood%20Energy%20in%20Asia/w7519e13.htmhttp://-/?-http://-/?-


4/109


Table 3.11: Share of End-use in Urban Households Fuel Consumption, India

Table 3.12: Biomass Consumption by End-use, Nepal (1992/93)

Table 3.13: Household Energy Consumption by Income Level, Thailand (1986)

Table 3.14: Estimated Consumption of Biomass Fuels in Industry, 1981 and 1990, in

Bangladesh

Table 3.15: Non-household Biomass Energy Consumption, Vietnam

Table 3.16: Energy Consumption by End-use in Rural Areas, BangladeshTable 3.17: Rural Household Energy Consumption, China

Table 3.18: Evolution of Fuelwood Consumption in Selected Asian Countries

Table 3.19: Share of Fuels in Urban and Rural Household Energy by Income, India

Table 3.20: Sources of Firewood for Urban and Rural Households by Income Class,

Pakistan

Table 3.21: Extent of Agricultural and Forest Lands in the RWEDP Member Countries

Table 3.22: Sources of Collected Firewood, Pakistan

Table 4.1: Growth in Retail Prices of Firewood in Major Cities of Pakistan

Table 4.2: Cost of Cooking Fuel Use in Urban Areas, Philippines, 1990

Table 4.3: Efficiency of Various Cooking Equipment

Table 4.4: Ownership of Cooking Stoves by Households in Thailand, 1986

Table 4.5: Basic Assumptions for the Three Scenarios

Table 4.6: Projected Total Energy Consumption

Table 4.7: Adjusted Fuelwood Consumption Growth Rates in the BAU Scenario

Table 4.8: Differences between Fuelwood Consumption Projections

Table 5.1: Projected Fuelwood Supply vs. Projected Fuelwood Consumption (BAU

Scenario)

IST OF FIGURES

Figure 3.1: GNP per CapitaFigure 3.2: Income Distribution, 1994

Figure 3.3: Rural Household Energy Consumption in India

Figure 3.4: Percent of Households Using Each Fuel, India

Figure 3.5: Fuelwood Purchased and Collected in Rural and Urban Areas, Philippines

Figure 3.6: Percentage of Households Obtaining Fuels from Different Sources by Income

Class, Sri Lanka

Figure 3.7: Percentage of Households Using Different Types of Laborers for Collecting

http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-


5/109


Fuel, Bangladesh

Figure 4.1: Wood Energy Consumption vs.Economic Growth

Figure 4.2: Extent of Forest and Agrocultural Lands

Figure 4.3: Share of Households in Total Fuel Consumption

Figure 4.4: Proportion of Fuelwood Supply Going to Households

Figure 4.5: Income Share of Top 20% of Households

Figure 4.6: Population Growth, 1975-1994Figure 4.7: Growth in Per Capita Energy Consumption

Figure 4.8: Urban vs. Total Population Growth, 1989-1994

Figure 4.9: Rate of Urbanization

Figure 4.10: Projected Population Growth, 1993-2010

Figure 4.11: Energy Intensity

Figure 4.12: Share of Fuel in Household Energy Consumption, India

Figure 4.13: Share of Cooking End-use Energy Consumption, India

Figure 4.14: Effective Cost of Household Fuels, Pakistan, 1991

Figure 4.15: Share of Fuelwood in Total Energy Consumption, 1980-1994

Figure 4.16: Projected Fuelwood Consumption in the Three Scenarios, Total Asia

Figure 4.17: Projected Fuelwood Consumption in the Three Scenarios, South Asia

Figure 4.18: Projected Fuelwood Consumption in the Three Scenarios, Southeast Asia

Figure 4.19: Projected Fuelwood Consumption in the Three Scenarios, China

Figure 4.20: Projected Fuelwood Consumption, Total Asia

Figure 4.21: Projected Fuelwood Consumption, South Asia

Figure 4.22: Projected Fuelwood Consumption, Southeast Asia

Figure 4.23: Projected Fuelwood Consumption, China

Figure 4.24: Projected Traditional Energy Consumption, Total Asia

Figure 4.25: Projected Traditional Energy Consumption, South Asia

Figure 4.26: Projected Traditional Energy Consumption, Southeast Asia

Figure 4.27: Projected Traditional Energy Consumption, China

Figure 5.1: Forest and other Wooded Lands as Percent of Total Land Area

Figure 5.2: Fuelwood Consumption as Percentage of Total Forest Removals, Total Asia

Figure 5.3: Fuelwood Consumption as Percentage of Total Forest Removals, South Asia

Figure 5.4: Fuelwood Consumption as Percentage of Total Forest Removals, Southeast

Asia

Figure 5.5: Annual Deforestation, 1981-1990

WETT FEF Home Forestry Home FAO Home

http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://www.fao.org/WAICENT/FAOINFO/FORESTRY/Energy/wett/wett-cov.htmhttp://www.fao.org/WAICENT/FAOINFO/FORESTRY/Energy/wett/wett-cov.htmhttp://www.fao.org/WAICENT/FAOINFO/FORESTRY/Energy/feforum.htmhttp://www.fao.org/WAICENT/FAOINFO/FORESTRY/Energy/feforum.htmhttp://www.fao.org/WAICENT/FAOINFO/FORESTRY/forestry.htmhttp://www.fao.org/http://www.fao.org/http://www.fao.org/WAICENT/FAOINFO/FORESTRY/forestry.htmhttp://www.fao.org/WAICENT/FAOINFO/FORESTRY/Energy/feforum.htmhttp://www.fao.org/WAICENT/FAOINFO/FORESTRY/Energy/wett/wett-cov.htmhttp://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-


6/109


Foreword

ood energy constitutes a major source of energy in most countries, both developing and developedd its contribution is expected to grow in the future as a result of the application of stricter

vironmental regulations and the use of more competitive sources of locally-available energy.

lthough FAO collects and presents statistical data and information on fuelwood and charcoal in its

orest Products Yearbook, this data needs improvement, disaggregation and better presentation.

AOs wood energyinitiatives have included, within its current regular programme activities, the

velopment of an improved woodfuel and wood energy data base. This initiative is being carried ou

rough different complementary approaches, mechanisms and activities, one of which is Wood Ener

oday for Tomorrow.

Wood Energy Today for Tomorrow (WETT) collects, reviews and collates existing information an

ta on wood fuels and its related energy aspects at national level through the preparation of"region

udies". The main aim of these studies is to overcome the shortcomings encountered in the main wo

ergy databases and to fill the main data gaps. New and improved wood energy data will contribute

) determine how, where and how much wood fuel is used in different countries and regions; (b)

scribe the contribution of forests, wood lands and trees to the energy sector; (c) assess the

vironmental impacts; and (d) identify the main critical problem areas to be tackled for the

velopment of sustainable wood energy systems.

is also expected that the development of improved wood energy data will contribute to the better

nderstanding of wood energy systems and to the planning of more sustainable production and

ilization.

addition, WETT will constitute an essential source of information for forest resource assessments,

mproved forest products statistics, outlook studies and the valuation of forests. Other studies are also

ing carried out by the FAO Forestry Department as part of the periodic assessment of the state of

rest resources and for the presentation of the best available statistics on forest products world-widehich contributes to the understanding of the multidisciplinary role of forests, woodlands and trees a

ables the planning of a more sustainable forest management together with the promotion of "green

d more environmentally friendly energy systems.

his regional study presents an overview of the total wood energy consumption in 16 Asian countrie

sed on information available in selected international organizations and makes recommendations f

rther improvements of Wood Energy Information Systems.

le:///C|/Miguel/Cursos%20Posgrado%20Brasil/Recurs...ico/Biomassa/Wood%20Energy%20in%20Asia/w7519e01.htm (1 of 2)14/11/2006 06:06:52 p.m


7/109


Chapter 1:

Introduction

.1 Background

any developing countries in Asia still rely on wood energy. It is estimated that more than half of th

tal energy consumption in many Asian countries is accounted for by wood energy. However, there

o precise information on a region-wide level and existing information are scattered in national

encies. Thus, there is a need to organize and analyze available information to serve as a basis forergy policy.

he present study is part of the regional Wood Energy Today for Tomorrow (WETT) studies underta

y the Wood Energy Programme (WEP). The results of these studies will serve as inputs to other FA

tivities and studies including Wood Energy Information System (WEIS), the Global Fibre Supply

udy (GFSS), and the Asia-Pacific Forestry Outlook Study.

