The Role of Aid Agencies in Conflict Management Assignment

8/18/2019 The Role of Aid Agencies in Conflict Management Assignment

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Contents

Contents......................................................................................................................................1

Introduction................................................................................................................................3

Conflict.......................................................................................................................................4

Conflict Management- a definition........................................................................................4

Curve of conflict....................................................................................................................4

Durable peace.....................................................................................................................5

Stable peace........................................................................................................................5

Unstable peace...................................................................................................................

Crisis..................................................................................................................................

!ar.....................................................................................................................................

"nal#tical $rame%or&............................................................................................................'

"ctors.................................................................................................................................'

(oot causes.........................................................................................................................)

Issues* scope and stage.......................................................................................................)

+o%er* resources and relations,ips....................................................................................

istor# of t,e relations,ip..................................................................................................

"id and its forms........................................................................................................................

+articipants in aid.......................................................................................................................

/,e conse0uences of conflict from a ,umanitarian point of vie%...........................................1

"id agencies2 !,at is t,eir purpose.......................................................................................1

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/,e role of aid......................................................................................................................11

aps filled b# aid agencies..................................................................................................1

Issues and C,allenges in t,e +rovision of "id.........................................................................13

+roblems %it, umanitarian "id.........................................................................................13

6fficienc# and 6ffectiveness............................................................................................13

+olitical Dilemmas...........................................................................................................14

Criticisms of umanitarian 7rgani8ations.......................................................................14

+roblems %it, Development "ssistance..............................................................................1

/,e role of "id agencies in conflict management....................................................................1'

Conclusion................................................................................................................................1)

(eferences................................................................................................................................1


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Introduction

In 9ranc8i& :4;over five million casualties*

and 5 percent of t,ese ,ave been civilianse=tensive ,umanitarian relief efforts and development assistance to rebuild %ar-

torn countries< %,en clas,es ,ave ended. +errin :1); concurs t,at t,e >proliferation of

crises around t,e %orld ,as led to a s,arp increase in t,e scale of ,umanitarian aid re0uired to

meet t,e vital needs of t,e people affected b# t,em for food* %ater* medical care and s,elterenter t,e sceneneutralit# principle


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Conflict

Conflict Management- a definition

@artman :'; defines conflict as an incompatibilit# of possibilit# of positionsmutuall# e=clusive< vie%s. e e=plained conAict management as endeavours

to move a conAict from >violent to political means of pursuit< a conflict %,ose resolution

denotes t,e settlement of contested matters in @artman :;. +ammer and Billian :3;

delineate t,e management of conflict into t,ree main dimensions2

1. /,e repertoire of formal and informal* autonomous and intervention based* procedures available for confronting and ,andling t,e conflict*

. /,e understandings and s&ills for recogni8ing and ma&ing sense of conflict* for

imagining alternatives* and for communicating to pursue resolution*3. /,e individual and communit# relations,ips conte=t %it,in %,ic, conflicts ma#

emerge* feel* and be understood as problems b# participants* and evolve* escalate*

or de-escalate.

/,e above definitions of conflict refer to t,e presence of clas,es bet%een t,e interests of

individuals or entities. /,ese e=pressions of t,e interests are violent in nature. /,e varied

selection of means to resolve suc, clas,es is &no%n as conflict management. Suc, means

include t,e identification t,roug, anal#sis of t,e conflict. /,is essa# %ill base on ?und

:; %,o described t,e curve of conflict to inform conflict anal#sis. /,is curve %ill be

referred to situate t,e activities of aid agencies in conflict management.

Curve of conflict

?und :; advised t,at* in t,e abstract* progress of an armed conflict can be modelled

using a curve t,at passes t,roug, a series of different stages2 durable peace* stable peace*

unstable peace* crisis and %ar. /,ere are man# intermediar# stages peculiar to t,e

development of eac, distinct conflict. /,is paper see&s to ,ig,lig,t t,e roles aid agencies can

influence t,e d#namics of armed s&irmis,es.

