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B rita in ’ s return to U N E SC O in 1997 , 12 years a fter w ithdraw ing from theorganization in company with the U nited States, m arked the culmination of acampaign by a wide variety of voluntary and non-governm ental organizations.There had been concerted opposition to Britain’ s w ithdrawal, which was justifiedby the governm ent on the grounds that UNESCO had departed from the spirit ofits founding constitution . M any of the voices raised at that time continued tocampaign for reform from within and put forward reasoned arguments in favourof an early restoration of m embership. B ut it was no t un til the election of aLabour G overnm ent in M ay 1997 tha t a return w as certain . Those w ho hadcampaigned for this step were then formalized into the U K-UNESCO Forum inpart to o ffer advice on the estab lishm ent o f a U K Nationa l C om m ission forUNESCO . The author reviews the discussion in that forum on the nature of theCommission and the debate over U NESCO ’ s perceived function prim arily as anaid agency.

ON 1 JU L Y 1997, T H E N E W L A B O U R G O V E RN M E N T took B ritain

back into U NE SCO after 12 long years. A t U NE SCO ’ s 151st session of

the E xecutive Board in M ay 1997, Tony Bazeley, of the new Departm ent for

International D evelopm ent (D fID ), m ade a b r ief statem en t on behalf of the

British Secretary of S tate for International Developm ent, C lare Short, declaring

that rejoining the organization `underlines our strong com m itm ent to the U nited

Nations’ system and to its work in deve lopm ent’ . The British governm ent, he

said, `looks forward to working closely w ith the D irector-General and fellow

THE ROLE OFINTELLECTUALS ANDNON-GOVERNM ENTAL

ORGANIZATIONS INBRITAIN’ S RELATIONS

W ITH UNESCO

SAG ARIK A DUTT

The Round Table (1999), 350 (207±228)

207

Sagarika Dutt is a lecturer in International Relations at Nottingham Trent University in the UK.

0035-8833/99/020207-22 $7.00 � 1999 The Round Table

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m em b er s t a t e s , d e v e l o p ed an d d e v e l o p in g a l ik e ’ i n o r d e r to ` m a x im i se

UN ESCO ’ s effectiveness and im pact, particularly in the poorest countries and

for the poorest people’ .1 T he D irector-General of UNE SCO , Federico M ayor,

enthusiastically w elcom ed Britain’ s decision to rejoin the organization, and said

that `U N E SCO looks forw ard to the great con tribution educato rs, scientists,

intellectua ls and artists from the United Kingdom can m ake in our world-w ide

partnership to build peace founded upon freedom and justiceÐ through educa-

tion , science, culture and com m unication’ . H e also added that the role of the

U n i t ed K i n g d o m i s p a r t i cu la r ly i m p o r t an t i n ` p r o m o t i n g p r i n c i p l e s o f

dem ocracy and universal ethical values’ .2

The return of Britain to U NE SCO w as the culm ina tion of years of cam paign-

ing by the U nited Nations Association of G reat Britain and N orthern Ireland

(U N A -U K ), the F riends of U N E SCO and other non-governm en tal organiza-

tions (N G O s) w hich , betw een 1985 and 1997, not only lobbied M em bers o f

Parliam ent but also m aintained links w ith U NE SCO , co-ordinated UN E SCO

sponsored activities, such as the Y ear of T olerance, and organized events for

students, teachers, journalists, scientists and a host of other groups and organ-

izations interested in U NE SCO ’ s program m es.3 This has im plications for inter-

national co -operation and in ternational developm ent. S om e academ ics have

arg ued th at no r the rn N G O s have no t pe rsuaded the ci t iz en r ie s o f w ester n

E u r op e an d N o r th A m er ica t o tak e a d eep e r in te r e s t in th e p r o b l em s o f

developing countries or to dem and that their governm ents provide m ore effec-

tive assistance. T hey have also apparently neglected the m ost im portant tasks

tha t m igh t lead to rea l chan ge in in te r na t io na l r e lat io ns: v a lu e s o f in ter -

connectedness, hum ility and service; relationships of respect and equality; and

l i fe sty les w h ich p ro m ote su sta inab le deve lo pm en t ov er sho rt - te rm ga in . 4

How ever, British NG Os, such as the Council for Education in W orld Citizen-

ship (CE W C) and U N A, w hich are in terested in g lobal issues and the inter-

national institutions w hich m ainly deal w ith them , nam ely the United Nations

and the UN Specialized Agencies, tend to pursue liberal policies, often m ore

liberal than those of the British governm ent, of whatever political com plexion.

They are also in favour of m ore assistance to and collaboration w ith developing

countries and in general rise above narrow, selfish national-interests, and are in

favour of relationships of respect and equality with all countries.5

The U NA plays an im portant role in educating the British people about inter-

national affairs, inf luencing public opinion, m obilizing support for particu lar

causes and offering constructive criticism to the governm ent. It is affilia ted to

the W orld Federation of U nited N ations A ssociations (W FUN A ), w hich has

consultative status with the UN E conom ic and Social Council and is linked to

UN A s in m ore than 80 m em ber states around the w orld. M em bership of the

UN A is open to all. A UNA pam phlet urging people to join the organization

says: `If you w ant to ensure a better, m ore equitable world and change public

m isconceptions and negative att itudes on cr itical issues affecting the in ter-

national com m unity, then join an organization w here your views really count’ .6

T h e new L ab our G ov er nm en t ha s dec la red th at i t w an ts to st r en g then i ts

partnerships with voluntary and non-governm ental organizations and plans to

work with them to win stronger public and international support for the fight

against poverty. A W hite Paper published by the D epartm ent for International

T HE RO LE OF IN TELLE CTU ALS AND N GOs

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Developm ent (DfID ), entitled `E lim inating W orld Poverty: A Challenge for the

21st Century ’ , states: `In M ay 1997 the British people elected a new G overn-

m ent with a new agendaÐ a G overnm ent com m itted to hum an rights, a m ore

ethical foreign policy and a new approach to international developm ent em pha-

sising m ore strongly that developm ent m atters to all of us. T he new Departm ent

for International Developm ent (DfID) is responsible for taking this forw ard’ .7

T he issue of the ro le o f civil society in Britain ’ s relations w ith U NE SCO

becam e significant w hen the British governm ent withdrew from U NE SCO in

1985, a decision that w as strongly opposed by m any groups and organizations

in Britain. D erek H eater com m ents that `Britain is par excellence the land of

vo luntary bodies’ .8 I t is estim ated that 53 per cent of the British peop le are

m em bers of an N GO . M any of these organizations have an interest in U NE SCO

and its activities and som e are aff ilia ted to International N on-G overnm en tal

Organizations (ING Os) which have official consultative status with UNE SCO .

Issues such as the politicization of U NE SCO and w ithdrawal of the U SA and

Britain em phasize the in tergovernm en tal natu re of U N ESC O, indeed all U N

specialized agencies. W hat this paper argues is that it w as not just the British

governm ent but also the British intellectual com m unity and non-governm ental

organizations which played a m ajor role in its creation and have since then been

keen not just to m aintain strong links w ith U N E SCO and participate in and

p r o m o t e i ts p r o g r am m es , b u t a l so p l a y a l e ad e r sh i p r o l e i n U N E S C O .

Addressing the UN ESCO General Conference in 1985, in Sofia, the Head of the

U K D e legat io n had r efe rred app reciat iv ely to the feel ing con veyed by its

Constitution that UN ESCO is about people rather than governm ents. M addison

explains that `the peop le m ore d irectly concerned are the m any thousands in

this country w ho are m em bers, at na tional and local levels, of the British educa-

tional, scientific and cultu ral associations aff ilia ted to the in ternational non -

governm ental organizations (IN GO s) enjoying official relations with U NE SCO

on practical m atters o f m utual concern ’ . H e also argues that there is further

potential for building on these continuing, essential and potentially freer and

m ore flexible links.9 So when the governm ent left in 1985, for reasons which

will be discussed later, it lef t these N GO s, and the constituencies they repre -

sented, out in the cold and they felt that the decision the governm ent had taken

was thoroughly undem ocratic.

Th e Cou ncil for Education in World Citizenship (CEW C) and thecreation of U N ES CO

UN ESCO w as off icially established by the Conference of Allied M inisters of

Education (CA M E), in London in Novem ber 1945.10 H owever, M argaret Quass,

a form er D irector of CEW C, w rites that Britain©s connection w ith UN E SCO

star ted even befo re the o rgan ization w as created. She claim s that ` its very

conception was first m ooted by the Council for Education in W orld Citizenship

(C E W C ) and i ts p aren t body the L eague o f N ations U n ion (L N U ) ’ . 1 1 T he

C E W C is a cha ri tab le o rg an iza tio n w h ose m em bers ar e ap po in ted by the

association of teachers, of education authorities, of youth organizations in the

U nited K ingdom , and by certain other bodies w hich are able to assist in the

prom otion of its aim s. Its aim s are to `recognise the contribution to peace which

T HE ROLE OF IN TELL ECT UALS AND N GOs

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education can m ake through the developm ent of m u tual understanding, co -

operation and goodwill, am ong all peoples’ and to `prom ote through education

within schools and youth organizations knowledge of the purposes and w ork of

the interna tional agencies including the U nited N ations and UN ESCO’ .12 Thus,

it h as a lw ays b een a sso ciated w ith th e U n ited N a tions A ssoc ia tion w h ich

replaced the LNU in 1945.