.2 Objectives of the study

he two main objectives of the study are: (a) to assess past and present woodfuel consumption and

oduction from forests and non-forest lands and analyse the future contribution of wood to energy in

sian countries; and (b) to present an overview of the different approaches, definitions, units and fac

ed by different agencies during the collection, storage, and presentation of data and information on

ood energy.

he second objective is further divided into the following specific objectives:

q To present an overview of on total wood energy use in 16 Asian countries (i.e., the member

countries of FAOs Regional Wood Energy development Programme in Asia) based on literat

survey and on personal communication.

q To present various data sources in comparable format, including



8/109


r Time series of total consumption

r Disaggregation of wood energy into the main consuming

q To compare the main characteristics of these databases

q

To make recommendations for future improvement of the existing wood energy databases.

.3 Scope of the study

he study consists of the following tasks:

1. Collection and analysis of wood energy data available in the databases of FAO, UN, and AIT

presentation of the information in the same format in order to facilitate comparison. The form

will follow that used for the WETT study for Europe and the OECD countries.

2. On the basis of the results of the first task, suggesting a "best estimate" of past and present

consumption, production, and trade of woodfuels for all the countries according to main categ

of users (residential, commercial, and industrial) and areas (rural and urban) and undertaking

comparative analysis of woodfuel contribution with other sources of energy.

3. Description of how the different agencies organize their collection, collation, and presentation

wood energy data, including an overview of the main characteristics, approaches, terminologi

and definitions, parameters, conversion factors, and units used. This task also includes a detai

description and comparison of the databases consulted and recommendations for future

improvement of wood energy database in the region.

4. Analysis of the past and present role of wood energy in Asian countries and its interrelations w

the forest and energy sectors taking into account supply sources, trade, and utilization of

woodfuels.

5. Following the analysis in the preceding task, analysis of the future role of wood energy, inclu

(i) identification and analysis of the factors affecting the utilization, trade, and production of

woodfuels, and (ii) analysis of scenarios of wood energy use.

6. Taking into consideration the limitation on data and information available on woodfuel supply

sources, analysis of implications for forests, woodlands, and trees of the present and projected

woodfuel consumption and production patterns.



9/109


he study will cover the 16-member countries of the Regional Wood Energy Development Programm

r Asia (RWEDP), which are divided into three groups. South Asia includes Bangladesh, Bhutan,

dia, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka, which are also the members of South Asian Associa

r Regional Co-operation (SAARC). South East Asia comprises Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malay

yanmar, Philippines, Thailand and Vietnam. These seven countries, excluding Cambodia, are also

embers of Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN)1, along with Singapore and Brunei.

hina is treated as a separate group for the purpose of this study.

.4 Methodology

order to meet the above mentioned objectives the following steps were undertaken.

q Literature survey on the available wood energy database for Asian countries

q Corresponding with various institutions, organizations, and individuals to explore existing wo

energy databases for Asian countries

q Presenting the available wood energy databases in similar formats in order to facilitate their

comparison

q Evaluating the available databases on wood energy for Asia identifying their merits and deme

.5 Overview of the report

hapter 2 surveys three wood energy databases for Asia. The wood energy databases are described in

rms of their methodology, definitions, measurements, scope. This chapter also discusses how the

atistics available from these databases are tabulated in similar format to facilitate their comparison.

he resulting tables, however, are presented in Appendix 1.

hapter 3 analyzes the past and present role of wood energy based largely on the information presen

the CEERD/AIT database. This database is preferred over the two others because more informatio

e available at the national level, although information are not adequately available for all countries

nder study. This chapter discusses different aspects of wood energy consumption patterns, including

ood energy flow and wood energy supply, but the emphasis is on household and non-household rur

ban fuelwood consumption.

hapter 4 examines the future role of wood energy by discussing the macro and micro factors affecti



10/109


ood energy use. Towards the end of this chapter, three scenarios are developed that describe possib

ot necessarily feasible) wood energy futures. Separate fuelwood consumption projections are made

ch scenario, which are also compared with other existing projections to further test their validity.

hapter 5 concludes the report by drawing the implications of the future role of wood energy for the

restry sector. Recommendations are also made with regards to the issues related to wood energy da

______________Myanmar and Laos have been recently acepted as members in the group. Cambodia was also expected to

embership along with Myanmar and Laos earlier, but the decision on Cambodia was delayed due to recent

litical development in the country.

Table of Contents FEF Home Forestry Home FAO Home

http://www.fao.org/WAICENT/FAOINFO/FORESTRY/Energy/feforum.htmhttp://www.fao.org/WAICENT/FAOINFO/FORESTRY/Energy/feforum.htmhttp://www.fao.org/WAICENT/FAOINFO/FORESTRY/forestry.htmhttp://www.fao.org/http://www.fao.org/http://www.fao.org/WAICENT/FAOINFO/FORESTRY/forestry.htmhttp://www.fao.org/WAICENT/FAOINFO/FORESTRY/Energy/feforum.htm


11/109


Chapter 2:

Wood Energy Database

.1 Introduction

ollecting and preparing a wood energy database is a complex process due to a number of reasons:

versity in consumption patterns, variation in heat contents in different species of fuelwood, differen

measurement of volume and weight, lack of regular surveys on wood energy supply and consumpt

d divergence in the way wood energy data are presented. Because of this wood energy figures arekely to be different in different databases. Thus, when wood energy data are gathered either for

tional planning and policy purpose or for some analytical studies, confusion sets in regarding the

liability of data and statistics available from different wood energy database or statistics. It is

erefore, mandatory, to explore the existing database, evaluate their reliability and consistency and t

entify the most appropriate database for above mentioned purposes.

his chapter discusses the existing situation of wood energy database for 16 Asian countries which a

so the members of FAOs Regional Wood Energy Development Programme in Asia (RWEDP). It t

present an overview of wood energy database at a regional level. There exists only very few databat includes wood energy figures for Asia. The known wood energy databases on Asia are FAO For

oducts Yearbooks, UN Energy Statistics Yearbooks and CEERD/AIT Energy-Environment Databa

t the national level, some countries (e.g., Bangladesh, Myanmar, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Thailand) do ha

atistics on wood energy.

he word "fuelwood" in this part of the study represents the combination of primary fuelwood and it

ain derivativecharcoal. Fuelwood from FAO and UN databases corresponds to the fuelwood

iginated only from the forests (does not include wood wastes or recycled wood), whereas fuelwood

om CEERD/AIT databases also includes fuelwood from other sources such as trees in home garden

d agricultural land and wood wastes. The main sources of CEERD/AIT database are national

atistics, which include these other sources of fuelwood.