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Durable peace

?und clarifies*

Durable :or !arm; +eace involves a ,ig, level of reciprocit# and cooperation* and t,e

virtual absence of self-defence measures among parties* alt,oug, it ma# include t,eir

militar# alliance against a common t,reat. /,is relies on s,ared values* goals* and

institutions* economic interdependence* and a sense of international communit#.

+errin :1); %rites t,at aid agencies enable e=tensive e=plorator# missions* engage in

dialogue %it, a broad range of groups :mainl# /rac& 1 and /rac& II; involved in conflicts.

Stable peace

"s ?und e=pounds*

Stable :or Cold; +eace is a relations,ip of %ar# communication and limited cooperation :e.g.

trade; %it,in an overall conte=t of basic order or national stabilit#. alue or goal differences

e=ist and no militar# cooperation is establis,ed* but disputes are generall# %or&ed out in

nonviolent* more or less predictable %a#s. /,e prospect for %ar is lo%

?und :; details t,at aid agencies s,ould disseminate episodic %arnings to official bodies

and t,e public* toget,er %it, suggested responses. e mentions intergovernmental and bi-

lateral agencies t,at ,ave set up in-,ouse s#stems suc, as t,e United States "genc# for

International Development :US"ID;. /,e US"ID produced a >fragile states< strateg# t,at

involved a >%atc, list< to classif# priorit# countries for attention.

Unstable peace

?und indicates*

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Unstable +eace is a situation in %,ic, tension and suspicion among parties run ,ig,* but

violence is eit,er absent or onl# sporadic. " >negative peace< prevails because alt,oug, armed

force is not deplo#ed or emplo#edE* t,e parties perceive one anot,er as enemies and

maintain deterrent militar# capabilities... " balance of po%er ma# discourage aggression* but

crisis and %ar are still possible.

?und :; guides t,at aid agencies s,ould promote preventive measures to an arra# of

policies t,at s,ape t,e structural environment %it,in %,ic, conflicting actors operate.

Crisis

In ?und,ot< %ar. 7nce significant use of violence or

armed force occurs* conflicts are ver# susceptible to entering a spiral of escalating violence.

6ac, side feels increasingl# Fustified to use violence because t,e ot,er side is. So t,e

t,res,old to armed conflict or %ar is especiall# important.

/,e United States Institute of +eace vie%s efforts b# outside parties at terminating

aggressions as +eacema&ing or Conflict Management borro%ing form ?und :;. /,e#

advise t,at %,ere an agreement to end ,ostilities ,as been reac,ed* suc, outside parties mig,t


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consider +eace 6nforcement or Conflict Mitigation. /,is essa# %ill ta&e a broader vie% as

indicated b# +ammer and Billian :3; to include all actions ta&en to prevent escalations*

stop ,ostilities and reconstruct follo%ing violent engagement. "n anal#tical frame%or& %ill

be discussed belo% t,at ,elps in positioning aid agencies and t,eir roles in conflict

management.

Analytical Framewor

!,ere t,e curve of conflict ,elps in anal#sing t,e evolution of a conflict* t,e anal#tical

frame%or& ,elps provide insig,ts into t,e various forces driving a conflict at a particular

moment. It discusses t,e actors* root causes* issues at sta&e* po%er and resources available as

%ell as t,e ,istor# of t,e actors< relations,ips.

Actors

"n anal#sis of conflict s,ould identif# t,e actors in a conflict. "id organisations are one pf

t,e actors in t,e conflict and are potential peacema&ers ,opefull#. /o understand* t,e actors*

t,e /,omas-Bilmann Conflict Mode Instrument :/BI; assesses an individual


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Competing is an assertive and uncooperative* a po%er-oriented mode describing t,e pursuit

of one part#


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%istory of t$e relations$ip

+revious attempts at intervention s,ould inform current efforts at conflict management.In

vie% of t,e conflict curve and components of t,e anal#tical frame%or&* t,is essa# %ill

discuss aid and its various form t,en ,ig,lig,t t,e participants in aid.

