THE RICE THAT FILIPINOS GROW AND AT THE LAST 100 YEARS · The Rice That Filipinos Grow ... breeding and propagating early maturing rice varieties to crop improvement • Improving

1

THE RICE THAT FILIPINOS GROW AND EAT:THE LAST 100 YEARS

John Calilan de Leon, Ph.D.Supervising SRS and Program Leader

Philippine Rice Research Institute

Brown Bag Seminar SeriesPhilippine Institute for Development Studies

May 13, 2004

2

INTRODUCTION

• Archaeological evidence on rice cultivation dates back to over 10,000 years ago• Rice may be the oldest crop in continuous cultivation• In 1978, evidence pointing to the earliest possible dating of rice cultivation in the Philippines

was found at the Andarayan site in Solana, Cagayan Valley• A dryland rice strain was in use as early as 3240±160 to 3400±160 BP• Rice in the country during second millennium (1522-1077) B.C.• Other records indicated that rice arrived in the Philippines sometime after 1500 B.C.• Information is fragmentary on the history of wetland rice cultivation in Southeast Asia• Shreds of pottery used as indicator of cereal agriculture, e.g. in the Cordilleras• This bolstered the view that the intensive cultivation of rice in terraced and irrigated fields

(payoh) was the contribution of the Ifugaos to the history of agriculture• Rice terraces believed to have been constructed 2,000-3,000 years ago• The native inhabitants of the country already growing and eating rice long before the

Spaniards, the Americans, or even the Japanese learned of the plant• There was rice first in the Philippines before there were Filipinos as we know ourselves

today by this unifying identity• Cultivated rice (Oryza sativa) is an annual grass that natural and human selection

transformed into an important food crop of the world• A wild perennial (O. rufipogon) and a wild annual (O. nivara) were its successive

progenitors following evolutionary time

The Rice That Filipinos Grow• Rice in the Philippines is traditionally and predominantly still a wet season crop• Until the 1940s, rice was normally grown with minimal crop care from June to November

following the cultures of upland, rainfed, and irrigated farming• Harvest was typical in late November or December when rainwater in the fields started to

recede and the period of dry months begin• Varieties available for planting from the early 1900s until the early 1960s covered a very

wide range of growth duration• The different varieties could be classified by 1914 as early (100-150 days), medium (150-

180 days), or late maturing (more than 180 days)• Late maturing varieties faced the danger of yield loss due to drought when the seasonal

rainfall ceases as early as September or October• The long maturity of many traditional varieties could be attributed to their strong sensitivity

to photoperiod• The period from 1845 to 1892 was described by Veneracion (2001) as “the most exciting for

agriculture in the Philippines during the Spanish regime.”• Scientific expeditions were sent over to document the state of things - from flora and fauna

to the use of lands and resources

3

• The years that led to the revolution in 1896 and the war in 1898-1900, however, changedrapidly the course of agriculture in the country

• Farmers got dislocated from tilling the land by being drafted into the war• Nearly the entire (90%) carabao population used as work animal for ricelands and sugar

estates had been slaughtered for food or died of diseases• Dikes and canals intended for irrigating crops were destroyed and became irreparable

without capital• Rice fields and orchards were infested by swarms of locusts presumably precipitated by the

occurrence of El Niño (drought) in the Asian continent at that time• The net effect of these events was a decimated output in agriculture from 1896 to 1903 (at

least)• A low estimated rice yield of 35 cavans per hectare• The importation of rice from Thailand and Vietnam

In search of the perfect rice varieties…• The need to overcome these conditions enabled researchers to recognize first the value of

breeding and propagating early maturing rice varieties to crop improvement• Improving and changing the rice plant insinuates a search - as in a hunt for a prized strain,

even a “perfect” variety, among alternative forms in existence• In the Philippines, this search formally began in 1901 with the creation of the insular Bureau

of Agriculture (BA)• The deliberate system to search for, breed, and distribute better rice varieties in the

Philippines over the last 100 years can be traced back to the activities of other institutionsand groups established after the BA

• UPCA in 1909• BPI in 1930• Maligaya Rice Experiment Station (MES) in 1931• BAEX, NCT Project in 1952• Philippine Seed Board in 1955• IRRI in 1960• NGA (NFA) in 1972 (1981)• PhilRice in 1985• Parallel with developments around the world

4

Timeline of rice varietal improvement…

Table 1. Historical development of high yielding cultivated rice varieties in the world1

1By context, farmers and/or plant breeders in Vietnam, China, Japan, Italy, Taiwan, Philippines, India.