.2 Description of the presentation of the database

le:///C|/Miguel/Cursos%20Posgrado%20Brasil/Recur...co/Biomassa/Wood%20Energy%20in%20Asia/w7519e03.htm (1 of 15)14/11/2006 06:08:35 p.m


12/109


contrast to European/OECD countries, there are only three databases on wood energy for Asian

untries currently available. These are:

1. FAO forest product Yearbook [FAO 1996]

2. UN energy statistics [UN 1996]

3. CEERD/AIT energy and environmental database.

he first two are published databases whereas the last one is a compilation of data from variousublished/prepared national statistics, reports and other secondary sources, but the compilation itself

ot been published yet. Besides these, International Energy Agency (IEA) is planning to include

omass energy consumption of Asian countries for years 1994 and 1995 in its forthcoming publicati

eEnergy Statistics of non -OECD Countries.1

However, the data from IEA are not available at pre

ood energy consumption data from the above mentioned sources are presented in tabular form. The

esentation follows the same format as that used in the study "Overview of available data on wood

ergy in Europe/OECD". All tables have a list of 16 Asian countries on the y- axis and data on wooergy consumption and other relevant indicators are presented in x-axis

2. These 16 countries are

ouped into three groups: South Asia, South East Asia and China. The data in the different tables ar

rectly taken or calculated according to the following procedures:

Data on wood energy Consumption in physical unit (Table A.z.1)

hese tables consist of total wood energy data expressed it terms of volumetric unit (thousand cubic

eter). The data for these tables compiled as follows:

AO Forest Products Yearbook (z =1)

AO Forests Products Yearbook(FAO, 1994) provides domestic production, import and export of

elwood and charcoal in volumetric unit (thousand cubic meter). Since we need wood energy

nsumption data, we can not directly copy the production figures as presented in the statistics. Henc

e first calculated wood energy supply data from the following relationships:

Wood energy supply = Domestic production + imports - Exports

ith an assumption that there is no transportation and distribution losses of wood energy, wood ener

pply equals to wood energy consumption.

N energy statistics (z = 2)

contrast, UN energy statistics presents fuelwood and charcoal consumption data in different units.

uelwood consumption is presented in cubic meter, while charcoal is presented in tonne. However,



13/109


omestic production and export of charcoal are already included into the domestic fuelwood product

mported charcoal is converted into equivalent fuelwood and presented in cubic meter. Hence, total

elwood consumption is given as:

Fuelwoodtotal (cubic meter) = Fuelwood (cubic meter) + Imported charcoal (in tonne)/(eff

* d)3

here,

eff = Factor converting fuelwood to charcoal or charcoal kiln efficiency; the value taken

here is 0.2254.

d = Factor converting volume to weight of fuelwood or density of fuelwood on dry basis,

the value

taken here is 0.725.

nly a few Asian countries import charcoal, and the imported amount is very small compared to the

omestic production.

IT energy environmental database (z = 3)

the case of the AIT database, both fuel wood and charcoal are presented in mass unit (thousand

nne). They are converted into volume unit as follows:

Fuelwoodtotal (cubic meter) = Fuelwood (tonne)/d + imported charcoal (in tonne) )/(eff *

d)

here "eff" and "d" have the same values as in the UN statistics.

Data on wood energy share in total forest removals (Table A.z.2)

hese tables present the share (in percent) of wood energy in total forest removals. Wood energy sha

total forests removals represents the ratio between the amount of fuelwood production and total roood production (both presented in volumetric units) within the country. However, round wood

oduction data is available only in FAO forest products yearbook. Hence, the same data are used for

lculating this indicator for the other two databases.

Total wood energy consumption in energy unit (Table A.z.3)

ata in these tables are presented in terms of energy unit (peta joule). Conversion factor from volum



14/109


nit to energy unit for different countries and in the cases of different databases are given in Table 2.

Share of biomass energy consumption in total energy consumption

hese tables present the share of biomass energy (in percent) in total energy consumption. However,

omass energy consumption data are not available from the FAO database, so these indicators are no

lculated for the FAO database. Total energy consumption data for calculating these indicators in th

se of the UN and AIT databases were taken from the respective databases.

Share of wood energy consumption in total biomass energy consumpti

hese tables present the share of wood energy (in percent) in total biomass energy consumption. It

presents the ratio of total wood energy consumption to the total biomass energy consumption.

owever, as the biomass energy consumption data are not available for the FAO database, this indica

s not been calculated for the FAO database.

Share of wood energy consumption in total energy consumption

hese tables gives the ratio of total wood energy consumption to total energy consumption. The

lculation of these indicators for the FAO database uses the total energy consumption figure from U

urces.

Table 2.1: Heat value of fuelwood (TJ/Thousand Cubic Meter)

CountryFAO

Database

UN

Database

CEERD/AIT

Database

Bangladesh 9.6715 9.6715 9.6715

Bhutan 9.6715 9.6715 9.6715

Cambodia 9.6715 9.6715 9.6715

China 9.6715 9.6715 9.6715

India 9.6715 9.6715 9.6715

Indonesia 9.6715 9.6715 9.6715

Malaysia 9.6715 9.6715 9.6715

Maldives 9.6715 9.6715 9.6715

Myanmar 9.6715 9.6715 9.6715

Laos 9.6715 9.6715 9.6715

Nepal 9.6715 9.6715 11.7132

Pakistan 9.6715 9.6715 9.6715



15/109


Philippines 9.6715 9.6715 9.6715

Sri Lanka 9.6715 9.6715 11.5652

Thailand 9.6715 9.6715 11.587

Vietnam 9.6715 9.6715 9.6715

Source: UN and AIT.

Consumption of wood energy in various sector in physical unit

hese tables present the wood energy consumption data at the sectoral level in physical unit (volume

nit). The sectors considered here are Industry, Residential/commercial and others.

Consumption of wood energy in various sector in energy unit

hese tables present wood energy consumption data at the sectoral level in energy unit (peta joule).

.3 Description of the various databases

3.1. FAO Forest Products Yearbook: the data source of FAO wood energy database

AO Forest Products Yearbook, an annual publication of FAO in Rome, contains time series data (fo

e past 12 years) on production and trade of products from forests. In this study, two yearbooks wer

ed. The first (the 48th issue), published in 1996, contains data for 1983-1994 and was used for the

r this period. The second (the 45th issue), published in 1993, contains data for 1980-1991 and was

ed for the data for 1980-1982.

ructure of the database

he FAO yearbook presents production and trade figures of various types of forest products (e.g.,

undwood, fuelwood, and wood derivatives). In the case of fuelwood, the statistics presents data for

elwood and charcoal separately as well as jointly. This study considers data for fuelwood from

uelwood + charcoal" category of the statistics.

ata collection methods

ata of FAO statistics are collected by means of questionnaires send to concerned departments of all



16/109


untries in the world. However, in the absence of official replies of the questionnaires, data are eith

timated by FAO or obtained from other sources. The data for all countries under this study are

timated data (not the real data) and are subjected to change in the next issues of FAO Forest Produ

earbook if suggested officially by the governments or new information were available from any oth

urces. The estimates of fuelwood production data in this statistics based on the per capita fuelwood

oduction and population growth rate.

efinitions and terminologies

he definitions of forest products follow the classification and definitions of forest products, FAO,

ome, 1982. However, there is no explicit definitions of fuelwood. This study also follows the

finitions of fuelwood as stated in van den Broek (1997). However, Broek (1997) is not clear wheth

e fuelwood corresponds only for the fuelwood from natural forests or from both natural and on-farm

rests (e.g., trees in home garden, agricultural land etc.). This study assumes that fuelwood data from

AO statistics refers to the fuelwood from all types of forests i.e., natural, private, social or commun

rests. The statistics however, defines charcoal. According to which, charcoal is "wood in the rough

rom trunks and branches of trees) to be used as fuel for purposes such as cooking, heating or poweoduction. Wood for charcoal, pit kilns and portable ovens is included."But, it is amazing! this in f

the definition of fuelwood not of charcoal.