Aid and its forms

9ranc8i& :4; %rites t,at ,umanitarian aid pursues averting ,uman fatalities and promote

access to basics survival needs. In comparison* development assistance aims at t,e

reconstruction of a countr#Hs infrastructural net%or&* institutions* and t,e macro-econom#.

#articipants in aid

9ranc8i& :4; goes on to list ,e four main actors in ,umanitarian aid and development

assistance. /,ese are2

Intergovernmental &rgani'ations (I)&s*+ /,e protot#pe actor in ,umanitarian aid and

development assistance is t,e United ations :U..; and its various agencies. /,e 9retton

!oods institutions and regional development ban&s li&e%ise fund development proFects.

Unilateral assistance+ Several countries suc, as t,e United States of "merica direct aid

unilaterall# t,roug, t,eir o%n foreign-aid and development agencies.

,on-)overnmental &rgani'ations (,)&s*+ 7s assume a pivotal role in providing

,umanitarian aid and development assistance* bot, directl# and as partners to U.. agencies.

/,e# offer advantages over I7s or foreign governments. "s an e=ample* t,e# are less

limited b# political constraints and t,eir diversit# and independence allo%s t,em to %or& in

c,allenging conte=ts.


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$e Military+ /,e militar# acts principall# to ensure a secure environment in %,ic, relief

agencies can operate. In specific conte=ts* t,e militar# ma# also provide aid directl#* t#picall#

%,en I7s and 7s are overstrained or unable to cope %it, securit# difficulties. In ot,er

instances* t,e militar# manages and coordinates t,e broader ,umanitarian response and to

>deal %it, tec,nicall# and p,#sicall# demanding needs* suc, as restoring communications

and suppl# routesmalnutrition* illness* %ounds* torture* ,arassment of

specific groups %it,in t,e population* disappearances* e=tra-Fudicial e=ecutions and t,e

forcible displacement< of ,umans in several armed conflicts. e advises t,at apart from t,eir

direct effects on t,e populations disturbed* t,e costs of t,ese calamities for local s#stems

%arrant reflection. /,ese range from t,e destruction of crops and places of cultural

significance* t,e brea&do%n of economic infrastructure and of ,ealt,-care facilities.

Aid agencies+ W$at is t$eir purpose/

Martens :5; contends t,at t,e foremost role of aid agencies is to solve t,e >o%ners,ip

problem< resulting from incomplete feedbac& loop in foreign aid. /,e# ac,ieve t,is t,roug,

mediation bet%een donors< and recipients< interests* or preferences. In economic terms*

conditionalit# is t,e price borne b# t,e recipient to get access to transfers %,ere preferences

are non-aligned. e %rites t,at agenc# is given relative financial autonom# and its funds are

mobilised on international capital mar&ets rat,er t,an ta=pa#ers< mone#. /,is gives t,em

more room for fle=ible decision ma&ing and raise more financial resources t,an member

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states< fiscal limitations %ould permit. "n additional advantage for donor countries to %or&

t,roug, aid agencies is for t,em to realise greater >soft< po%er t,an %ould be available

ot,er%ise.

$e role of aid

/,e aim of ,umanitarian aid as seen b# +errin :1); is to assist t,e victims of armed

conflict* %it,out discrimination* in coping %it, t,ese problems. /,e need for e=ternal

assistance arises %,en t,e parties to a conflict are incapable or disinclined to bear t,at

responsibilit#. /,is is %,ere umanitarian aid comes in. +errin :1); uses t%o parameters2

t,e level of violence and t,e duration of conflict t,at are a&in to ?und


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t,at do not immediatel# t,reaten t,eir status %,ile permitting t,em to resolve incipient

difficulties.

