THE RISORGIMENTO AND THE UNIFICATION OF ITALY1850- 1861

PIEDMONT-SARDINIA AND CAVOUR• Kingdom of Piedmont remained as the only independent state after

1848: entered a time of moderate reform

• King Victor Emanuel II- constitutional monarch of a stable, independent state (would become the first King of Italy in 1860)

• Buffer state (however was forced to pay Austria a punishment)

• 1852 Camillo di Cavour became Prime Minister- head of a government of middle class politicians- his goal: MODERNIZE Piedmont

CAVOUR• Great Britain was his

example

• Industrial might allowed for freedom of foreign affairs, dependent on no other

• Cavour, in his own mind wished for Piedmont to be a leading unification state- needed to industrialize first

CAVOUR’S INITIATIVES• Expansion of international trade- trade agreements with many European states-

independent

• Railway construction increased drastically

• Textile industries- silk, cotton and woollens- thrived

• All of the modernization of the economy and infrastructure came from Cavour providing government subsidies

• Shortage of coal and iron- key for industry

• Cavour was a classical liberal, spent his youth travelling western Europe and Britain

“I HAVE DISCOVERED THE ART OF DECEIVING DIPLOMATS. I TELL THEM THE TRUTH AND THEY NEVER BELIEVE ME”

- CAMILLO DI CAVOUR

CAVOUR AND LIBERALISM• Cavour seems the classic liberal in the British mould- however on closer

examination this may not be so…

• He increased military reform and spending (not liberal)

• Cavour never let the constitution hinder his actions- he used parliament when it suited him and used the monarchy when it suited him

• Ruled through executive order often and sought parliament support for actions after he already did them…

• Similar to who…

CAVOUR AND LIBERALISM• Piedmont’s electorate was 2% of the population

• He was in favour of unimpeded free market principles, however he wasn’t against the use of government subsidies to drive the economy where he wanted it to go

• A free press is a hallmark of liberalism- he did not hesitate in censoring the press often (including Mazzini’s)

THE CRIMEAN WAR• For the first time since 1815 the Great Powers would go to

war…in Russia

• The Crimean War broke the log jam created by the Congress of Vienna and maintained by Metternich- it opened up Europe for reform

• It would be this war that has the most profound impact on both the unification of Italy and Germany

THE CRIMEAN WAR• “politics hates a vacuum”- The Ottoman Empire had been in decline for

decades, creating a power vacuum in Asia Minor

• The Ottoman’s controlled the key maritime route between central Europe and the Mediterranean- the Dardanelles and the Bosphorus strait

• Multiple Turkish- Russo wars since the 1700’s over the control of this sea access

• As the Sultan’s power receded, Tsar Nicholas I hoped to gain what for generations had eluded the Romanovs- access to the mediterranean

THE CRIMEAN WAR• July 1853 Russian forces

occupy the Danubian principalities

• Ottoman Empire declares war

THE CRIMEAN WAR• France- interest in the Middle East, fear of Russian power in the region

• Britain opposed any access to the Mediterranean of the Russian fleet

• Therefore for their own interests, France and Britain supported the Turks in this war- moving both their fleets to the Black sea

• Late 1853 France and Britain declare war on Russia

• Weird problem here- no common border for the combatants- war would erupt on the Crimean Peninsula in 1854 as British and French troops landed

PIEDMONT AND THE CRIMEAN WAR• Austria had seen itself as the grand master of Central

Europe- she pursued the only course of action she had- neutrality

• When Russia evacuates the Danubian Principalities, Austria is more than happy to occupy them

• The neutrality by Austria led to very little power in the peace settlement after- and it is this point that leads to the process of unifying Italy under Piedmont

PIEDMONT AND THE CRIMEAN WAR• Cavour was very forward thinking- saw the potential that the war in Crimea

offered

• Backing of the major powers was needed if Piedmont was going to unite other Italian states

• Cavour calculated participation in the peace settlement that would occur after the war could allow for a ‘pitch’ to unite Italy or at least the right to some of the spoils of war

• He would be wrong…Piedmont saw only minor action in the war and was not given any respect toward Italian lands (after the war, French troops occupied Rome for protection, not Piedmont’s)

PIEDMONT AND THE CRIMEAN WAR• Nevertheless, the Crimean War altered Austria’s position in

Europe

• It allowed for foreign nations to determine issues on Austria’s borders and proved itself militarily weak in the face of Russia

• Cavour was at the table at the Congress of Paris and now had a war tested army

• Both Cavour and Napoleon III saw a new opportunity in Europe

THE WAR OF 1859• France seemed the best bet as a supporter to Italian Unification