3.2. Energy Statistics Yearbook--the data source for UN wood energyatabase

nergy Statistics Yearbookis an annual publication of the United Nations, published by Department

conomic and Social Information and Policy Analysis. This statistics presents time series (for the paars) data on production, trade and consumption of various types of energy commodities for the

untries all over the world. Since this statistics presents data for past four years and the data of the

rlier issues are always revised in the new issues, this study uses various issues of this statistics. For

ample, Energy Statistics Yearbook, 1983 (published in 1985) which presents data for years 1980-

983, was used for data for year 1980. Similarly subsequent issues were used for the data till 1991.

nce the latest available issue is "Energy Statistics Yearbook, 1994 (published in 1996), data for the

992-1994 period were also taken from this issue.


his statistics includes both conventional and biomass energy commodities. The conventional

mmodities included in the statistics are coal (hard coal, lignite, coke, peat, hard coal briquettes and

gnite and peat briquettes), petroleum (crude petroleum, LPG, aviation gasoline, motor gasoline,

rosene, jet fuels, gas-diesel oils, residual fuel oil), gas (natural gas, other gas) and electricity (hydro

ermal, nuclear). The biomass fuels included in the statistics are fuelwood, charcoal and Bagasse. D

r each type of fuel and aggregate data for the total mix of conventional fuels are provided for

dividual countries as well as summarized into regional and world tables. There are altogether 38 tab



17/109


the statistics, of which Table 13 provides production and trade of biomass energy.


he data in this statistics are compiled primarily from annual questionnaires distributed by the Unite

ations Statistical Division and supplemented by official national statistical publications. Where the

ficial data are not available or are inconsistent, estimates are made by the Statistical Division based

overnmental, professional or conventional materials. Estimates include, but are not limited to,trapolated data based on partial year information, use of annual trends.


uelwood in this statistics is defined as "all wood in the rough used for fuel purpose. Fuelwood

oduction data include the portion used for charcoal production, using a factor of 6 to convert from

eight basis to the volumetric equivalent (metric tons or cubic meters) of charcoal". Similarly, charc

defined as "solid residue consisting mainly of carbon obtained by the destructive distillation of wo

the absence of air". Biomass fuel in this statistics refer to fuelwood, charcoal, Bagasse, animal,

getal and other wastes.

3.3. CEERD/AIT Energy-Environment Database

enter for Energy-Environment Research and Development (CEERD)6, a center involved in researc

d development activities on energy and environmental field since 1986 at Asian Institute of

echnology, has established a regional database on energy and environment for Asia and pacific

untries. The database currently have data on energy and environment for 22 countries. The databasanaged through a fox-pro based computer software called Database Administration Variable Outpu

d Input Data (DBA_VOID). In this database, a separate group has been created for wood energy d

lthough attempts have been made to gather wood energy data and information from different count

nly a few countries (Nepal, Sri Lanka and Thailand) have a complete time series on wood energy da

hereas for the rest of the countries have only partial data (data for a few years).


he database presents data tables in aggregated and detailed forms. Aggregated tables presents mainomass energy commodities such as fuelwood, charcoal, agricultural residues, dung, biogas, munici

astes and wood derived liquid fuel (e.g., black liquor, ethanol, methanol) in columns and time serie

ta in rows. Data tables are designed for each type of activities or flow like resources/reserves,

oduction, trade (imports/exports), total supply, transformation and final consumption. Consumptio

ta are also presented by types of economic sectors (e.g., household sector, commercial and service

ctor, industrial sector and others). Detailed tables are aimed to provide in-depth information of a

rticular type of fuel or activity. For example, fuel wood is divided into different components such a

imary fuelwood, wood residues, sawdust, furthermore production of fuelwood is disaggregated



18/109


cording to its sources such as fuelwood from natural forests, fuelwood from on-farm forests etc.

owever, the existing data mostly correspond to the aggregated tables.


he main characteristics of CEERD/AIT energy-environment database is that no data based on

timation. Whatever data are available are taken from the published or prepared (but not published)

atistics of national level institutions. Most of the existing data are taken from regular publications aovides time series, however, some data are taken from special studies, reports and correspond to th

rticular point of time. The main data sources for wood energy data in CEERD/AIT energy-

vironment database are summarized in Table 2.2.


he definition of terminologies relevant to this study used in this CEERD/AIT energy-environment

tabase are as follows:

omass fuels: all the organic fuels from biological origin used for energy purposes are referred as

omass fuels. It includes all terrestrial and aquatic vegetation, its residues such as fuelwood, twigs,

ad leaves, shell; cultivated crops and their residues like cereal straw, seed-husks, Bagasse; livesto

oducts and their residues (e.g., dung).

omass energy: energy derived from the combustion of biomass fuels are called biomass energy.

ood fuel: all types of lignocellulosic material derived directly and indirectly from plants, trees, shrnd herbaceous plant grown in forest as well as non-forest lands and used for fuel purpose. The mai

mponents of woodfuels are fuelwood, charcoal and wood derived fuels (e.g., black liquor, methano

hanol).

ood energy: energy derived from woodfuels are known as wood energy.

uelwood: wood in rough produced from forests as well as non-forests and used solely for fuel

urposes. Fuelwood includes twiggs, branches, wood chips, pellets and power derived from natural

her forest or even non forests area (e.g. home garden), industrial wood residues and recovered wo

harcoal: it is a solid residue derived from carbonization, distillation, pyrolysis and torrefaction of

ood (from trunks and branches of trees) and wood by-products using pit, brick and metal kilns. It

cludes also charcoal briquettes made from wood-based charcoal.



19/109


.4 Comparison of various databases

his section presents a comparative analysis of wood energy databases used in this study. A careful

bservation of data tables presented in Appendix 1, reveals that there is a big deviation from among t

gures from various databases. Data on tables (Tables A.z.1, where z refers different databases)

rresponding to the fuelwood consumption, indicate that the absolute value of fuelwood consumptio

om FAO database were increasing smoothly in all Asian countries selected under the study. Howev

is is not the case in other two databases. In UN databases (Table A.2.1 in Appendix 1), absolute

mounts of fuelwood consumption were found to decrease in some years for Bangladesh, Bhutan, La

hailand, China and Myanmar. There exist a big drop in the total fuelwood consumption from year 1

1983 in Bangladesh and a big jump from year 1991 to 1992 in Thailand in UN database. The reaso

r this discrepancy in the case of Bangladesh may be the change of data sources of UN energy statis

s mentioned in the table notes of UN Energy Statistics Yearbooks, it seems that UN statistics took

elwood consumption data from FAO Forest Products Yearbook till 1982 and took from other sourc

ereafter. However, the reason for the discrepancy in the case of Thailand is unknown. The same

henomenon as in the case of UN database was also observed in CREED/AIT database (see Table A

Appendix 1). Absolute amount of fuelwood consumption was found to be decreased in some years

ost of the countries with time series data.

he variation in fuelwood consumption data from various databases can be analyzed with the help of

ables A.z.2 in Appendix-1. These tables presents the ratio of fuelwood consumption from various

urces to the round wood production from FAO forest products yearbook (i.e., with respect to a

mmon denominator). Comparing the indicators given in tables A.1.2, A.2.2 and A.3.2, it can be fo

at, a very big deviation (more than 2 times) occurred in fuelwood consumption data from FAO and

N databases in Bangladesh during 1983-1994, Bhutan during 1980-1994, and Thailand during 1992

994. A significant difference (more than 1.2 times) was also observed in the case Nepal, Pakistan an

i Lanka. Note that, for these countries, the sources of UN statistics are national sources rather than

AO. For the rest of the countries, the difference is not significant as UN statistics eventually took da

om FAO statistics. In the case of fuelwood consumption data from FAO and CEERD/AIT database

rge (more than 1.5 times) difference observed in Bangladesh, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, Thailand (1992

994) and Vietnam. From these deviations, one can clearly come to a conclusion that there exits a ve

g difference in fuelwood consumption data originated from FAO and national statistics.

n the other hand, the shares of wood energy in total energy consumption from FAO and UN databa

e comparable in most countries. However, these figures differs significantly in the case of CEERD

IT databases.

better comparison of fuelwood consumption data from various sources is possible for year 1994, a

ta for more countries are available from CEERD/AIT databases in this year. As shown as in Table

tal fuelwood consumption data on South Asian countries are comparable in FAO and UN database

pect on Bangladesh. However, fuelwood consumption data are higher in the case of CEERD/AIT d

r the reason as mentioned above.



20/109


South-East Asian countries, there exists only a smaller variation in total fuel wood consumption d

tween FAO and UN databases except in Thailand. In fact, these data are comparable among all

urces except in Indonesia and Thailand (see Table 2.4).

uelwood consumption data from FAO and UN databases are close to each others for China, but this

ot the case for data from CEERD/AIT statistics (see Table 2.5).

lthough, there is a big variation in total fuelwood consumption among the data from various source

e variation is not as big as in the case of European/OECD countries, where total fuelwood energy

nsumption data varies from 2 to 6 times among the various sources (van den Broek, 1997).