)aps filled by aid agencies

"s presented in offmann :14;* t,e ne% generation of tools ,as to be %ide-ranging. e

cites t,e Joint "nal#sis of Conflict and Stabilit# %,ic, includes t,e effects of emplo#ing aid

in conflict resolution. e narrates t,e United States Institute of +eace :USI+; findings on %,#

peace processes suc, as t,e Din&a-Missiri#a peace process ,ad not been successful. /,e

USI+ realised t,at lac& of resources* %ea& mediator# capacit#* and absence of trusted and

trained t,ird-parties toget,er %it, a failure to implement agreements %ere t,e maFor

impediments in peace processes. "id agencies can assume programmatic roles* suc, as

providing e=pertise and funding to fulfil polic# obFectives.

$or sound decisions to be made* aid agencies s,ould strengt,en t,eir information role*

e=ploiting t,eir program e=perience* Kon t,e groundL evaluations* and relations,ips %it,

actors* from t,e ordinar# people to t,e official level* to inform polic# decisions. /,ese

agencies can also lend t,eir e=pertise in specific situations in a polic# role %,ere particular

decisions about program design and implementation can demonstrate to be decisive to a

countr# or region


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Issues and C$allenges in t$e #rovision of Aid

umanitarian aid and development assistance are measured on efficienc# and effectiveness

%,ic, dependent upon t,e particularl# comple= political* economic* and social undesirable

conse0uences attendant to t,em. ?und :; laments t,at even if ,umanitarian and

development aid ,ave improved* resources reserved for conflict prevention* %it, t,e

e=ception of a fe% dedicated funds* ,ave not.

#roblems wit$ %umanitarian Aid

0fficiency and 0ffectiveness

9ranc8i& :4; offered a concise discussion of t,e c,allenges associated %it, aid. /,e

discourse belo% is informed b# t,at paper. 6ffective and opportune ,umanitarian relief

operation* t,oug, an e=ceedingl# difficult underta&ing* can save t,ousands of lives. /,e

prospective beneficiaries ma# be situated %it,in conflict 8ones or in poorl# accessible regions

ma&ing it precarious for ,umanitarian agencies to deliver assistance. /,is potentiall# results

in aid selectivel# reac,ing t,e more accessible regions. /,e effective operationali8ation of aid

is ,ampered b# coordination c,allenges given t,e proliferation of agencies* t,e difficult# of

obtaining accurate intelligence* and t,e capriciousness of ,umanitarian crises.

#olitical Dilemmas

umanitarian aid gives t,e appearance t,at t,e international communit# is at least doing

somet,ing* but ,umanitarian intervention in t,e absence of a political solution solves

not,ing as intimated b# 9ranc8i& :4;. In fact* aid can become a contested resource. "id

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lea&age* or Hpolitical ta=ationH of aid* refers to circumstances in %,ic, part of t,e aid goes

directl# to t,e belligerent parties for t,eir direct use or trade for arms.

"id is fungible as it causes t,e aggressive parties to forego %orr#ing about providing food to

populations and troops t,ereb# prolonging fig,ts. +errin :1); ,o%ever contends t,at

Kpreconceived ideas N for e=ample t,at ,umanitarian aid al%a#s prolongs conflict N must

be s,unned if t,e %a# ,umanitarian aid influences t,e development of conflicts is to be

Fudged fairl#.L e adds Kif %e are to evaluate t,at aid accuratel#* its effect on victims :its

primar# purpose; and on t,e conflict itself bot, need to be anal#sed. 9# combining t,ese t%o

factors* it is possible to ma&e an obFective assessment and dra% conclusions for future %or&.L