T he C E W C w as estab l ished in 1939 by the L N U in acco rdance w ith an

A g r eem en t m ad e o n 8 Ju n e 1 9 3 9 b e tw een i t s E x ecu t iv e a n d E d u ca t i o n

Com m ittees. It was to be a self-governing body, which w ould further in schools

and colleges and other educational organizations within the public system of

education, one o f the LN U ’ s objectives as set fo rth in its Royal Charter: `to

foster m u tual understand ing , goodw ill and hab i ts o f co -ope rat ion and fa ir

dealing betw een the peoples of different countries’ and to take necessary steps

to ensure tha t students were trained in the know ledge and principles of inter-

national co-operation including the aim s and activities of the L eague of Nations

and the term s of its Covenant. Its constitution stated that its m ain purpose w as

`to prom ote throughout the educational system such studies and teaching as

m ay best contribute to m utual understanding, peace, co-operation and goodwill

betw een all peoples’ .13

In January 1941, CE W C convened a conference of teachers and educational

adm inistrators from six Allied countries besides Britain at St H ilda ’ s College,

Oxford. A m ong the participants were three leading educationists, Rene Cassin

of France, S tefan Glaser of Poland and A lf Som m erfelt of N orw ay who m ade

distinguished contributions to the creation of U NE SCO a few years later. T hey

discussed the aim s and m ethods o f N azi education and the p rob lem s of re-

educating E urope after the w ar and prom oting the teaching of world citizenship.

A sm all international Continuation com m ittee w as established to consider the

proposal tha t as part of any general settlem ent at the end of the war, an inter-

national, o r at least an inter-allied, O ff ice o f E ducation, should be fo rm ed .

Dam e M argaret M iles, a form er director of CE W C, argues that `thus w ere laid

the seeds of w hat w as to g row in to the educational, cu ltu ral and scien tif ic

organisation of the United Nations, U NESCO’ .14

A f ter th e f al l o f F r ance , so m any sta te sm en and in te l le ctu als f r o m the

continent cam e to Britain that the idea of a convention of such people to help

shape the post-war w orld soon gained general acceptance. The London Inter-

nat ional A ssem bly , thus cam e in to existence in S ep tem ber 1941 . I t w as an

uno ff ic ia l bo dy , in depen den t o f a ll g ove rnm en t co n tro l . I t se t up var ious

com m issions and com piled reports on conditions in the occupied countries of

Europe. It also created a Com m ission jointly with CEW C, in M arch 1943, to

consider the p lace o f education , re lig ion , science and learn ing in post-w a r

reconstruction . D r G ilber t M urray w as chosen to be its cha irm an. Its m ain

ach iev em en t w as th e co m pilat ion o f a rep o r t, ` E du ca t ion and the U n i ted

Nations’ . It w as organized into five chapters. The first tw o chapters dealt w ith

the destruction and d is to r tion o f cu ltur e and educat ion in G erm any , N azi-

occupied E urope and the Far E ast and the need for re-education in the enem y

co u n tr ie s , w i th p a r t i cu la r r e f e r en c e to G e r m an y . T h e th i r d ch ap te r w as

concerned with education for internationa l understanding and recom m ended the

creation of an International O rganization for Education.

T HE RO LE OF IN TELLE CTU ALS AND N GOs

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T he report received w idespread publicity in the national press and was also

d ist r ibu ted w ide ly in th e U S A . I t w as w a r m ly r ece iv ed b y R . A . B u t le r ,

President of the Board of E ducation , w ho was also Chairm an of the Conference

of A llied M in isters of E ducation (CA M E ) w hich had f irs t m et in 1942 . H e

prom ised to bring the w hole report to the notice of CAM E and explained that he

w as m ore interested in a perm anent international o rganization fo r education

ra th er than a tem por ar y one fo r edu ca tion al r econstruc t ion . H e a sked the

Com m ission to draft m ore detailed recom m endations for such a body and this

draft was to form the fram ework for the structure of U NESCO.15

Theoretical p erspectives underlying the creation of UN ESCO

T h e c reation o f U N E SC O and o the r special iz ed agencies w as in sp ir ed by

certain theoretical perspectives and ideologies such as idealism and functional-

ism which em phasized the im portance of education, and international law and

organization in p reventing w ar, and not m ilitary force. They also gave m ore

im portance to `peop le ’ an d th eref o re advocated the dem ocrat ic con tro l o f

politics and as a prerequisite a better educated public. Although idealism lost its

im portance in the academ ic study o f IR af ter W orld W ar II, it still inspired

statesm en, intellectua ls and politicians. It is interesting to note that S ir A lfred

Zim m ern w ho he ld the first chair in IR at L SE w as the leading candidate for the

Director Generalship of U NE SCO when it was first created. The functionalist

approach especially appeals to N G O s w h ich are com m itted to cer tain ideals

such a s in terna tional peace and co -oper ation , the p rom otion o f social and

econom ic welfare th roughout the w orld , and the prom otion of understanding

am ong the peoples of the world.

Cox and Jacobson explain that ideologies have played an im portant role in

the history of international organization. T hey write: `If we consider only its

recen t histo ry s ince the S econd W orld W ar, funct ionalism w as an eso te r ic

doctr ine o f m arked in fluence in shap ing the structure and po licies o f inter-

national institutions em erg ing in the 1940s.’ It sought to base international

o r g an iza t io n up o n in te re s ts in h e r en t in so c ie ty r a th e r th an m ak i ng th em

dependent upon the goodw ill o f states . F unct ionalism , the refo re, g ives the

pluralist concept of society, which is an im portant aspect of western European

and North A m erican political tradition , a universal scope.16

T he functionalist app roach to international relations, thus, em erged af ter

W orld W ar II as a m ajor alternative to political realism w ith its em phasis on

`pow er’ , `na tional interest’ and `conflict’ . T he chief exponent of the func tional

ap p r o ach w as D av id M itr an y . F u n c t i on a l i sm i s c on ce r n ed w ith ` p eace ’ ,

`w elfare ’ and ` international co -operation ’ and the success of the functional

approach depends to a great extent on the universal acceptance of these values.

Although functionalism is som ew hat eclectic in nature, it is basically rooted in

the liberal-dem ocratic tradition.17 How ever, T aylor and G room argue that the

im portance that it gives to w elfare and developm ent m ake it possible for non-

liberal states to endorse func tionalism ’ s explicit liberalism .

Functionalism is both descriptive and prescriptive. It is an analytical tool for

criticizing the `deplorable’ present and an ideological prescription for ushering

in a better future.18 A s opposed to `realism ’ w hich regards w ar to be natural and

T HE ROLE OF IN TELL ECT UALS AND N GOs

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inevitable and the resu lt of con flicting interests and the struggle for pow er,

func tionalism regards w ar to be the product of objective conditions of hum an

society such as poverty, m isery, illiteracy, econom ic insecurity, social injustice,

exploitation and also the attitudes, habits of thought and feeling and allegiances

which are fostered by the state system . Therefore, peace requires the solution of

econom ic and social p roblem s w hich acco rd ing to the functionalists, can be

ac h i ev e d o n l y b y p r o b le m - so lv in g a g en c i e s co - t e r m i n o u s in t e r r i to r i a l

com petence with the p roblem areas. 19 T he state, according to M itrany, is not

necessarily the best agency for prom oting econom ic and social w elfare. `Form ’

should follow `function’ Ð and not the other way aroundÐ which m eans that the

function , p roblem , or task itself suggests the exten t of the area and fo rm of

adm inistration w ithin wh ich it is to be tackled . H ow ever , it should be no ted

here that what M itrany m eant was not that sim ply solving econom ic and social

problem s leads to the elim ination of war but that the process of dealing w ith

such problem s w ithin internationa l organizations produces the new dynam ic of

peace.20

M itrany writes that `the problem of our tim e is not how to keep the nations

peacefully apart but how to bring them actively together’ . H e saw the ideal of

peace in term s of national co-activity rather than national co-existence and puts

his faith `not in a protected peace but in a working peace’ . He believed that a

peaceful w or ld society is `m ore likely to grow through doing things together in

workshop and m arket place rather than by signing pacts in chancelleries’ . He,

the refo re, st resses the p osi tive task o f w ork ing together to so lve com m on

pr ob lem s r ath er than the ` nega t ive ’ one o f recon ci l ing in te re sts , th ro ug h

ba r g a in in g , com p r o m ise and sac r i f ic e . 2 1 T h ese i dea s a r e r e f l ec ted in th e

pream ble to U NE SCO’ s constitution:

That a peace based exclusively upon the political and econom ic arrange-

m ents of governm ents w ould not be a peace which could secure the unani-

m ous, lasting and sincere support of the peoples of the w orld, and that the

peace m ust therefore be founded, if it is not to fail, upon the intellectual

and m oral solidarity of m ankind.22

A lthough the CE W C predates functionalism , both have com m on in tellectual

roots and both are approaches to peace. T he CE W C believes that there is a

direct link betw een education and peace. Functionalists argue that functional

organ izations m ay , by focusing atten tion upon areas o f com m on interestÐ

essentially non-political areas, such as health and educationÐ build habits of

co-operation, w hich can later on be transferred to the realm of politics in which

`constructive collaboration’ w ill then replace `sterile conflict’ .