Table 2.2: Main sources of wood energy data in CEERD/AIT energy-environment database

Country Data Sources (Institutions)

Bangladesh 1. Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics

2. Ministry of Planning

3. Forestry Department

4. Bangladesh Agricultural Research Council

Bhutan 1. Department of Power

2. Forest Department

3. Ministry of Agricultural

Cambodia 1. Department of Forest and Wildlife

2. Ministry of Energy and Mines

China 1. Energy Research Institute, State planning Commissions2. Research Institute of Tropical Forestry

3. Chinese Academic of Agricultural Research

4. Ministry of Agricultural, Animal Husbandry and Fishery

India 1. Ministry of Environment and Forests

2. Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy Sources

3. Tata Energy Research Institute

Indonesia 1. Department of Energy and Electricity

2. Institute of Technology BangdungMalaysia 1. Ministry of Science, Technology and Environment

2. Economic Planning Unit, Ministry of Prime Minister

3. Forest Research Institute Malaysia

Maldives 1. Ministry of Fisheries and Agricultural

2. Ministry of Planning

le:///C|/Miguel/Cursos%20Posgrado%20Brasil/Recu...o/Biomassa/Wood%20Energy%20in%20Asia/w7519e03.htm (10 of 15)14/11/2006 06:08:35 p.m.


21/109


Myanmar 1. Ministry of Energy

2. Forest Department

3. Ministry of National Planning and Economic Development

Laos 1. State Planning Commission

2. Department of Forestry, Ministry of Agricultural

Nepal 1. Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation

2. Water and Energy Commission Secretariat (WECS)3. Central Bureau of Statistics

Pakistan 1. Pakistan Forest Institute

2. Energy Wing, Ministry of Planning & Development

3. Department of Forestry

4. Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Resources

Philippines 1. Department of Energy (DOE)

2. Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR)

3. National Statistical Coordination Board

Sri Lanka 1. Ceylon Electricity Board

2. Ministry of Irrigation, Power and Energy

3. Central bank of Sri Lanka

Thailand 1. Department of Energy Development and Promotion

2. National Energy Policy Office

3. Royal Forest Department (RFD)

4. Ministry of Agricultural and Co-operatives

Vietnam 1. Institute of Energy

2. Forest Science Institute of Vietnam

Table 2.3: Total amount of wood energy in databases per South Asian country in 1994 (PJ)

FAO UN CEERD/AIT

South Asia 3,486 3,031

Bangladesh 299 57

Bhutan 13 12

India 2,628 2,603 3,405

Maldives

Nepal 192 174 196

Pakistan 268 248 508

Sri Lanka 86 92 148



22/109


Table 2.4: Total amount of wood energy in databases per South Asian country in 1994 (PJ)

FAO UN CEERD/AIT

South East

Asia2,843 3,124

Cambodia 64 63 82

Indonesia 1,454 1,438 778

Laos 43 42

Malaysia 94 91 83

Myanmar 196 194

Philippines 349 343 291

Thailand 353 664 351

Vietnam 291 288 386

Table 2.5: Total amount of wood energy in databases China (PJ)

FAO UN CEERD/AIT

China 1,992 1,974 3,233

.5 Best estimate for wood energy use

hat is the "best" estimate for wood energy use? This is a not a very easy question to answer. Howe

is necessary to choose a particular database when making an analysis as mixing data from various

tabases would not only distort the result but would also give wrong signals to policy makers. Befor

swering the question on the best estimate for wood energy use, it is necessary to identify the strong

d weak points of the three databases described in this study.

5.1 FAO database

rong points

q Provides time series on wood energy consumption data for all countries.

q Data are more consistent than the UN and AIT base.

q Data are regularly updated and improved.



23/109


eak points:

q Wood energy consumption data are all estimated for the countries under study. Furthermore, t

estimation is based only on population growth, which is not the only driving factor for wood

energy demand. (In the long run, income becomes a very important determining factor.)

q

Wood energy consumption data refers only to fuelwood supply from forest, and thus do not tainto account fuelwood supply from non-forest lands, which can be very significant for at least

some countries.

q Data are highly aggregated. For example, wood energy consumption by sector is not available

q No information is given on total energy consumption; hence, the importance of wood energy

cannot be interpreted in terms of its contribution to total energy requirement.

q No definition of "fuelwood" is provided and the definition of "charcoal" is misleading.

5.2 UN Database

rong points

q Time series on wood energy data for all countries is available.

q It gives the whole picture of energy consumption including both conventional and biomass

energy sources. This facilitates analysis of the role of wood energy in meeting total energy

requirement from one database.

q The definition of fuelwood is very clear; it includes fuelwood and charcoal.

q Since UN database takes fuelwood energy consumption from FAO statistics for most of the

countries and there is no data available for total energy consumption in FAO statistics, these t

databases will complement each other for an overall wood energy consumption analysis.

eak points:

q UN energy statistics uses FAO statistics as its data sources for more than 50% of countries

selected under this study. The other half comes from other sources. In this regard, the FAO

database provides more consistent set of data.

q Time series data on fuelwood consumption shows "spikes" in some years for a number of

countries. No explanation is available for the big discrepancies.



24/109


q UN statistics encounters with several topological errors. For example, in the case of Banglade

several issues of UN Energy Statistics Yearbook (1981 to 1989 editions) show the total energ

consumption (the sum of biomass and conventional energy consumption) either lower than

biomass energy consumption or not equal to the sum of biomass and conventional energy

consumption7.

q The flow of time series on wood energy data is inconsistent in some country cases due to chanin original sources of data. For example, wood energy consumption for Bangladesh dropped f

times in 1983, which is very unlikely in reality. It appears due to the change of original source

from FAO to national statistics.

q As in the case of FAO database, no disaggregation is available for production by source and f

consumption by sector.

5.3 CEERD/AIT Database

rong points

q All data (whatever available) were taken from national statistics and hence the data are most

probably the real data not the estimated one.

q Wood energy consumption data provide sectoral disaggregation to some extent.

q It provides information on other energy (conventional) consumption; hence the importance ofwood energy can be calculated in-terms of total energy requirement.

eak points

q Time series data on wood energy are provided only for a very few countries.

om the comparison of various databases in terms of their merits and demerits, it can be concluded

o single wood energy database is favored for analysis purposes. For making regional overview and

alysis, the FAO database provides more consistent set of data that are available for all countriesvered by the study. On the other hand, the CEERD/AIT database are most useful for making count

ecific analysis, in particular for countries where a comprehensive set of data exist. The UN databas

ovides time series data on total energy consumption. Otherwise, it is less useful than the other two

tabases.

______________

John Denman, (IEA) personal communication, 1997.



25/109


The presentation of the data follows the same format as used in the similar study for Europe/OECD conduc

Richard van den Broek. According to that format, all the tables in the appendices are numbered as A.z.x.,

referring to the number of database (from = 1 to 5) and x to the number of the table (from 1 to 4). A refers t

ppendix".

In the UN statistics, charcoal in tonne is converted to fuelwood in cubic meter by directly multiplying by a

ctor of 6.

This value is taken as an average efficiency of charcoal kilns operating in different Asian countries.

The corresponding average moisture contents assumed in FAO statistics is 20% (wet basis) [FAO, 199],hereas it is 20-30 in UN statistics [UN, 1994].

CEERD was known before as Energy Planning Central Consultant Team (EPCCT).

Please refer to Table 4 (Total energy requirement) ofUN Energy Statistics Yearbook, 1981 to 1989 issues.