Criticisms of %umanitarian &rgani'ations

/,ere are limitations in t,e accountabilit# of t,e ,umanitarian and development

organisations. /,ere are fe% obstacles to forming an 7 and even fe%er compre,ensive or

enforceable performance criteria for 7s. Codes of conduct ,ave been developed* suc, as

t,e (ed Cross Code of Conduct :14;* but compliance is voluntar#. (ecentl# t,oug,* aid

agencies ,ave devoted substantial resources in consolidation of t,eir internal arc,itecture to

improve standards. In addition* t,e# ,ave initiated to investments in accountabilit# s#stems to

t,e recipients of aid and donors. $urt,ermore* institutional memor# is difficult to accumulate

in aid agencies given t,e ,ig, staff turnover suc, organisations. /,is criticism is %orsened

considering t,at aid is seen as a >business


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Competition for 'humanitarian market share.'

"id agencies contest for space to maintain a visibilit# in order to secure funding. /,is can

,ave significant influence t,e decision ma&ing of t,ese institutions. /,is is furt,er intensified

b# t,e impression of s&e%ed press coverage of disasters.

The dilemma of neutrality:

!,ile t,e 14 Code of Conduct of t,e International $ederation of t,e (ed Cross demands

t,at aid agencies be neutral* t,e effects of aid are valued b# recipients and t,ose %,o do not

receive it. It is political and t,erefore neutralit# is a difficult principle to appl#. "dditionall#*

it %ould be unsatisf#ing to provide c,aritable assistance to people and fail to protect t,eir

,uman rig,ts. /a&ing sides t,oug, can compromise t,e efforts and t,e staff of aid agencies.

"not,er source of criticism for aid agencies is t,e %a# t,e# distort local economies. /,e#

drive prices up%ards and leave t,e local populace %orse off sometimes. (elated to t,is is t,e

%a# t,eir budgets are.

Lifestyle and budgeting issues:

"rguabl# a significant portion of t,e mone# for aid programs* especiall# %it, international

organi8ations suc, as t,e United ations* goes to%ard administrative e=penses instead of t,e

anticipated beneficiaries. /,is can create dilemmas in relief %or& since as aid %or&ers often

ris& t,eir lives in c,allenging circumstances. Ma=%ell et al :); recognises t,e scourge of

corruption suc, as >t,e se=-for-food scandal t,at surfaced in !est "frica in earl# * and

t,e recent follo%-up report t,at reinforces t,ese findings and t,e culture of impunit# t,at

surrounds t,em


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responses to %ars in Ira0 and "fg,anistan %,ic, serve to emp,asise t,e multiplicit# of

environments and t,at corruption ris&s arise in developed as %ell as developing countries

#roblems wit$ Development Assistance

Several of t,e demerits discussed above for ,umanitarian aid appl# e0uall# to development

assistance t,oug, t,e latter ,as issues particular to it too. $or instance* development

assistance can encourage clas,es if it is managed independent of prevailing social and

political conditions. Structural issues %it,in t,e aid agencies arc,itecture mean t,at t,e# are

not capacitated to tac&ling t,e needs of fragmented societies. Measures of success are related

to mone# disbursed* rat,er t,an t,e program outputs. o%ever* as 9o#ce :13; documents*

focusing e=clusivel# on e=panding t,e si8e of t,e econom# %it, no consideration of ,o% t,at

pie is divided* is an approac, singularl# ill-suited to %ar-torn societies.

e understood t,at all Kpeace settlements are based on a balance of po%er bet%een %arring

sides* an# measure t,at disproportionatel# benefits or ,urts one side can ma&e bot, sides

reassess t,eir positions* %it, potentiall# catastrop,ic conse0uences for t,e peace.L "id

administered t,roug, government %ill favour t,ose in po%er* %,ile c,annelling aid in a %a#

t,at b#passes central government can decrease a governmentHs leverage* also causing

problems. It becomes imperative for t,ese agencies to be immersed in peace negotiations to

lin& peace building and economic reconstruction t,ereb# improving overall ,armonisation of

post-conflict development.