A lthough M itrany do es no t ex p lici tly co m m ent on the ro le o f N G O s in

b r in g in g na t io n s and p eo p le ac t iv e ly to ge th e r , g iv en th e n a tu r e o f the se

organizations and of the w ork they do, they obv iously have strong aff in ities

with the functionalist approach. A s G ordenker and W eiss explain, in a dem o-

c ra t ic soc ie ty , th e g ro w th o f N G O s a r ise s f r o m d em an d s b y c i t iz ens fo r

accountability from the prince, who represents political pow er and the m erchant

who represents econom ic pow er. N GO s com pete and co-operate w ith the prince

and the m erchant for guidance in different aspects of social life . They function

to `serve undeserved or neglected populations, to expand the freedom of or to

T HE RO LE OF IN TELLE CTU ALS AND N GOs

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em pow er peop le , to engage in advocacy fo r social change , and to p rov ide

services’ .23

L ike functionalism , m any N GO s too assum e that econom ic and social tasks

or issues can be separated from politics. How ever, the issue of the politicization

of the U N Specialized Agencies and the w ithd raw al o f the U SA and Britain

from several of them , including UN ESCO , has served to prove that there is no

dichotom y between the technical and the political.24 T his has taught N G Os such

as UN A-U K and F riends of UN ESCO tha t the decision-m aking process itself,

w ith regard to these issues, is pol itical, bo th w ith in coun tr ies and in in ter -

national organizations.

U N ES CO ’s special relationship with N GO s

UN ESCO’ s constitution is w ritten in a tradition that can be best described as

l ib er a l- dem ocra t ic . I ts pu rp ose is ` to con tr ibu te to p eace an d secu r i ty b y

prom oting co llabo rat ion am ong the nations th rough education , science and

culture in order to further universal respect for justice, for the rule of law and

for the hum an rights and fundam ental f reedom s w h ich are affirm ed fo r the

peoples of the world, without distinction of race, sex, language or religion, by

the Charter of the United N ations’ .25 Richard H oggart writes that `UN ESCO ’ s

central preoccupations are those m atters with w hich, in free societies, individual

citizens are o r shou ld be d irec tly concerned and governm en ts less d irectly

con cer ned , o r conce rned o n ly unde r the w atch fu l eyes o f their ind iv idua l

citizens: education (as com pared w ith governm ental propaganda) , individual

hum an rights (which m any governm ents still flout), free com m unications, and

the disinterested pursuit of knowledge of all kinds, from the scientific to the

philosophical’ .26

U NESCO’ s founding fathers thus tried to ensure that this was reflected in the

constitu tion . A rt icle V of the constitu tion had o r ig inally specif ied that the

m em bers of the Executive Board should be `persons com petent in the arts, the

hum anities, the sciences, education and the diffusion of ideas, and qualif ied by

their experience and capacity’ : they should exercise their powers on behalf of

U N ESC O as a w hole `and not as rep resen tatives of their respective govern-

m ents’ . In the early years, a lot of `scholars, thinkers [and] great statesm en from

all over the globe’ were on the E xecutive Board. U nfortunately, however, the

m em ber-states later decided that independent intellectuals could not control the

m ain decision-m aking body and so the constitution w as am ended in 1954 which

converted the m em bers of the Board into governm ent representatives. H owever ,

even in 1970, w hen Richard H oggart joined the UN ESCO Secretariat, he found

that som ething of the original spirit rem ained and m em bers states were often

represented by intellectuals, for exam ple, P rofessors of Philosophy. U nder the

influence of m em ber-states m ore com m itted to intergovernm entalism and less

to the original aim s of the organization, the constitution was am ended again in

1993 and it w as m ade very clear that the m em bers of the General Conference

are states and not individuals representing states.27

A nother body which w as created by U NE SCO ’ s founding fathers w hich w as

intended to be `the living expression in each country of UN ESCO’ s com m it-

m ent to f ree in tellectual life ’ w as the N ational C om m ission . A rticle V II of

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U N E S C O ’ s con sti tu t io n s ta te s tha t ` E ach M em b er S ta te sh al l m ake su ch

arrangem ents as suit its particular conditions for the purpose of associating its

principal bodies interested in educational, scientific and cultural m atters w ith

the work of the O rganization, preferably by the form ation of a National Com -

m ission broadly representative of the G overnm ent and such bodies.’ H owever,

Hoggart com m ents that the independence of the N ational Com m ission in som e

coun tries was a m y th. T he com position of the N ational Com m ission in each

country and the extent to which it represents civil society really depends on the

ideology of the state and governm ent and the strength of non-governm ental and

civil society organizations in tha t country.28

It is the N ational Com m ission’ s duty to `encourage participation of na tional,

governm ental and non-governm ental institutions and various individuals in the

form ulation and execution of UN ESCO’ s program m es so as to secure for the

Organization all the intellectual, scientific, artistic or adm inistrative assistance

that it m ay require’ .29

N ot content with the creation of N ationa l Com m issions, the founding fathers

w en t a s tep f u r t he r , an d en sh r i ne d in t he co n st i tu t io n t h e p r in c ip l e th a t

U N ESC O shou ld have a strong relationship w ith N G O s. T his is yet another

liberal value . Article X I.4 of the constitution states that UN ESCO `m ay m ake

suitable arrangem ents for consultation and co-operation with non-governm ental

interna tional organizations concerned w ith m atters w ithin its com petence, and

m ay in v i te th em to un de rtak e specif ic ta sk s. S uch co - ope ra t ion m ay also

include appropriate participation by rep resentatives of such o rganizations on

advisory com m ittees set up by the G eneral Conference.’ M addison com m ents

that `those who shaped U NE SCO originally realised that, to fulfil its m ission,

the new O rgan izat ion m ust stay c lea r o f the S cy l la o f u top ian ism and the

C h a r y b d i s o f b u r ea u c r ac y . T w o sa f e g u a r d s ag a i n s t th e se d an g e r s w e r e

envisaged in the ConstitutionÐ the national com m issions and the international

non-governm ental organizations.’ 30

U N E S C O c u r r en t ly m a in t a i n s co n su l ta t iv e , a s so c ia t e an d o p e r a t i o n a l

relations w ith 354 N G O s and `fo rm al’ relations w ith 26 foundations, In ter -

national, regional or na tional, NG Os bring together a diverse range of profes-

sio na ls as w e l l a s m em bers o f soc ia l m ovem en ts d irect ly co nce r ned w ith

UN ESCO ’ s goals. Educators, scientists, authors and others represent organiza-

tions as varied as A m nesty International, the W orld Scout M ovem ent and the

International Council of Scientif ic Unions. 31 M ore than 200 UN E SCO -linked

NG Os have m em ber organizations in Britain. John M addison writes that there

are `m any national bodies in education, science, culture and com m unication

whose links w ith, and influence on the w orld intellectual com m unity depend to

a significant degree on their affilia tions to U NESCO through their m em bership

of the internat iona l N G O s on the o rgan ization ’ s ro ster . ’ F o rtunately , these

British links w ith U NESCO rem ained even after British w ithdrawal.32

A ccord ing to H oggart, U N E SC O ’ s f irst D irecto r-G eneral, Ju lian H ux ley,

who inc identally w as British, `loved NG Os’ . He and his colleague, a French-

m an, Jean Thom as, who was his D eputy D irector-G eneral, believed that strong

pr o f e ssion a l N G O s `w er e am on g the b a st ion s o f f r ee sp eech ’ . T h ey also

believed that N GO s should not be led to conceive of them selves as lapdogs;

they m ust be free to bite the hand that feeds them . In dem ocracies, this is or

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should be an accepted, cardinal attitude but in authoritarian regim es it is not.33

H o w ev e r , th e at t i tud e o r b ehav io u r o f the B r i t ish go ve rn m en t w as n o t

H ux leyan . It w as `at best, vague, and gave an im pression o f little interest’ .

Hoggart writes: `In the tim e I knew it, the delegation at UN ESCO did include

som e very effective and decent people; but they w ere too few and underrated.

There w as no British am bassador but a very hard-w ork ing P rincipal (a quite

low level of the Adm inistrative Class in the Civil Service) with a vestigial staff.

This suggested to UN ESCO that the U nited Kingdom thought little of it.’ On

the o the r hand , fo r sm a lle r an d n ew er nat ion s, the in te rna t io na l p lat f o r m

provided by U N E S CO w as m uch m ore im portant than i t w as to successive

British governm ents.34 In later years, however, especially after the w ithdraw al

of Britain from UN ESCO, British N G Os involved w ith UN ESCO right from

the start, wanted to reverse all this. It is to a discussion of this that w e shall now

turn.

The w ithdrawal of Britain from U N ESCO

The fear that Inis C laude had expressed in the 1970s, that the ultim ate im pact of

func tionalism upon po litics m ay never be tested because o f the im m ed iate

im pac t o f po li t ic s upon func tional ism , becam e real ity w hen the U SA and

Britain lef t U N E SC O in 1984 and 1985 respectively , in p rotest against the

politicization of the organization. In a letter to the Director-General, dated 2

A pril 1984, the British M in ister of O verseas D evelopm ent, T im othy R aison

st a ted th a t w h i le th e U K r em a in ed ` f i r m l y co m m i t te d to th e id ea l s a n d

principles w hich are set forth in the U NE SCO Constitution’ , they be lieved that

a num ber of tendencies were developing inside the organization w hich they did

not think were in its longer term interests or com patible w ith its original spirit.