26/109


Chapter 3:

Analysis of the Past and Present Role of

Wood Energy in Asia

.1 Introduction

his chapter analyses past and present wood energy consumption patterns based on the AIT database

s mentioned in Chapter 2, the AIT database is more reliable than the other two databases in analysiood energy situations in specific countries for it provides more information with respect to the

fferent aspects of and the factors influencing wood energy use.

he AIT database compiles information mostly from country case studies on wood energy and data a

atistics from national government and private agencies. Energy data and statistics from these studie

d agencies are based on national standards of energy measurements and definitions that usually va

om one country to another. Some efforts have to be expended, therefore, to make energy units

nsistent and uniform for more precise comparisons.

he study converts all original energy units into petajoules (PJ), or its derivatives, which is the

ternational System unit for energy. Most countries in Asia are using the tons of oil equivalent (TOE

d its derivatives. The study converts all derivatives of the TOE unit into PJ using the factor 41.9 G

r TOE (UN, 1987). The Philippines is one exception as it uses the barrel of fuel oil equivalent

FOE). The study converts BFOE and its derivatives into TOE using the countrys conversion facto

1444 TOE/BFOE (Philippine Energy Plan, DOE, 1996). Another exception is India which uses the

ns of coal replacement. The study converts from original physical units of the fuel to PJ using the

nversion factors in UN (1987). For example, fuelwood consumption is converted to PJ by using th

ctor 12.60 GJ per metric tons. Animal dung consumption is converted to PJ assuming a net calorifilue of 13.6 MJ per kg. Crop residues consumption are expressed in PJ using the net calorific value

.4 MJ per kg for rice husk

.2 Socio-Economic background



27/109


he 16 Asian member-countries of RWEDP occupy a total land area of 18.5 million sq. km. Their to

opulation represents more than half of the worlds total and reached almost 3 billion in 1994. Howe

e physical and population size of the individual member countries represent the extremes. On the o

nd, you have China and India that already account for about two-thirds of the total population of th

gion as well as its total land area (see Table 3.1). Bhutan, Lao, Cambodia, and Maldives, on the oth

nd, have population under 10 million and occupy less than 3% of the total land area of the region.

y global standards, the region as a whole has high population growth rates (despite serious efforts tontrol it). The numbers were in the range of 1.1% to 3.2% for the period 1989-1994. Chinas averag

opulation growth has been maintained below 2% per year and declining since 1970 through the

overnments "one-child policy." Average population growth in South Asia, except in Pakistan, Sri

anka, and Maldives, as well as in some countries in Southeast Asia, is close to 2% per year. The res

ve average annual population growth rate above 2.5%.

Table 3.1: Land Area and Population Data

Land Area('000 sq.

km.)

Population

('000)

1994

Population Growth Rates (%)

1970-75 1980-85

1989-94

Population

Density

(persons/sq.

km.)

1994

Bangladesh 144.00 117,941 2.8 2.5 1.5 819

Bhutan 47.00 675 1.5 2.0 2.9 14

Cambodia 181.04 9,951 0.5 3.4 3.0 55

China 9,561.00 1,190,918 1.8 1.4 1.1 125

India 3,287.59 913,600 2.3 2.0 1.7 278

Indonesia 1,904.57 190,389 2.4 1.8 1.6 100

Lao PDR 236.80 4,748 1.7 2.8 2.9 20

Malaysia 329.75 19,669 2.4 2.7 2.4 60

Maldives 0.30 246 2.6 3.1 3.2 820

Myanmar 676.58 45,581 2.3 2.1 2.1 67

Nepal 140.80 20,885 2.6 2.6 2.4 148

Pakistan 796.10 126,284 3.1 3.1 2.8 159

Philippines 300.00 67,038 2.6 2.5 2.1 223

Sri Lanka 65.61 17,865 1.6 1.5 1.4 272

Thailand 513.12 58,024 2.7 1.5 1.2 113

Vietnam 331.69 72,039 2.3 2.0 2.0 217



28/109


Source: WB (1996)

able 3.1 also shows the varied population densities among the countries covered by the study. The

umber ranges from 19 persons per sq. km. in Lao to 827 persons per sq. km. in Maldives. The natio

erage, however, must be interpreted with caution. Population densities vary from one region to

other within each country and between rural and urban areas. The major urban centers in the regionve population density much higher than the national average.

espite high concentration of population in major urban areas in the region, rural population continu

comprise the majority. The rural areas are still home to at least two-thirds of the total national

opulation, with the exception of Malaysia and the Philippines. However, urban population tends to

ow faster (in some cases much faster) than rural population. Table 3.2 shows the extent and growth

e urban population in the RWEDP member countries between 1970 and 1994. All of the countries

ban population were growing faster than total population and in many the growth was twice as fast

dition, it was only in the Philippines and Malaysia where total urban population exceeds ruralopulation, though only slightly. In most of the countries, urban population accounted for less than o

ird of total population.

he predominantly rural character of the countries in the region partly explains why agriculture

ntinues to dominate or contribute significantly to their economies (or vice versa). Table 3.3 shows

most countries agriculture still accounts for at least 30% of GDP. In recent years, though,

ntributions from the primary sectors have been declining. It is now only in the transition economie

ao, Cambodia, and Myanmar and the South Asian countries of Bhutan and Nepal where agriculture

ntributes more than 40% of GDP.

he increasing relative output from the industry and services sectors contributed to the high GDP gro

1985-1994. The result was a marked improvement in the per capita incomes during this period,

ough for majority of the countries, this performance is still way below that achieved even by the ne

dustrializing economies of Thailand and Malaysia (see Figure 3.1).

Table 3.2: Urban Population

As % of Total Population Average Annual Growth Rate, %

1975 1985 1994 1970-75 1980-85 1989-94

Bangladesh 9.3 13.4 17.8 6.5 5.7 4.5

Cambodia 10.3 14.8 20.1 -2.2 6.7 6.1

China 17.3 23.7 29.3 2.4 4.4 4.4

India 21.3 24.3 26.5 3.7 3.0 2.7



29/109


Indonesia 19.4 26.2 33.6 4.8 4.9 3.6

Lao PDR 11.4 15.9 21.1 4.9 6.0 5.9

Malaysia 37.7 45.9 52.9 4.6 4.4 3.9

Maldives 18.0 25.7 32.6 8.1 6.0 5.8

Myanmar 23.9 24.0 25.9 3.2 2.1 3.2

Nepal 5.0 8.5 13.1 7.1 7.4 6.8

Pakistan 26.4 29.8 34.2 4.3 4.2 4.4

Philippines 35.6 43.1 53.1 4.0 5.1 4.2

Sri Lanka 22.0 21.0 22.2 1.7 1.0 2.3

Thailand 15.1 17.9 19.7 5.1 2.5 2.5

Vietnam 18.8 19.6 20.6 2.9 2.4 2.9

Note: Data are not available for Bhutan

Source: WB (1996)

he national per capita income, however, is an average and does not reflect how income is distribute

ared by the population. Measures of income distribution are better indicators of the poverty situatio

vailable data show that on top of the low income, many countries in the region suffer from inequita

come distribution in which more than 40% of national income are held by only the top 20% of

ouseholds, while the bottom 20% of households get less than 10% of income (see Table 3.4). In fac

e situation is slightly worse in the better off countries of Indonesia, Malaysia, and Thailand.

.3 Energy indicators

he more important energy indicators are shown in Table 3.5. Together with the information present

the last section, Table 3.5 shows that countries with better economic performance tend to have hig

erage energy consumption. This is particularly true for China, Malaysia, and Thailand. Indonesia ae Philippines, although they have relatively high GNP per capita, do not have comparable per capit

ergy consumption because many people in these countries do not yet enjoy nor can afford the bene

modern energy. This is reflected in the relatively low electrification ratio in these two countries. O

6% of households in Indonesia have access to electricity, while 37% of the households in the

hilippines remain without access electricity.

owever, access and affordability could mean different things in some situations. India and Maldive

ve high electrification coverage but the low income in India and the presumably poor income



30/109


stribution in Maldives are partly responsible for the low average energy and electricity consumptio

ese two countries.