• Napoleon III had already expressed himself as pushing for a more modern Europe against the old conservative version created at Vienna

• Cavour and Napoleon seemed to be on the same page- however Cavour was anti-clerical and Napoleon saw himself as the protector of the Pope

• Regardless, Cavour and Napoleon met secretly at Plombieres- alliance was made and a plan for the ensuing war with Austria

• The plan was to provoke war

WAR OF 1859• Read the handouts- understand how the war started, its

process and its outcome

AFTER 1860• The first phase of Unification was major success for Cavour- war,

and European interest was of vital importance to nation building

• After 1860 Cavour was set on Venetia- events in Sicily overtook him

• Once again local, class based concerns were the cause of the Sicilian revolts- Cavour stepped back, Garibaldi stepped in

• Cavour could not support the radicals led by Garibaldi, nor could you just give Garibaldi a free hand in the south…hmm…

1860• Cavour feared Austria intervening in the south- Cavour did not interfere

when Garibaldi conquered the Kingdom of Naples in Sept. 1860

• Cavour feared Garibaldi’s position- he now only had the Papal States and their pathetic army and Rome, with France’s troops- Garibaldi was in a good position- maybe he would unite Italy

• Cavour acted- he invaded the Papal States- assuring Napoleon he was doing it to stop the radical Garibaldi

• Piedmont and Garibaldi’s army met a the northern border of Naples- a very real prospect of war

THE UNIFICATION OF ITALY• Garibaldi made an unexpected move (either genius, desperate

or logical)

• He gave the Kingdom of Naples and the island of Sicily over to the king of Piedmont- Victor Emanuel (confirmed by plebiscite)

• The Kingdom of Italy was born

• Italia Irredenta (unredeemed Italy)- Rome and Venetia

PROBLEMS AFTER UNIFICATION• With unification comes mundane issues- taxes,

infrastructure, constitutional questions…and the death of Cavour

• 1861 Cavour dies with no other statesmen of his ability- a series of terrible administrations existed over the next five years

• Unification brought debt- each of the states was poor to begin with and Piedmont had bankrolled its unification movement with foreign debts

PROBLEMS AFTER UNIFICATION• Italy adopted a centralized structure- ignoring the localized nature

of Italy

• A centralized government had to harmonize language, taxes, weights and measures, currency, legal codes etc…

• This was very unpopular in the south- remember they fought for Garibaldi- a republican

• A series of civil wars erupted in the south- sapping the new country’s economy and her sense of national unity

PROBLEMS AFTER UNIFICATION• Rome and Venetia could not be unified with in Italy with diplomacy- war

was needed

• 1864- 1866 Prussia and Austria drifted toward war- the PM of Italy, La Marmora turned to Prussia and offered support (Bismarck liked that idea)

• Prussia was victorious over Austria and in return for their support, Prussia gave Venetia to Italy

• In 1870 France recalled its troops from Rome to fight against the Prussians- Italy occupies Rome

ITALY UNIFIED• Occupying Rome was only part of the problem- how to deal

with sensitivity toward the Pope

• Pius IX had turned against reform (remember?)- Italy agreed to give sovereignty of Vatican City and paid him a yearly allowance and allowed for the maintenance of Education throughout Italy

• (*Rome would not recognize Italy as a state until 1929)

ITALY UNIFIED AND FULL OF PROBLEMS

• Southern resentment

• Politics dominated by Northern Italians

• Inefficient and backward economy of the south

• Industry was focused in the north

• Southern reluctance to reform in land ownership and agriculture

• Victor Emanuel II was of the house of Savoy and had taken the throne of Italy- resentment in many areas

• Loyalty to the new country ran a distance third or fourth to most Italians

• Inadequate communication and transportation

• Italia Irredenta claimed more places then just Rome and Venetia- there were a lot of Italian speaking lands left out of the union

ITALIAN UNIFICATION: AN ASSESSMENT

• Italian Unification was an expression of Nationalism that was growing across Europe in the mid 19th century. Unification was the culmination of this growing nationalism

• Italy was ultimately accomplished as a result of the political machinations of men like Cavour, Emmanual and Garibaldi. Italian unification was a product of political agendas and rivalries

ITALIAN UNIFICATION: AN ASSESSMENT

• Italian unification was primarily the result of long term economic and social factors including growing industrialism and trade. Middle-class elites guided unification to entrench their political and economic position

• Unification was a result of growing liberalism that has been developing in the various territories of the Italian peninsula since the early 19th century. A united Italy was one of a number of possible outcomes of this development