Aid Conditionality

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"lt,oug, conditionalit# can be ver# effective* t,ose enforcing it ma# face significant

difficulties mostl# %,ere regimes can access alternative sources of revenue. /,e li&el# cost to

%orse-off members of societ# must be assuaged b# engaging Hsmart sanctionsH %it,

,umanitarian e=emptions.

0fficiency and 0ffectiveness of Development Assistance

Development assistance ma# impede local aptitudes to solve problems %,en dependence on

aid ta&es root. Moreover* s&illed members of t,e local population are often engaged b#

foreign agencies in %ell paid but lo%-level posts t,ereb# undermining local spurs to direct

t,eir gro%t, pat,s.

$e role of Aid agencies in conflict management

/,e activities of aid agencies ,ave been fall into t%o broad categories2 direct operations* or

KoperationalL 7s :including ,umanitarian relief and conflict resolution 7s;* and

advocac# 7s. Sta,n :1; notes t,at aid agencies ,ave increasingl# become main

providers of public %elfare and sources of emplo#ment. In several countries* t,e# fill

important interim gaps in t,e public administration t,roug, provision essential social suc, as

,ealt, and education. "ndre% atsios in "al :14; identified four central roles for 7S2

>earl# %arning functions* ,uman rig,ts monitoring* relief and re,abilitation* and conflict

resolution activities


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domestic groups. In suc, a %a#* 7s can serve as t,e first step in preventive action to avert

future comple= emergencies. Jan 6liasson in "al :14; detailed steps suc, as fact-finding

missions t,at can precede peace&eeping operations and peacema&ing to provide information

for prevention of crises. $urt,ermore* t,e 7s< access to polic#ma&ers s,ould be a resource

tapped into during advocac# for governmental policies t,at stem t,e outbrea& of violence.

Ca%t,ra :1; observed t,at donors %ere basicall# omitted from S"DC


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conflict suc, as lac& of food* absent medical care and ,umanitarian presence. /,is is clearl#

not tolerable.

Some sc,ools of t,oug,t advocate for availing ,umanitarian aid on condition t,at

,umanitarian principles are respected b# t,e parties to t,e conflict. /omasevs&i :1; argues

against t,is sa#ing t,at Kt,e lin&age bet%een aid and ,uman rig,ts Kis dominantl# punitive* in

t,at people %,ose government is violating t,eir rig,ts are li&el# to get additionall# victimi8ed

b# t,e %it,dra%al of aid.L Pet ot,er campaigners feel t,at s,aring t,e aid e0uall# bet%een t,e

parties to t,e conflict amounts to basing ,umanitarian aid on political considerations* and no

longer on t,e victims< needs* %it, t,e result t,at ,umanitarian aidtailor-ma&ing< of strategies

grounded on reinforced compensating mec,anisms and support for t,e prevailing institutional

frame%or&s. Suc, efforts move in tandem strengt,ening local capacit#. /o sum it*

,umanitarian assistance is best targeted and minimised to Fust cover e=igent needs. It is also

e=pected t,at aid agencies assist in ensuring or at least monitoring t,at ,uman rig,ts are

up,eld in conflict 8ones. /,e# s,ould protect victims of conflicts t,roug, appl#ing t,e rules

of ,umanitarian la% suc, as forbidding torture* respecting individual dignit#.

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9ranc,o :1; revie%ed literature and appreciated t,at protagonists of 7 participation in

formal mediation processes reason t,at since >traditional instruments of negotiation*

mediation and conflict management failed in intractable conflicts< t,e &e# rests in t,e usage

of informal mediators. 9ranc,o :1; offers a counterargument. e argues t,at if aid

agencies are to use /rac& III t,en t,ese efforts can onl# supplement t,e formal processes.

offmann :14; concluded t,at aid agencies s,ould emplo# strong anal#tical frame%or&s

t,at respond to local conte=ts %,ile supporting local structures for sustainabilit#. /,is is

supported b# "delman et al :1; %,o intimated t,at aid agencies s,ould act as sentinels

collecting data* anal#sing information and alerting sta&e,olders of impending conflicts.