T hese included the pol itical aspects o f cer tain p rogram m es and the w ay in

which UN ESCO fora was perceived as being used by som e to attack values and

ideals set out in the constitution, and also the growing size of the budget. The

British governm en t also subm itted proposals fo r reform o f the o rganization

r e l a t i n g to p r o g r am m e i ssu es , U N E S C O ’ s g o v e r n in g b o d ie s , b u d g e t a r y

questions, general program m e m atters, evaluation, m anagem ent issues and the

third m edium term plan.35

T he U S gover nm en t had w ithd r aw n from U N E S CO in 1984 fo r s im ilar

reasons. In a letter to UNE SCO’ s D irector-General, the U S Secretary of State,

G eo rg e S hu l tz , h ad exp la in ed : `F o r a n um b er o f yea r s ¼ w e h ave been

concerned that trends in the policy, ideological em phasis, budget and m anage-

m ent of U NESCO w ere detracting from the Organization’ s effectiveness. W e

believe these trends have led U NE SCO away from the original principles of its

constitution [and] served the political purpose of m em ber states rather than the

in ternational vocation o f U N E SC O ’ . H ow ever , bo th the U S and U K w ith -

drawals reveal the overall dom inance of governm ent departm ents and bureau-

crats over the de term ination of a m em ber state’ s policies tow ards IGO s and the

co m para tive ly m u ch w eaker vo ice o f p ro fessiona l and in te re st g ro ups. I n

reaching the decision to w ithdraw , the US D epartm ent of State appears to have

neglected to consult the private sector, including the US National Com m ission

for UN ESCO , which had voted 41 to 8 against US withdrawal. Other private

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groups such as the League of W om en V oters, the A m erican L ibrary Association

and the A m erican Council of Education had also adopted resolutions urging the

US governm ent to stay in UNE SCO and seek reform from inside.36

B ritain too, w ithd rew from U N E S CO in sp ite of a `w idely held view in

Britain and elsewhere that the UK should rem ain in U NE SCO ’ . There w as a

nearly unan im ous debate in the H ouse of Com m ons; an overw helm ing vote

against w ithdraw al in the B ritish N ational C om m ission for U N E SC O . O nly

Rosem ary Righter and Roger Scruton, both of whom have extrem e right wing

view s, were in favour of withdrawal. There w as also a near ly unanim ous and

unprecedented dem arche from the Com m onwealth H igh Com m issions to the

Foreign Secretary in support of Britain’ s continued U NESCO m em bership and

a united and vocal opposition to w ithdraw al by the other European Econom ic

Com m unity m em bers.37

U S and British proposals for reform were discussed at the 119th session of

the Executive Board in M ay 1984. O n the initiative of Britain and F rance, a

special 13 m em ber tem porary com m ittee w as set up to exam ine all proposals

and suggestions arising from the debate in the Executive Board. Reform efforts

began in earnest at U NESCO. However, it did not satisfy the British govern-

m ent and it w ithdrew from the organization. On the other hand, other assess-

m en ts conducted in B ritain o f re fo rm ou tcom es in U N E S C O in 1985 , fo r

exam ple, by the U K U N E SC O m ission ; U K U N E SC O G eneral C onference

delegation; House of Com m ons Foreign Affairs Com m ittee; and U K National

Com m ission , overw helm ingly suppor ted continued British m em bership in the

organization .38

M any o the r no ted educa tion ists, scien t is ts and in tel le ctuals arg ued tha t,

although in need of reform , U NESCO w as a very valuable organization and that

Britain should not quit but should fight for reform from w ithin. A s P rofessor

K eyn es p u t i t , ` U N E S C O has a v i ta l p a r t to p lay in the edu ca t ion a l an d

scientific field’ and `to go through w ith the threatened withdrawal of the U K

from m em bership ¼ w ould not serve our own im m ediate self interests in any

obvious w ay, and w ould be wholly incom patible w ith our clear m oral duty to

help in any way that w e can w ith the urgent task of bringing the benefits of

m odern science to the whole of m ankind’ . T hey also felt that there was a very

great need for im proved structures whereby voluntary bodies, notably but not

exc lu sive ly th e n on - go ve r n m en ta l o r gan iza t ion s, a r e b ro ug h t in to a n ew

national pa ttern of active engagem ent with UN ESCO .39

UN A -U K and Friends of U N ESCO ’s efforts to m aintain links withUN ESCO after British w ithdrawal

In 1985, m any em inent educationists and scientists, as w ell as other individuals

and organizations in Britain started a cam paign to `keep the UK in U NESCO’ .

T h e cam p a ig n w as lau nch ed a t a m ee t i ng add r e ssed by t he M in iste r fo r

O ve r sea s D ev elo pm en t , a t the H ou se o f C o m m o ns on 8 Ju ly 1 98 5 . Jo hn

M addison w rites that the cam paign w as initiated by `the m ost universal of the

NG Os in Britain, the United Nations Association (U NA )’ . The m em bers of the

o r g an i z in g co m m it t ee ` r ep r e se n t[ e d ] b e t w e en t h em a w id e sp ec t r u m o f

experience, know ledge and achievem ent in education , science and cu lture in

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national life’ . The Cam paign drew up a petition urging H er M ajesty ’ s G overn-

m ent `not to withdraw from Unesco but to continue to work for any necessary

reform s from w ithin’ . It also published `an attractively designed and cogently

argued leaflet w hich gave guidance on action that signatories them selves can

take and listed a score of em inent people w ho had already identified them selves

with the Cam paign’ .40

T he sam e year , som e of these o rgan izat ions, p r incipally the C ounc il for

Education in W orld Citizenship (CEW C) and the U nited Nations Association of

Great Britain and Northern Ireland (UN A), set up the F riends of UNE SCO. The

purpose w as to m aintain links w ith U NE SCO , co-ordinate activities for schools,

colleges and voluntary agencies in the UK , m onitor the reform process and co-

operate with the U NA in its effor ts to persuade the U K governm ent to rejoin

UN ESCO .41 A UN A working party w as also set up to lobby for the early return

of the UK to UN ESCO .

The Friends of UN ESCO rem ained a sm all organization based in London and

w as ru n by a sm al l g ro up o f d ed ica ted v o lun tee r s . I ts m em b er s in clud ed

teachers, scientists, intellectuals, writers, representatives of non-governm ental

o rg an izat ions, re ti red civ i l ser van ts , includ ing those w ho had w or ked f o r

UN ESCO in the past and had held high off ices, such as R ichard H oggart, who

w as A ssistant D irector-G eneral in the 1970s. Som e of these em inen t peop le

se r ved o n th e E x ecu t iv e C o m m it tee . T h e o rg an izat ion t r ied to r ep r e sen t

m em bers of Britain’ s intellectual com m unity who had an interest in U NE SCO.

Its Chairm an, M aurice G oldsm ith, had close links w ith U NE SCO ’ s D irector-

General, Federico M ayor, and he of ten used his personal in fluence to secure

f un ds fo r th e F r iend s. I t p r o du ced a new sle t te r , w h ich k ep t i t s m em b ers

inform ed of U NE SCO’ s program m es, the F riends of UNE SCO’ s activities and

what progress have been m ade by the lobbyists to return the U K to U NE SCO.42

Recom m endations to the British governm ent

In February 1993, the F riends of UNE SCO and U NA organized a sym posium

on `Facing the 21st Century: The Role of UN ESCO ’ . It was held in the G rand

Com m ittee Room of the H ouse of Com m ons and was launched by Sir Y ehudi

M enuhin. Over 120 m em bers of Britain ’ s intellectual com m unity in the fields

of education, science, culture and com m unication par ticipated in the debate on

the im portance and future role of U NE SCO for Britain. It w as strongly felt by

all participants that Britain shou ld rejo in U N E S CO and that it w as in their

interest to do so.43

T h e f o l lo w in g r ecom m en da t ion s w e r e p u t f o r w ar d to th e F o re ig n an d

Com m onwealth O ffice, the O verseas D evelopm ent Agency (OD A), the Depart-

m ent of N ational H eritage, the Departm ent for E ducation and the D epartm ent of

Public Services and Science for consideration by Her M ajesty ’ s Governm ent in

m aking the decision w hether and w hen to rejoin U NE SCO:

Education

1 . M em b er sh ip o f U N E S C O w o u ld en h ance th e in f luen ce o f th e U n i ted

Kingdom by prom oting the issues of interculturalism and world citizenship

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and so enrich the national curriculum .

2. M em bership would help prom ote British inf luence around the w orld. T he

E n g lish L an guag e is the g lobal lan guag e o f t rade , com m er ce , f inance ,

com m unications, com puters and education. Britain m ust capitalize on this.

M oreover, British educationa lists need to join UN ESCO ’ s expert netw orks,

par ticu lar ly at the H igher E ducation level . F inancia lly too , bo th B ritish

consultants and the U K in general, stood to gain. In 1985, the U K put £6.4

m illion into UN ESCO and received $1.5 m illion in consultancy fees, books,

services, e tc.