Table 3.3: Real GDP Growth and Sectoral Contributions

Country

Real GDP

Growth

Rate, 1985-1994

(percent)

Share of Agriculture

(percent)

Share of Industry

(percent)

Share of Services

(percent)

1985 1994 1985 1994 1985 1994

Bangladesh 4.0 41.8 35.3 15.5 17.2 43.0 47.6

Bhutan1 6.5 54.9 42.3 17.3 24.8 29.4 34.1

Cambodia2 5.3 52.0 45.1 14.8 18.1 33.2 36.8

China3 8.5 33.7 29.1 54.9 62.6 11.5 8.2

India 5.1 34.6 29.0 25.6 29.5 39.7 41.5

Indonesia 7.74 22.7 16.7 39.3 39.7 38.0 43.5

Lao PDR5 4.6 63.5 57.5 10.1 16.4 26.4 26.2

Malaysia 7.5 20.8 14.8 35.0 43.1 44.2 42.1

Maldives 8.7 29.4 19.8 15.7 17.1 54.9 63.1

Myanmar 1.1 48.2 46.3 12.6 13.9 39.2 39.9

Nepal 5.0 51.2 43.3 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.

Pakistan 5.3 27.3 23.9 21.1 23.3 51.6 52.8

Philippines 3.3 24.6 22.3 32.3 31.8 43.1 45.8

Sri Lanka7 4.6 24.6 20.9 26.5 27.9 48.9 51.1

Thailand6 9.6 19.1 11.7 29.3 38.3 51.6 50.0

Vietnam 4.1 38.3 35.5 47.7 26.5 13.5 37.9

Notes:

1 Data cover period 1985-1993

2 1987-1994

3 Growth, 1987-1994; sectoral value added, 1985-19884 1990-1994

5 1985-1993

6 1985-1993

7 GDP growth for 1990-1992; Sectoral shares, 1992 and 1985.

Sources: Basic data come from ADB (1995) except for China (SSB, 1995); Myanmar (UNDP, 1992

and MNPED, 1995); and Vietnam (GSO, 1996)



31/109


.4 Consumption of wood energy

ational energy statistics seldom include information about traditional energy consumption with

mparable level of details as those for commercial or conventional energy sources. Because of the

fficulties associated with wood energy data collection and the decentralized nature of wood energy

stems (Bhatia, 1985 and Ramani et al., 1995), wood energy consumption is not regularly monitore

e same way as that of conventional or commercial energy sources. But the large proportion of rural

opulation and the significant contribution of agriculture in the economies of the countries under stud

oupled with the low national income) indicate a still important role for traditional energy sources

uelwood and charcoal, agricultural residues, and animal dung).

Figure 3.1

Figure 3.2



32/109


eliable statistical data on wood energy have been obtained only from household energy consumptio

rveys and wood energy studies. However, most of these surveys and studies are necessarily limited

ope both in terms of the area and type of information covered. Few household energy consumption

rveys are national in scope and produce comprehensive detailed information. But national househo

ergy consumption surveys could not be conducted on a more frequent or regular basis because of t

me and money involved.

ublished national energy balance tables are also useful in getting an overall picture of the role of wo

ergy in national energy systems and in making cross-country comparisons. The latter, however, ha

done with a lot of caution because of differences in wood energy definitions and measurements

mong countries. For example, not all countries use the same energy unit and care should be exercise

om converting from one unit to another because each country could be using different conversion

ctors. Some countries, moreover, may deliberately lump all biomass fuels under fuelwood because

her biomass fuels may be taking up a small portion of total energy. In addition, available data may

incide in timing preventing more precise comparisons.

Table 3.4: Energy Indicators

Per Capita Energy

Consumption (kgoe)

Per Capita Electricity

Consumption (kWh)

Population access to

electricity (%)

1975 1985 1992 1975 1985 1992 1992

Bangladesh 28 43 57 11 28 51 13

Bhutan 2 19 53 10 9 844 11



33/109


Cambodia 2 19 28 21 9 6 33

China 342 513 855 210 338 567 67

India 136 191 283 100 164 285 82

Indonesia 108 232 344 21 77 187 26

Lao PDR 29 23 40 61 35 53 13

Malaysia 555 802 1,389 365 763 1,384 84

Maldives 15 114 193 7 49 90 78

Myanmar 57 58 39 41 6

Nepal 10 18 31 6 17 35 10

Pakistan 137 208 251 95 180 284 38

Philippines 242 201 267 202 268 337 63

Sri Lanka 89 114 129 71 130 165 30

Thailand 215 315 622 180 383 853 80

Vietnam 131 90 127 51 65 100 15

Source: ADB (1994)

ousehold energy consumption surveys that are national in scope have been conducted for India

NCAER, 1979), Pakistan (UNDP, 1993), and the Philippines (UNDP, 1992).

dia. According to the survey conducted in India in 1978-79, biomass fuels accounted for 97% of ru

ousehold energy use. Of this, fuelwood contributed 42%. It is estimated that after more than 15 year

ith the expected increase in total energy consumption, the share of fuelwood in total biomass energ

nsumption may have actually increased with the likely decline in contributions from agricultural

sidues and animal dung (Natarajan, 1995). More recent survey (on the use of improved cookstoves

CAER , 1993) shows that the share of biomass fuels in rural households energy consumption has

clined to 94%, but that of fuelwood has increased to 47% (see Figure 3.3). The consumption of

elwood rose to 130 million tonnes (mt) in 1992-93 from 80 mt in 1978-79. Similarly, total rural en

nsumption climbed to 3,499 from 2,368 petajoules (PJ).

was also found out that the proportion of households using firewood logs increased to about 56% f

%, while those using firewood twigs slightly declined to 63% from 68% (Figure 3.4).

hile total fuelwood consumption in rural areas increased both in relative and absolute terms, urban

elwood consumption declined from 16.5 million tonnes in 1978-79 to 9.5 million tonnes in 1985. T

crease is explained by the shift to modern fuels, in particular LPG and kerosene, which had steady

owth in sales during this period.



34/109


akistan. The household energy consumption survey in Pakistan (UNDP, 1993) show that household

counted for 53%, equivalent to almost 994.2 petajoules (PJ), of total final energy consumption in

991. Seventy-nine percent (79%) of all households used fuelwood which accounted for around 53%

tal household energy use (Table 3.5). All biomass fuels contributed a total of 86%. The average ann

elwood consumption per household was estimated at 2,324.4 kilograms (kg).

Figure 3.3Rural Household Energy Consumption in India

Note: "Others" include coal/softcoke, kerosene, and other unspecified fuels. Coal and kerosene are converted to PJfrom physical units, while the other unspecified fuels which are expressed in tons of coal replacement are converted

to PJ using the conversion factor for hard coal.

Source of basic data: Natarajan (1995)

Figure 3.4



35/109


harcoal was used by only 9.2% of households in Pakistan and accounted for less than one percent o

tal household energy consumption.

he contribution of fuelwood in rural household energy consumption at 58% was significantly highe

an in urban areas where the figure dropped to 38%. Around 30% of household energy requirement

ban Pakistan were met by natural gas. In rural areas, animal dung and agricultural residues account

r 37% of household energy consumption.

hilippines. Based on a similar survey conducted in 1989 (UNDP, 1992), fuelwood and charcoal

counted for 68% and 11%, respectively, of total household fuel consumption in the Philippines tha

as just half that of Pakistan, or 497.7 PJ (Table 3.6).

he share of fuelwood in household energy consumption was higher in rural areas (82%) which

counted for 72% of total household energy consumption.

Table 3.5: Pakistan Household Energy Consumption by Fuel and by Area (in PJ)

Urban % Rural % Pakistan %

Firewood 71.57 37.94 374.00 57.87 445.69 53.22

Dung 21.41 11.35 130.02 20.12 151.38 18.08

Crop Residues 11.98 6.35 105.97 16.40 117.99 14.09

Charcoal 0.71 0.38 4.27 0.66 4.99 0.60

Subtotal

Biofuels

105.71 56.04 614.25 95.04 720.05 85.98



36/109


Natural Gas 56.90 30.16 0.00 0.00 59.33 7.08

Electricity 19.90 10.55 15.75 2.44 35.70 4.26

Kerosene 3.77 2.00 14.79 2.29 17.68 2.11

LPG 2.39 1.27 1.51 0.23 3.85 0.46

Subtotal

Modern

82.96 43.98 32.05 4.96 117.40 14.02

Total 188.63 100.00 646.31 100.00 837.50 100.00

Note: Sum may not add up to totals due to rounding off.

