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THE ROLE OF MATERNAL DEPRESSION IN PRE- AND POSTNATAL RATINGS OF INFANT TEMPERAMENT IN TWO CULTURES

ALICE CARTER, HUEI-CHEN KO, RACHEL Z. CHAZAN, AND FRANCIS GARRITY-ROKOUS

DEPT. OF PSYCHOLOGY, YALE UNIVERSITY, P.O. BOX 208205, NEW HAVEN, CT 06525

In Western society, infants of depressed mothers are at risk for a variety of behavioral and emotional difficulties, including problems in emotion and attention regulation (Downey & Coyne, 1990; Field, 1992; Field, Healy, Goldstein, & Guthertz, 1990; Gelfand & Teti, 1990). Indeed, newborn infants of mothers experiencing elevations in depressive symptomatology are more likely to be less active and socially responsive, as well as more irritable than infants of mothers with few depressive symptoms (Sameroff et al., 1982; Whiffin & Gottlib, 1989; Zuckerman, Als, Bauchner, Parker, & Cabral, 1990). Mechanisms underlying the association between maternal depression and the broad range of social-emotional problems observed in children of depressed mothers are not well understood. Possible mechanisms include genetic transmission of temperamental attributes that place children at risk, genetic transmission of specific psychopathology, prenatal exposure to maternal stress that influences infant development in utero, maladaptive parenting (e.g., inconsistency, lack of sensitivity, decreased display of positive and increased display of negative affect), the broader interpersonal context (e.g., marital discord, social support) as well as concomitant psychopathology (Cohn & Tronick, 1989; Downey & Coyne, 1990; Radke-Yarrow et al., 1985; Rutter, 1990). Studies have also documented depressed mothers’ negative perceptions of their infants (Field, Morrow, & Adlestein, 1993) as well as the contribution of maternal depressive symptomatology to pre- and postnatal ratings of infant temperament (e.g., Chazan & Carter, 1995; Mebert, 1991). This literature suggests that the mother’s working model of her unborn infant may influence her perception of her actual infant (Megert, 1991; Zeanah & Barton, 1989). Further, these expectations may influence parenting behaviors following the birth of the infant. For example, the mother who is expecting a fussy infant may employ fewer strategies to soothe the infant or may intervene more readily. Identifying mothers who are vulnerable to cognitive distortions associated with depression may inform preventive interventions that can be employed prior to the arrival of the infant. This may be particularly critical when a mother’s negative attributions are realized with the arrival of a temperamentally difficult child. While it is not possible to disentangle causal mechanisms that place infants of depressed mothers at risk for problems in social-emotional development, it is critical to begin to examine the co-contribution of influences on early infant development.

The present studies address the contribution of maternal depression and prenatal stress in maternal ratings of prenatal and 4-month infant temperament. Factors that influence stability in these ratings are also addressed. The first study was conducted in the Northeast United States with 94 predominantly middle-class, Caucasian mothers and their infants. Measures of pre- and postnatal stress, social supports, anxiety and depressive symptomatology, as well as pre- and postnatal ratings of infant temperament were collected. In addition, mothers were evaluated with a semi-structured diagnostic interview to determine psychiatric status. This study was replicated and extended with approximately 100 mothers in Tainan, Taiwan. In addition to the aforementioned measures, prenatal measures of maternal hormonal and neurotransmitter functioning were collected as well as maternal ratings of cognitive styles. Continuous and categorical dimensions of maternal depression were associated with increased stress in pregnancy and ratings of pre- and postnatal infant temperament in both cultures. In addition, in the Taiwanese sample, hormonal measures and maternal cognitive style in pregnancy contributed significantly to postnatal ratings of infant temperament over and above the unique contribution of prenatal maternal depression.