Science

Rejoin ing U N E SC O is crucial fo r British scien tists as U N E SCO prov ides a

unique scientif ic global forum . It w ould also allow Britain w ith its strong basis

in env ironm en tal sc iences to par t icipate fu lly in the o rgan ization ’ s rap id ly

expanding agenda in this field. T he U K could benefit from and contribute to

UN ESCO ’ s activities in the UN CE D follow-up process, particularly as this is

the only UN body concerned with science training, scientific capacity building

in develop ing countr ies and w ith sustainab le m anagem ent o f env ironm ental

system s and ecosystem s.

Culture

R ej o in in g U N E S C O w o u ld en ab le U K a r t is t s an d ex p e r ts on ce ag a in to

participate fully in interna tional program m es, thereby enhancing cultural under-

standing in addition to m aintaining cultural standards, eg in the preservation of

the national heritage. I t w ould enab le U K expertise and values to inf luence

UN ESCO ’ s future direction and policy.

Com munication

In the field of com m unications, British experts have a lot to gain from world-

wide consultancies, for exam ple, the training of journalists. British expertise in

th is area is m uch- valued and cou ld he lp to allev iate the increasing d iv ide

betw een developed and develop ing coun tr ies . B ritish ideas and experience

could help to focus or refocus UN ESCO policies. UK participation on issues

such as the interaction o f the m edia and culture and freedom o f info rm ation

would be of great value.44

A survey carried out by the present author in 1994, on behalf of the Friends of

U N E S C O , o f B ri t ish academ ics ’ in ter est in and re lat ions w ith U N E S C O ,

co nf ir m ed tha t the B r i tish academ ic com m u nity , by and lar ge , va lu ed an

organization such as U NE SCO .45

It is also w orth noting that although Britain had w ithdraw n from U NE SCO, it

continued to be a m em ber o f a num ber o f organ izations linked to it. T hese

ag en c ie s a r e : th e I n t e r n a t io n a l O cean o g r ap h ic C o m m i ssi on , th e N a tu r a l

Environm ent Research Council (w hich supports projects under the M an and the

B iosphe r e an d the I n te rna t io na l H ydr o log ica l P ro g r am m e), the U n iv er sal

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Copyright Convention, the W orld H eritage Fund and the International Centre

f o r th e S tu d y o f t h e P r e se r v a t io n an d R e st o r a t io n o f C u l tu r a l P r o p e r t y

(ICC R O M ). 46 In fact, this w as po in ted out by the U K rep resen tative to the

U N E S CO E xecu tive Board in M ay 1997. H e said , `although w e have been

fo rm ally absent f rom the o rgan ization for m any years w e have nevertheless

continued to take an interest in its activities and have par ticipated in a num ber

of its collaborative ventures and program m es’ .47

Y et, in the early 1990s, governm ent departm ents in W hitehall unanim ously

agreed tha t a resum ption of m em bership was not a high priority for them ; that

they had not experienced any significant disadvantages to U K interests in their

field of activity since w ithdraw al in 1985; and that any benefits f rom a U K

return would be m arginal.48

U N ES CO ’s 50th Ann iversary Com m em oration

On 7 D ecem ber 1995, UN ESCO’ s 50th anniversary w as celebrated in L ondon.

In h is m essage , the S ec re ta ry - G ener al o f the U n ited N at ions, M r B ou tros

Boutros-G hali, pointed out that `it w as w ith a trem endous sense of daring and

fo re sigh t th at, half a c en tu ry ago , the in ter nat iona l com m unity c rea ted an

organization that brought together the disciplines of science, of education and

of cul ture ’ . P rog ress in these f ield s is the foundation o f g lobal civ ilization

itself.49 The com m em oration cerem ony w as organized by a com m ittee consist-

ing of the representatives of m any non-governm ental and professional organiza-

t ion s, su ch a s th e R oy a l S o c ie ty o f C h em istry , I n t er n a t ion a l I n st i tu te o f

Com m unications, N ational Union of Teachers and of course the UN A and the

F rien ds o f U N E S CO . I ts C hairm an w as M r C . L . S harm a, fo rm er D epu ty

D irector-General of U NE SCO and m em ber of both the U N A and F riends of

UN ESCO .

A s a m em ber of the U K Friends of UN E SCO ’ s E xecutive Com m ittee, the

present author w as invited to attend the cerem ony w hich took place in the Great

Hall of the Institution of C ivil Engineers (the original birthplace of U NE SCO)

in the presence of Federico M ayor, the current D irector-General of UNE SCO .

T he participants w ere w elcom ed by P ro fesso r T ony Rid ley, president of the

Institution of C ivil Engineers before the evening’ s program m e was announced.

T h er e w e re th ree speake rs rep r esen ting U N E S C O ’ s m ain f ield s: S ir John

Kendrew (form er President of S t John’ s College, O xford) on Science; Baroness

Blackstone (M aster of B irbeck College) on E ducation; and Dr Richard Hoggart

( fo r m er W ard en o f G o l dsm ith ’ s C o l leg e ) o n C u l tu re . T h e B r i t ish P r im e

M inister’ s m essage was read by the Rt H on Lord Inglew ood, M inister of State

in the Foreign and Com m onw ealth O ff ice, in wh ich he sen t his greetings to

U NE SCO and its supporters. A fter this the F riends of UN E SCO’ s P ress and

Publicity O ff icer , D avid W ard rop, presen ted a book to the D irector-G eneral

signed by over 600 people, including 13 Nobel Laureates, supporting the UK ’ s

return to U NE SCO. A fter the Director-G eneral’ s response, the evening ended

with a cultural program m e.50

U n fo rtun a te ly , th er e a re no reco r ds o f the speech es g iven by H o gg ar t ,

Kendrew and Blackstone. The present author w as unable to speak to Sir John

K endrew as he died about seven m onths ago, on 23 A ugust 1997 . H ow ever,

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discussions w ith R ichard H oggart revealed that his ideas about UN ESCO have

not changed significantly since he published his book, An Idea and its Servants,

UNESCO from W ithin in 1978. Hoggart w as an A ssistant Director-G eneral of

UN ESCO from 1970 till 1975 and before that he was P rofessor of L iterature at

the U niversity of Birm ingham . H e thinks that `U NESCO is scarcely thought of

in the developed w orld today and that is a m istake w hich [he] would like to

help am end’ .51 The United Nations system as a whole does not get a good press

and U NE SCO, m ore than any other UN agency, is often treated with `am used

scorn ’ . H owever , Hoggart w rites that this is inevitable given that UN ESCO is

pre-em inently the agency w ith `intellectual and ethical aim s’ and is, therefore, a

sitting target. In H oggart’ s op inion debates about U N E SC O ’ s value and its

weaknesses are endem ic to the organization. T hey began w hen the organization

was first created and `w ill go on as long as the institution lasts’ . 52 H ow ever,

UN ESCO is an `im m ensely valuable organization’ . It is a deve lopm ent agency

and can g ive m oney either f rom its Regular P rog ram m e o r as an agen t fo r

UN DP and other aid organizations. Hoggart inform s us tha t it was a resolution

of the United K ingdom , introduced by a speech of David Eccles, then M inister

of E ducation, w h ich called on the organization to set its course m uch m ore

firm ly tow ards developm ental aid, especially for education. U NE SCO ’ s m ain

developm ent work is still in tha t area. It helps in establishing schools, training

colleges, technical institutes, schem es for w om en’ s education and in m ounting

elabo r ate lon g -te rm schem es to com ba t i ll i ter acy . I n the f ield o f cu ltu re ,

U N E S C O p r o m o te s r e sea r ch , e sp ec ia l ly in d eve l op in g co u n t r ie s , o n th e

m eaning of cultural diversity, on the needs and rights of m inorities and on the

pressures on oral cultures today. U NESCO has also done a lot to save som e of

the w or ld ’ s g r ea te st cu l tu r a l m o nu m en ts w hen th e se a r e th rea ten ed w ith

destruction or sim ply co llapse. T his benefits m ainly developing countr ies as

wealthy countries can usually afford to care for their ow n g reat m onum ents.