Source of basic data: Ouerghi and Heaps (1993)

able 3.7 also shows the proportion of households using each fuel. The data indicate that most

ouseholds were using more than one type of fuel, particularly electricity, kerosene, fuelwood, and, t

me extent, crop residues. Data also show that kerosene and electricity were the closest substitutes o

elwood nationwide. In fact, in rural areas almost the same number of households was using kerosen

d fuelwood. In urban areas, most households were using electricity, kerosene, and LPG.

Table 3.6: Estimated Household Fuel Consumption, 1989, Philippines

Electricity(GWH)

LPG

(000 tons)

Kerosene

(000 m3)

Charcoal

(000 tons)

Fuelwood

(000 tons)

Crop Residues

(000 tons)

MBFOE

(%)

NCR 2,867.36 133.42 83.11 120.93 131.61 18.70 5.8%

Other Urban 2,185.21 109.78 131.87 716.33 3,126.82 414.05 21.9%

All Urban 5,052.57 243.20 214.98 837.26 3,258.43 432.75 27.7%

Rural 1,792.53 77.93 281.20 727.67 15,058.47 2,137.70 72.3%

Philippines

Original Units 6,845.10 321.13 496.18 1,564.93 18,316.90 2,570.45

MBFOE 3.943 2.322 2.707 7.512 46.891 5.963 69.338

Terajoules 23.86 14.05 16.38 45.45 283.71 36.08 419.52

MBFOE (%) 5.7 3.4 3.9 10.8 67.6 8.6 100

Source: UNDP (1992)



37/109


Table 3.7: Percent of Households Using Each Fuel, Philippines

Electricity LPG Kerosene Charcoal Fuelwood CropResidues

NCR 98.5 59.4 36.7 23.4 7.5 1.8

Other Urban 83.3 32.8 68.0 42.8 54.0 26.1

All Urban 88.7 42.2 56.9 35.9 37.5 17.5

Rural 49.5 9.0 85.7 29.6 85.9 64.7

Philippines 64.7 21.9 74.5 32.1 67.1 46.4

Source: UNDP ( 1992), Annex

ood energy consumption data are also scattered in energy studies conducted mostly for or by natio

d international agencies. The results of some of these studies are as follows:

q Cambodias Ministry of Industry, Mines, and Energy compiled sources of energy information

the country and has come up with a comprehensive national energy statistics (MIME, 1996).

According to this study, 92% of Cambodias households use fuelwood (Table 3.9), so that

fuelwood accounts for 83% of total final energy consumption.

q Ramani et al. (1993) reveal that only 22% of total biomass fuels consumed by households in

Bangladesh are fuelwood. Nevertheless, more than 80% of fuelwood consumed still go to

households.

q Down (1983), in a household energy consumption survey conducted for West Sumatra

(Indonesia), shows that fuelwood supplies almost the entire cooking energy requirement in th

area.

q Fuelwood also provides almost all the energy for cooking in the households of Sri Lanka (ML

1986).

q A study made for Thailand shows that 92% of rural households energy needs are met by biomfuels (Chantavorapap, 1993). An earlier study indicates that, of this, almost 60% are accounte

for by fuelwood (FAO, 1986). Charcoal provides another 30%. Another study, however, show

that charcoal supplies up to 65% of rural household energy requirements, more than fuelwood

(UNDP, 1989). In fact, this same study indicates that in all of Thailand, charcoal accounts for

57% of total household energy consumption.

q The Ministry of Planning of Maldives estimates, based on the 1990 Census, that 93% of

households in Atolls (rural Maldives) use fuelwood, mainly for cooking, while kerosene is the



38/109


more popular fuel in Male (urban Maldives), used by 64% of urban households. Only 20% of

households in urban Maldives use fuelwood. Gas and electricity are also used to some extent.

hile the above-mentioned household energy consumption surveys and studies reveal many data gap

d lack of uniformity in the available information, some patterns can be observed:

q Most households continue to rely on fuelwood particularly for cooking. The converse is also t

the bulk of fuelwood consumed go to households.

q As can be expected, fuelwood has greater contribution to rural household energy consumption

than in urban households. However, in countries like Bangladesh, rural households may rely t

large extent on traditional energy sources other than fuelwood. Agriculture residues take up th

larger 78% of total biomass consumption in Bangladesh. This also explains why in relative te

more urban (57% of all households using fuelwood) than rural households use fuelwood. In

addition, agriculture residues and animal dung contribute significantly to rural household ener

consumption in India and Pakistan.

q Non-household fuelwood consumption may also be significant, for example, in Bangladesh, S

Lanka, Thailand, and Vietnam. In these countries, fuelwood (and other biofuels) are used

extensively in agro-based industries, including crop drying, tobacco curing, preparation of ani

feeds, and in small commercial establishments like bakeries and foodshops.

uelwood appears in the national energy balance tables of all countries except China and India (see

able 3.8). The information derived from national energy balance tables give broad but reasonable

dications as to the significance of fuelwood in meeting national energy requirements. To summariz

able 3.8 shows that:

q households continue to be the biggest energy consuming sector in many countries;

q the contribution of fuelwood to total final energy consumption may vary over a wide range (fr

1.5% to 85.3%) but its share in household energy consumption has remained well above 50%

many countries;

q households account for the bulk of fuelwood consumption, but non-household fuelwood

consumption could be significant in some countries; and

q fuelwood accounts for a large portion of all biomass fuels consumed, but the share of agricult

residues and animal dung are also significant in some countries.




39/109

HE ROLE OF WOOD ENERGY IN ASIA

.5 Wood energy consumption in households

uelwood is used primarily for cooking, which accounts for at least 60% of enduse energy consumptio

households. Additional information about some countries reveal other end-use applications of

elwood.

ambodia. Statistics show that 92% of all households in Cambodia used firewood for cooking. The re

ed charcoal, kerosene, or LPG. The proportion (of households using fuelwood) was higher in rural

eas at 95.3%, while in urban areas, charcoal had become more popular and was used by 40% of

useholds in Phnom Penh. In addition, in the rural areas, households was also using dung and

ricultural residues (palm, straw, waste, paddy husk) for cooking and water heating together with or

bstitute for firewood.

dia. Cooking accounted for 62% of all urban household end-use energy consumption. Available dat

so show that this proportion increases for low income households, reaching, for example, 79% for

useholds with annual income of only up to 500 rupees (Table 3.9). In contrast, data also show that

usehold energy consumption for water heating, space cooling, and lighting increases with income.

dditional data for urban households indicate that fuelwood provided 32% of energy requirements for

oking (Table 3.10). However, this was second only to LPG which contributed 47%. The contributio

elwood was more significant for water heating.

eing the major energy end-use, cooking gets most of the fuel supplied to households. It accounted fo

most 86% of fuelwood consumed in households. The remaining 14% were used for water heating

able 3.11).

epal. Data on biomass fuels consumption by type of end-use are also available for Nepal. It can be

own that, among the household end-use energy consumption met by biomass fuels, cooking accoun

r 72% (see Table 3.12). End-use energy consumption also included animal feeding (16.4%), heating

oling (3.8%), agro-processing (4.7%), and other applications (3.5%). On the other hand, 78% of

oking energy needs were met by fuelwood. Corollarily, 75% of total fuelwood consumption went to

oking alone. Animal feeding took up another 15%.

akistan. Cooking accounted for 78.5% of household end-use energy consumption in Pakistan. The o

usehold end-use applications were space heating (5.7%), water heating (7.5%), lighting (3.4%), and

ace cooling (1.6%). Woodfuels supplied 55% of energy used for cooking. Animal dung and crop

sidues shared 36%. The remaining 9% were provided by natural gas, LPG, and kerosene.

Documents

The role of wood energy in Asia.pdf