Moreover* t,e neutralit# principle s,ould not be interpreted to mean doing not,ing as

genocides occur.

!eferences

"al* +. :14;. 7s and Conflict Management. Coping %it, International Conflict into t,e

1st Centur#. Managing C,aos Conference. +eace%or&s o. 5. United States Institute

of +eace


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"delman* .* Su,r&e* ".* Q Jones* 9. :1;. 6arl# !arning and Conflict Management.

9ranco* C. :11;. on-overnmental 7rgani8ations in t,e mediation of violent intra-state

conflict2 t,e confrontation bet%een t,eor# and practice in t,e mo8ambican peace

processL. J"US.6/ e-Fournal of International (elations* ol. * .R * "utumn

11.

9ranc8i&* ". :4;. umanitarian "id and Development "ssistance. 9e#ond

Intractabilit#. 6ds. u# 9urgess and eidi 9urgess. Conflict Information Consortium*

Universit# of Colorado* 9oulder. +osted2 $ebruar# 4

,ttp2%%%.be#ondintractabilit#.orgessa#,umanitarian-aid. "ccessed 15 $eb.* 1

Ca%t,ra* . 1. The Role of SADC in Managing Political Crisis and Conflict: The Cases

of Madagascar and Zimbabwe. Maputo2 $riedric,-6bert-Stiftung.

Ca%t,ra* . /,e role of donors and 7s in t,e securit# polic# process in Sout,ern "frica*

in Sout,ern "frican Securit# (evie% 13* "nt,oni van ieu%&er& and Bat,arina

ofmann :eds;. Mo8ambi0ue 7ffice of t,e $riedric,-6bert Stiftung and t,e Centre for

Defence and Securit# Management* Sc,ool of overnance* Universit# of t,e

!it%atersrand

arris* +. and (eill#* 9. 6ds. :1);. Democrac# and Deep-(ooted Conflict2 7ptions for

egotiators. Stoc&,olm. Cop#rig,t T International Institute for Democrac# and

6lectoral "ssistance :International ID6";* 1). ,ttp2%%%.idea.int

offmann* B. :14; >/,e (ole of Development "id in Conflict (esolution> in Stepputat*

$inn* offmann* Basper* !iuff Moe* ?ouise and das +rad,an-9lac,* (ima* >e%

"pproac,es /o $oreign "id in Conflict-"ffected Countries and $ragile

Situations


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?und* M. S. :;. Conflict prevention2 t,eor# in pursuit of polic# and practice :pp. )'-

3);. ?ondon2 Sage.

Martens* 9. :5;. !,# do aid agencies e=ist De&eloment olic' re&iew*!(:;* 43-3.

Ma=%ell* D.* !al&er* +.* C,urc,* C.* arve#* +.* Savage* B.* 9aile#* S.* ... Q ",lendorf* M. ?.

:);. +reventing Corruption in umanitarian "ssistance. )erlin: Transarenc'

International*+einstein International Center research reort .

+ammer* !. J.* Q Billian* J. :3;. ,andboo- of conflict management . e% Por&2 Marcel

De&&er.

Sta,n* C. :1;. 7s and International +eace&eeping - Issues* prospects and lessons

learned* @eitsc,rift fr auslVndisc,es Wffentlic,es (ec,t und Wl&errec,t* ol. 1

:1;* p. 3'-41

/,omas* B. :1'; KConflict and Conflict ManagementL in /,e andboo& of Industrial and

7rgani8ational +s#c,olog#* edited b# Marvin Dunnette. C,icago2 (and Mcall#*.

/,omas* B. !.* and Bilmann* (. . :1'4;. /,e /,omas-Bilmann Conflict Mode Instrument

Mountain ie%* C"2 C++* Inc.

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