H ow ev er , a s a r esu l t o f a l l th is , the deve lo p ing w o rld know s m or e ab ou t

U N E S C O an d a l so r e sp e c ts i t m o r e th a n th e d ev e l o p ed w o r ld . H o g g a r t

com m ents that although it is good that the developed nations have over the past

few decades recognized som ething of their econom ic responsibilities tow ards

the developing na tions, the am ounts they put into bilateral aid `alm ost alw ays

thoroughly dw arf their international contributions’ . They usually justify this on

the grounds that the UN agencies are neither as professionally effective nor as

econom ical as they are. How ever, Hoggart thinks that developed countries are

inspired by `a narrow sense of na tional self-interest’ and their critic ism of inter-

national agencies are often baseless. O n the other hand, the agencies can claim

that their aid is free from the suspicion of neo-colonialism . Also, the agencies

can draw upon a w ider range of skills from all over the world than any donor

country on its ow n.53

UN ESCO is a w orld resource centre. It collects facts from all over the world,

in al l it s a rea s o f com petence. I t s tanda rd ize s tho se facts so that they a re

uniform ly and internationally available. T he facts are then circulated and this

`keeps in m otion a great sw irl of publicationsÐ statistical abstracts, up -dated

and annual year-books, periodic returns, com parative statisticsÐ and a seem -

ing ly end le ss successio n o f sch o la r ly m ee t ings w he re th is in f o r m a t io n is

analysed, interp reted in new w ays and then set in m otion across the w orld

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again’ . U NESCO is `a great m arket for the traffic of know ledge’ , but its m ore

successful long term projects in sustained international co-operation have been

in essentially practical areas, such as Oceanography, Hydrology, M an and the

Biosphere, the A rid Z ones and Seism ology, rather than projects which have a

strong ideological content. UN ESCO is im portant as a centre for interna tional

dialogue am ong experts of all kinds and also intellectuals. T he hardest of all the

organization’ s w ork is `in inching tow ards norm s on issues w hich cannot avoid

bringing ideologies into play ’ .54 T his is the w ork of standard setting or estab-

lish ing in ternational no rm s. E xam ples of im portan t in strum en ts adopted by

UN ESCO include the Convention for the protection of cultural property in the

event of arm ed conflict (1954) and Convention concerning the protection of the

world cultural and natural heritage (1972). Hoggart concludes that UN ESCO is

`a privileged place in that it brings together in an international context govern-

m entsÐ those who m ake decisionsÐ and people w ho are at the forefront of the

study of contem porary problem s’ .55 If UN ESCO did not survive `it w ould be a

g reat lo ss’ . T he w orld w ou ld be `poorer in expressed andÐ occasiona llyÐ

achieved ideals if U NE SCO collapsed, its sight that m uch shorter . Som e parts

of our com m on lifeÐ som e aspects of peace-keeping, som e elem ents in hum an

righ ts, som e kinds of developm entÐ are a little better than they w ould have

been if UN ESCO had not existed. In spite of all its fantastic, baroque, bew il-

dering failings UNE SCO rem ains one of the m ost hopeful institutions created in

this am biguous century ’ .56

Lady Blackstone is now M inister of S tate for Education and E m ploym ent in

the new Labour G overnm ent. H er view s on U NE SCO are discussed under UK

Higher E ducation and UN ESCO Ð 1997.

Britain’s return to UN ESCO and the involvem ent of civil society inthe form ulation of a new UK -UN ESCO p olicy

S oo n a f te r th e U K G ene ra l E lec tio ns he ld in M ay 1 997 , the n ew L ab our

governm ent announced its decision to return to U NE SCO on 1 July 1997. The

UN A w as quick to congratulate the governm ent. In an open letter to the govern-

m ent it stated: `T o all of us at U NA , that is wonderful new s! U NE SCO cam e in

fo r so m uch flakÐ m ostly inaccurateÐ at the height o f the Reagan-T hatcher

axis in which redoubtable bodies like the W ashington-based Heritage Founda-

tion bam boozled a largely indifferent w estern m edia into believing that only the

devil could prosper in UN ESCO ’ . It also em phasized that `with so m uch xeno-

phobia in the air, com bined with racism , religious and other fundam entalism ,

anti-sem itism and the like, every effort m ust be m ade at all levelsÐ including

the internationalÐ to com bat these deadly seeds of hatred and corruption. The

U K m ust m ake a really crea tive inpu t in to the w ork o f U N E S C O in these

areas’ . 57 U N A -U K strong ly supports U N E S C O ’ s Cu l tu re o f P eace pr o ject ,

which is designed to `construct peace ª in the m inds of m enº , in other w ords to

change value system s, attitudes and behaviourÐ in short everyday culture’ .58

O n 30 June 1997, a m eeting w as held in the H ouse of Com m ons at w hich

Viviane Launay, U NESCO’ s Director of the Division of N ational Com m issions

and UN ESCO Clubs, Centres and A ssociations, addressed representatives from

various governm ent departm ents, agencies, institutions, professional organiza-

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tions and ind iv iduals w ork ing fo r the advancem en t o f educat io n , sc ience ,

culture and com m unication. The m eeting was organized by the UN A’ s W ork-

ing Com m ittee on U NE SCO and was chaired by M em ber of Parliam ent, M ike

G apes. T he p resen t au tho r w as p resen t at th is m eet ing . M adam e L aunay ’ s

purpose w as to advise the UK governm ent and professional and non-govern-

m en ta l o r g an iza tio ns on th e s t r uc tu r e an d fu nc t io ns o f th e new N at io na l

Com m ission, w hich is in the process of being form ed.59

A t th e 1 2 th C onf er ence o f U N E S C O ’ s N at io nal C om m issions from the

European Region held in A ix en Provence, France, from 10 to 13 July 1997,

Britain w as represented by John G ordon (form er British perm anent delegate at

UN ESCO ) and Rashid Kareh, Secretary, UN A-U K. In his speech Kareh stated:

`W e shall w ant to build effective links w ith you and w ith your Com m issions, so

that w e can engage together in prom oting UN ESCO to our fellow citizens and

in m aking proposals and seeking dialogue with our Governm ents on U NE SCO

and U NE SCO-related m atters’ .60

UK -U NESCO Forum

In August 1997, the UK UN ESCO Forum w as established to `bring together the

h i th e r to sep a r a t e g r o u p s w h ich ha d b een s t r iv in g to g e t B r i ta i n b ack i n

UN ESCO and to act as an um brella group for discussions w ith W hitehall’ . Its

aim s and objectives are:

1. T o advise the British governm ent on issues relating to U NE SCO .

2. T o act as a forum for discussion and advice to governm ent on the establish-

m ent of a UK National Com m ission for UN ESCO . The Forum w ill seek to

establish the greatest possible range of agreem ent am ong non-governm ental

bodies on this issue.

3. T o represent and em body the views of interested professional bodies, groups

and individuals.

4. T o spread knowledge of UN ESCO program m es and activities as w idely as

possible w ithin the UK intellectual com m unity.

5. T o act, in partnership w ith W hitehall, as the clearing house for U K proposals

for the U NESCO Participation P rogram m e.

6 . T o consid e r , up on the fo rm a t io n o f th e U K N a t iona l C om m issio n fo r

U N E S C O , w h eth e r so m e fo r m o f ind epend en t o r g an iza t ion is fu r the r

needed.61

T he F or um w il l ex is t , a t le a st , un t i l th e e stab l ishm en t o f a U K N a t io na l

Com m ission for U N E SCO . A fter this it w ill decide, in consu ltation w ith its

m em bers, w hether it still has reasons for its existence.62

A m eeting was held on 26 Septem ber at the Institute of Education to give

everyone present an opportunity to discuss U NE SCO ’ s D raft Program m e and

Budget, w hich was to be presented to the G eneral Conference in October 1997.

The present author attended this m eeting.

A no ther U K U NE SC O Forum m eeting w as held at the British Council in

L o n d o n o n 2 5 N o v em be r 1 9 9 7 , w h i ch w as a lso w e l l a t ten d e d . L ead i n g

educationists, scientists, social scientists, culture and com m unication specialists

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from various institutions and professional associations, as w ell as civil servants

from W hitehall, a ttended the m eeting. The British Am bassador to U NE SCO,

D avid S tan ton , w as present too. T he pu rpose o f the m eeting w as to d iscuss

Britain’ s relations with U NESCO and to provide w ider input from key interest

g ro ups in to the U K U N E S C O F o rum ’ s pape r f o r gove rn m en t on a fu tu re

N ational C om m ission, and also to touch on current W hitehall th inking . T he

presen t autho r participated in these discussions and felt that they w ere very

productive in term s of identifying how the UK can m ost usefully contribute to

UN ESCO ’ s program m es and activities and how non-governm ental groups can

m ost effectively w ork with each other and w ith the governm ent, in UN ESCO ’ s

fields of com petence. Feedback from this m eeting w as then incorporated in the

Forum ’ s report to the governm ent.

T he sam e day the F riends of UN ESCO held its last Annual General M eeting .

It was w ound up tha t since the Forum had now becom eÐ at the request of the

DfID Ð the focus for consultation between the G overnm ent and civil society as

far as U NE SCO m atters w ere concerned, and since the m ajor aim of the F riends

of U NE SCO, ie resum ption of UN ESCO m em bership had been achieved. The

Friends of UN ESCO agreed to provide a m andate to its Executive Com m ittee to

wind up the organization at an appropriate tim e in the future; provided that the

netw orking and d issem ination of info rm ation about U N E SCO to the p rofes-

sio n a l an d c i v i l so c ie t y in B r i t a in c ou ld b e m a i n ta in ed th r o ug h th e U K

UN ESCO Forum .63 As a result, the F riends of U NE SCO w as finally dissolved

on 14 January 1998 at its last Executive Com m ittee m eeting held at the UN A

headquarters in 3 W hiteha ll Court.64

UK H igher Education and U NESCOÐ 1997

In order to further co-operation be tween British academ ics, the British govern-

m e n t a n d U N E S C O , a d a y c o n f e r e n c e o n ` U K H i g h e r E d u c a t i o n a n d

UN ESCO Ð 1997 ’ , was held on 5 D ecem ber at the University of M anchester. It

w as o rg an ized b y the A ssoc iat ion o f U n ive rsi ty T eache r s (A U T ) an d th e

UN ESCO 50th Anniversary Com m ittee (U K). It was cha ired by Professor Peter

M ortim ore OBE, Director of the Institute of Education, University of London.

Baroness T essa Blackstone, M inister of S tate for Education and E m ploym ent,

gave the keynote speech, in w h ich she stressed the im portance of the w ork

U N E SCO does, the British governm en t’ s com m itm ent to U N E SCO and the

im portance of a partnership betw een civil society and the governm ent.

Baroness B lackstone em phasized that UN ESCO’ s aspirations are as relevant

today, as they w ere 50 years ago . A rticle I of U NE SCO’ s constitution states

th a t th e o r g an iza t ion w as s e t u p ` to co n t r i bu te t o peace and secu r i t y by

prom oting co llabo rat ion am ong the nations th rough education , science and

culture in order to further universal respect for justice, for the rule of law and

for the hum an rights and fundam ental f reedom s w h ich are affirm ed fo r the

peoples o f the w orld , w ithout d istinction o f race, sex , language or relig ion’ .

Higher education has a fundam ental role to play in realizing these objectives, in

form ing tom orrow ’ s leaders, in prom oting culture, in delivering solutions to the

prob lem s that face us such as poverty, fam ine, illiteracy and environm en tal

deg r ada t ion , an d in sp r ead in g m utua l r e spec t am ong p eop le an d na t ion s.

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Universities help `the br ightest and best achieve their full potential’ and `spread

m any of the ideas that underpin tolerant, dem ocratic societies’ . She com m ended

the w ork UN ESCO is undertaking around the world to advance higher educa-

t i o n , e sp e c ia l l y t h e U N I T W I N /U N E S C O C h a ir s P r o g r am m e d ev is ed to

prom ote collaboration and research on an international basis. She also said that

she thought that the UNE SCO and Council of Europe Convention on the recog-

nition of higher education qualifications in the w ider European reg ion was a

particularly valuable instrum ent. It would give a significant boost to efforts to

get countries to recognize each other’ s qualifications, w hether for the purposes

of adm ission to initial o r fur ther H igher E ducation or fo r use in the labour

m arket. It would prom ote m obility throughout E urope.

Lady Blackstone also pointed out that the British higher education sector can

m ake a considerab le contr ibu tion to these reform ing p rocesses. T he B ritish

university system has `a distinguished history with a deserved reputation for

teaching excellence, pioneering research, and academ ic exchange’ . The quality

and in ternational recogn ition of Bri tish qual if icat ions is apparen t f rom the

num ber o f overseas studen ts choosing to s tudy in B rita in . B ritain benefits

financially, but overseas students are also w elcom e for the cultural and educa-

tional benefits they bring to the UK . She stressed that this exchange `gives us

an opportunity to inculcate the values that BritainÐ and UN ESCO Ð hold dear’ .

UN ESCO , she pointed out, is also working on the reconstruction of education

system s around the w orld, in par ticu lar the form er Y ugoslav ia. `T his is no t

sim ply a m atter of physical reconstructionÐ it is also the spiritual and m oral

reconstruction of an area w here civilised values have sadly disintegrated.’

In October 1997 UN ESCO ’ s General Conference had adopted the U NE SCO

Recom m endation on the S tatus of Higher Education T eaching Personnel. I t is

strongly supported by the A UT and the academ ic com m unity in B ritain and

they b el ieve tha t the U K de leg at ion sho u ld have accep ted it w ith ou t an y

reservations. A ddressing their concerns Baroness B lackstone stressed that the

U K delegation had supported the Recom m endation and its underly ing pr in -

ciples of academ ic freedom , fair em ploym ent rights and freedom from persecu-

tion. Indeed she and her colleagues in the new Labour Governm en t strong ly

subscribe to th ree p r incip les . H ow ever , they fe lt tha t the recom m enda tion

`strayed into territory that properly belonged to individual M em ber S tates’ .

C om m enting on U N E S C O ’ s w or k in the f ie ld o f science, she no ted the

potential for the use and abuse of scientific research. `The difficulty is of course

to balance the need to encourage scientific discovery and ideasÐ for exam ple

work on genetically inherited diseaseÐ whilst recognising the special integrity

of the hum an genom e and the fundam ental freedom s that w e all subscribe to ’ .

She noted the constant declarations that UN E SCO has m ade in this area and

hoped tha t the w orkshop ` Sciences in the Se rv ice o f D evelopm en t’ w ou ld

exam ine these declarations and related issues.

She also em phasized the im portance of appreciating hum an culture in all its

form s. `Our identityÐ our sense of self and the place we occupy in the w orldÐ

concern an app reciation o f h isto ry , li ter atu re , the ar ts, sciences and soc ial

sciences’ . W e m ake a contribution to the dissem ination of this idea of culture,

w ith its un ique values of m utual to lerance, appreciation, and understanding .

T h e f r ee d o m t o c o m m u n i ca t e i d ea s i s a lso im p o r ta n t . I t w i l l b e o n e o f

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U NE SCO ’ s biggest concerns to break dow n barriers, and to spread concep ts

su ch as f reedom o f w orsh ip an d cu ltu ra l d iversi ty in to clo sed and hosti le

societies.

Baroness B lackstone categorically stated that she w as `proud that this country

w as ag ain p lay ing its par t in U N E SC O ’ s del ibe rat ions’ . S he said : ` I lo ok

forward to renewing and strengthening our relationship with U NESCO. Your

discussions and conclusions can play an im portant role in this. I know we can

contribute to targeted program m es, thus helping to secure the soc ial, scientific,

and other advances that we all seek.’ How ever, she also em phasized that Britain

m ust p lay a par t in m aintaining the m om entum of reform , begun du ring the

UK ’ s absence from U NESCO. She congratulated the Director-G eneral and his

staff for all that they had done. In order to enhance its credibility, how ever,

`U N E SCO m ust con tinue to m ove tow ards a m ore lean , eff icien t, dedicated

struc ture, able to m eet the tasks that confront it’ .65

U N E S CO w as r ep resen ted a t the C onference by C o l in P ow er, A ssis tan t

Secretary-General for U NESCO’ s E ducation Sector. H e introduced UN ESCO ’ s

program m e of work for 1998/99, w ith reference to the U NE SCO N GO Con-

sultation Conference for H igher E ducation to be held in Septem ber 1998 and

the R eco m m end a tio n fo r E m p loy m en t o f P er so nn el in H ig he r E du cat io n

Institutions, adopted by the General Conference at its 29th session in October

1997. Power sought the support of the academ ics, NG Os and the governm ent

for UN ESCO ’ s program m es and activities.

Conclusion

In January 1998, m em bers of the U K U NE SCO Forum were inform ed that John

M ach in o f D fID had recently w ritten to D enn is C h ism an , C hairm an of the

Friends of UN ESCO , to say that D fID w as w aiting for the Forum ’ s paper on the

estab l ishm en t o f a n ew U K N a t ion al C om m issio n , ` as an im po rtan t co n -

tribution ’ to a paper which officials are preparing for subm ission to C lare Short,

on the basis of which she will decide along w hat lines the new Com m ission will

be set up.67

T he con tinued par ticipation of the repre sen tat ives of civ il socie ty in the

fo r m u lat io n o f p o l ic ies and the d e ter m ina t ion o f B r i ta in ’ s re la t ions w ith

UN ESCO is essential. The UK U NESCO Forum believes that `in line w ith the

approach adopted by other OECD countries ¼ the U K should view U NESCO

as predom inantly an organization for intellectua l co-operation between equals

and that w e stand to gain at least as m uch as w e im part in exchanges in the

f ield s o f U N E S CO ’ s com petence ’ . 68 U N E S CO is no t p redom inan tly an aid

organization. M em bers of the Forum have em phasized this, tim e and again. In

the past, the British governm ent had argued that U N ESCO w as not effective

enough as an aid agency and that UK subscription was better spent on bilateral

aid program m es. T his perception, that UN ESCO is prim arily an aid agency, has

not com pletely changed.

The m em bers of the Forum insist that the independence of the new National

Com m ission is essential. They w ant to ensure tha t the abuses of the past are not

repeated. They also believe that the experiences of National Com m issions in

other O E CD and C om m onw ealth countr ies show that it w ill function m ore

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effectively if it is independent. H ow ever, `at the sam e tim e, the Com m ission

m ust be able to w ork closely w ith, and enjoy the confidence of governm ent. It

m ust also reflect and be highly responsive to what is happening in society and

go beyond being a Gathering of the G reat and the G ood’ .69

A t p r esen t, D f ID , w h ich is the depa rtm en t responsib le fo r U N E S C O , is

listening to them , bu t no t necessar ily let ting them in f luence key decisions.

Things could get w orse, however. If the people and organizations interested in

UN ESCO are not well organized and able to offer `quality ’ advice, they will

soon find that they are being side lined in favour of bureaucrats, civil servants

and `governm ent advisors’ , regardless of w hether they represent anyone or not.

M oreover , the advice that is offered has to be com patib le w ith D fID ’ s m ain

policies and priorities, if it is to be adopted. The US and British withdrawals

from U NE SCO have taught everyone a lesson, that there m ust be a genuine

partnership between governm ents, civil society and international organizations,

if concrete goals are to be achieved.

Notes and referen ces

1 UK Statement, U NESCO: 151st Executive Board, 26 May±11 June 1997.

2 UNESCOPRESSE , 14 May 1997, p 1.3 The Press and Publicity Officer’ s periodic reports to the Executive Comm ittee of

the Friends of UNESCO.

4 David H ulm e and M ichael Edwards, `NGOs, States and D onors: A n Overview’ , inDavid Hulme and M ichael Edw ards (eds), NGO s, States and D onors, Too Closefor Comfort? ’ , M acm illan, 1997, p 15.

5 See United Nations Association, An O pen Letter to the Labour Government , M ay1997.

6 United Nations Association, `Make Your Voice Count’ , M em bership Registration

Form.7 D epar tm en t fo r I n te rna t io na l D ev elop m ent , E lim in a t in g W o rld P overty : A

Challenge for the 21st Century, A Sum mary, November 1997.

8 D erek Heater, P eace Through Education. The C ontribution o f the C ouncil forEducation in W orld Citizenship , Falmer Press, London, 1984, p 32.

9 John Maddison, The UNESCO and Britain D ossier, 1945 ± 1986, Postscript, Part

III: Continuity and Rejuvenation: UN ESCO and People, M useum and ArchivesDevelopment Associates, Royston, 1985, p 5.

10 For a h isto ry of the creation o f U N E SC O see H . H . K r il l de C apel lo , `T he

Creation of the U nited Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization’ ,International O rganization , V ol 24, N o 1, 1970, pp 1±30.

11 M argaret Quass, `H istorical Background’ , in CEW C (ed), Britain and UNESCO ,

CEWC, London, 1985, p 5.12 D e r ek H e a te r , P e a ce T h ro u g h E d u ca t io n , o p c i t , a p p e n d i x I , p 1 9 5 a n d

appendix 5, p 206.

13 Ibid.14 Ibid, p 77.

15 D erek H eater , op cit, chapter 3. `The U nited N ations and the P reservation o f

Peace’ , pp 75±94.16 Robert W . Cox and H arold K. Jacobson, `The decision-m aking approach to the

study of international organization’ , in Georges A bi-Saab (ed), The Concept ofInternational O rganization , U NESCO, Paris, 1981, p 92.

17 Paul Taylor and A. J. R. Groom , `Introduction: Functionalism and International

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Relations’ , in Taylor and G room (eds), Functionalism : Theory and Practice inInternational Relations, University of London Press, London, 1975, pp 3±4.

18 See E rnst B. Haas, Beyond the Nation-State, Stanford University Press, 1964, p 6.

19 Inis L. Claude, Sw ords into P loughshares, chapter 16, `The Functional A pproachto Peace’ , University of London Press, London, 1965, pp 381±382.

20 See D avid M itrany , A W orking P eace System , R oyal Institu te of International

Affairs, London, 1943; D avid Mitrany, The Functional Theory of Politics, M artinRobertson (for the) London School of Econom ic and Political Science, London,

1975; Paul Taylor, `Functionalism : The Theory of David M itrany’ , in Paul Taylor

and A . J. R. Groom (eds), International O rganization , Frances P inter, London,1978; Inis Claude, Swords into P loughshares, op cit, chapter 16.

21 D avid Mitrany, A W orking Peace System , op cit, and Inis C laude, Swords intoP loughshares, op cit.

22 Constitution of U N ESCO , pream ble, Basic Texts, M anual of the General Con-ference and the Executive Board , 1992 edition.

23 See Leon G ordenker and Thom as G . W eiss, `P luralizing G lobal G overnance:A nalytical Approaches and D imensions’ , in W eiss and Gordenker (eds), NG Os,The U N, and Global Governance, Lynne Rienner, Boulder, Colorado, 1996, p 19.

24 See S. D utt, The Politicization of the United Nations Specialized Agencies, A CaseStudy of U NESCO , M ellen U niversity Press, Lam peter, 1995; D. W illiam s, TheSpecialized Agencies and the U nited NationsÐ The System in Crisis, C. H urst and

Co, London, 1987; M ark Imber, The USA, ILO, U NE SCO and IAEA, Politiciza-tion and W ithdrawal in the Specialized Agencies, M acmillan in association with

the Centre for International Policy Studies, University of Southam pton, 1989.

25 U NESCO Constitution, A rticle I.1.26 Richard Hoggart, `UNESCO and NGO s: A M em oir’ , in Peter W illetts (ed), The

Conscience of the W orld, The Influence of Non-governmental Organizations in theU N System , Hurst & Co, London, 1996, p 98.

27 Ibid , p 99.

28 Ibid , pp 99±100.

29 Charter of National Com m issions for U NESCO , Article 1.2(b), UNESCO , BasicTexts, op cit, p 138.

30 John Maddison, The UNESCO and Britain D ossier, op cit, p 6.

31 U N ESCO Sources, N o 93, Septem ber 1997, p 2 ; also see UN ESCO docum entB R X /R IO .2 /93 /IN F , P ar is, 1 Sep tem ber 1993 , ` In fo rm at ion co ncern ing co -

opera tion by U N E S C O w ith in terna t iona l no n-governm enta l o rgan izat io ns,

foundations and sim ilar institutions’ .32 John Maddison, The UNESCO and Britain D ossier, postscript, op cit, p 2.

33 Hoggart, op cit, pp 106±107.

34 Ibid.35 See S. D utt, The Politicization of the United Nations Specialized Agencies, A Case

Study of U NESCO , Mellen University Press, 1995, pp 243±244.

36 Ibid , pp 235±242.37 R oger A . C oate, U nilatera lism , Ideology and U S Foreign PolicyÐ The United

S ta tes In an d O ut o f U N E S C O , L ynn e R ienn er P ub lishers , L on don , 1 98 8 ,

pp 131±132.38 See S . D u tt, op cit , chap ter 7 , `The W ithdraw al o f the U S and the U K from

UN ESCO’ .

39 See CEW C (ed), Britain and U NE SCO , CE W C, London, 1985.40 John M addison , U N E SC O and Brita in , The End of a Specia l Re la tionsh ip? ,

M useum and Archives D evelopm ent Associates, Royston, 1985, p 22.

41 D iscussions w ith Margaret Quass, form er Director, CEW C and founder m em ber,Friends of UN ESCO in 1993±94.

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42 The present author has been a member of the Friends of U NESCO and has servedon the Executive Comm ittee since 1993.

43 See Facing the 21st Century: The Role of U NESCO , Report of the Sym posium

organ ized by the F r iends o f U N ES C O and the U ni ted N ations A ssoc ia tion ,February 1993.

44 See Facing the 21st Century: The Role of U NESCO , Report of the Sym posium

organ ized by the F r iends o f U N ES C O and the U ni ted N ations A ssoc ia tion ,February 1993.

45 See S . D utt, `The U K and U NE SC O ’ , C ontem porary Review , February 1995,

pp 71±76.46 Ibid, p 72.

47 UK Statem ent, op cit.48 S. Dutt, `The UK and UNESCO’ , op cit, p 72.49 Program me handout, UNESCO’ s 50th Anniversary Comm em oration.

50 See S . D utt, `U N E SC O ’ s 50 th A nniversary C om m em orat ion ’ , CA PS N E W S ,

February 1996 , p 8; `U N E SCO ’ s 50 th B ir thday P arty ’ , Friends o f U N ESC ONew sletter, January 1996, pp 1±2.

51 Richard H oggart, An Idea and its Servants, U NESCO From W ithin, Chatto and

W indus, London, 1978, p 17.52 Ibid, p 23.

53 Ibid, chapter 2, `Indisputably U seful Activities’ .

54 Ibid, p 38.55 Ibid, p 163.

56 Ibid, p 196.

57 U nited N ations A ssociation , A n O pen Letter to the Labour G overnm ent, M ay1997, p 1.

58 S ee U N E SC O D ra ft P ro gram m e and B udge t 1998 ± 199 9 , do cu m ent 29 /C 5 ,

G en era l C o nfe r ence , 29 th Sess io n , P ar is, 19 97 , T ran sd isc ip lin a ry p ro jec t ,`Towards a Culture of Peace’ , pp 95±108.

59 S . D ut t, `U N E SC O : B ri tain retu rns to the fo ld ’ , N ew Z ea land In ternat iona lReview , V ol 23, N o 1, January/February 1998, pp 24±26.

60 Text of the speech delivered by Rashid Kareh, Secretary, UNA -UK .

61 UK U NESCO Forum publicity material.

62 `Strengthening the U K UNESCO Forum ’ , Draft proposal for discussion at the UKUN ESCO Forum Meeting, held at the British Council, London, on 25 N ovem ber

1997.

63 Friends of U NESCO, AGM Report, Tuesday, 25 N ovem ber 1997.64 Friends of UNESCO, Minutes of the Executive Com mittee m eeting, 14 January

1997.

65 M inutes of the UK Higher Education and UNESCOÐ 1997 Conference.66 The present author was a participant at this Conference.

67 `The UK National Com m ission’ , Covering paper for Forum m eeting of 27 January

1998.68 John Gordon, `The UK N ational Com m ission for U NESCO ’ , docum ent tabled at

the UK UNESCO m eeting on 27 January 1998, pp 1±3.

69 Ibid, p 3.

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