Period (A.D.) Rice Variety or Type Known to Farmers or Plant Breeders

1100s Early maturingShort staturedHigh tilleringHigh yieldingFertilizer responsiveSemidwarfEarly maturingDisease resistantDay-length and temperature-insensitiveShort culmed to medium heightFertilizer-responsiveHigh yielding oEarly maturingImproved indicaShort-stature, semidwarf, tallInsect resistantHigh tilleringResponsive to high N-fertilizer (e.g. 100 kg/ha)Varieties from indica x japonica crosses

Early to medium maturing

1900s

1920s -1940s

1800s

1950s

the Philippine experience…

Table 2. Historical development of high yielding cultivated rice varieties in thePhilippines1

1As reported in the Philippines or by Filipino authors and their collaborators.2As cited in the report or the year of publication of the report.3Reference for a 1751 dating of an early maturing variety is by Fernandez (2000)

Year2 Rice Variety or Type Mentioned in Published Reports1

189319011911191719181920193219361939

1960

Early maturing3

High yieldingFertilizer-responsiveDisease resistantInsect resistantStrong culmFree stooling habit / high tilleringStrong rachillae / non-shatteringRatooning abilityPhotoperiod-insensitive / non-photoperiodicDwarf stature

5

Table 3. Timeline of important developments and technical advances in the improvement of rice varietiesin Philippines (and abroad)

Mendel’s results on biological inheritance duplicated by other scientists.Bureau of Agriculture (BA) created under the Bureau of Interior.Beginning of rice improvement by selection among endemic varieties and by plant

introduction.Pureline theory for self-pollinated crops elucidated and established by Johannsen.Central Luzon Agricultural School created.University of the Philippines College of Agriculture (UPCA) created.Rice improvement by head-to-row started to isolate productive strains from propagated

varieties.BA transferred to the Department of Agriculture and Natural Resources.Rice improvement by artificial hybridization initiated.Baybay Agricultural High School created.Strains of Ramelon (Ramai x Elon-elon) and Raminad (Ramai x Inadhica) developed.Bureau of Plant Industry (BPI) created; plant tissue culture demonstrated abroad.Maligaya Rice Experiment Station established.Plant Breeding Section in the BPI organized.Initial observations on hybrid vigor and recognition of the commercial potential F1 rice

reported.World War II years.Bureau of Agricultural Extension (BAEX) created; a rice institute for the Philippines

proposed.Cooperative Rice and Corn Improvement Program established and formalized.Philippine Seed Board (PSB) created4. Tissue culture of rice initiated in Japan.Start of development of BPI-76 by the BPI.Mutation breeding using X-ray radiation explored; first dwarf plant mutants obtained from

Milfor 6(2).International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) created.Start of development of C4-63 by the UPCA.Hybrid rice research initiated in China.IR8 released by IRRI.BPI-76, C4-63, IR8 released by the PSB.Evidence of somaclonal variation from rice tissue culture reported abroad.Disastrous crop yearNational Grains Authority created.Masagana 99 Program (M 99) launched.Hybrid rice research initiated at IRRI.Philippine Rice Research Institute (PhilRice) created.Successful production of first transgenic japonica and indica rice reported.Hybrid rice research initiated at PhilRice.National Seed Industry Council (NSIC) created and replaced the PSB.First hybrid rice variety developed in the country released by the PSB.

Event/MilestoneTime

190019011901

1903-1926190719091909

191619201924

1928-31193019311935

1938-39

1941-451952

1952-5419551957

1959-60

19601962196419661968196819711972197319791985

1988,1990198919921994

6

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

90 110 130 150 170 190 210 230

Maturity (days)

Var

iety

dsi

tribu

tion

(n=6

0)

0

5

10

15

20

25

90 110 130 150 170 190 210 230

Maturity (days)

Var

iety

dis

tribu

tion

(n=4

43)

Figure 1A. Maturity characteristics of rice varieties and strains inthe Philippines (c.1893 - c.1960)

Search # 1: Early maturing varieties• Many traditional varieties, contrary to popular perception, were in fact early maturing

(Figure 1).• Farmers, however, believed in the past that early maturing varieties do not produce as

much yield as the late maturing ones.• Umali and Tepora provided one of the critical information in 1955 that disproved this farmer

belief.• Records point to Vietnam as the country of origin of varieties with short growth periods.• The Champa varieties had been known to farmers there as early as 1,000 A.D.

Early maturity was associated with low yield

Table 3. (continued)

Event/MilestoneTime

19952001

First anther culture-derived rice variety in the country released by the PSB.

PhilRice leads the National Hybrid Rice Commercialization Program.

Figure 1B. Maturity characteristics of OSVR, PSBV and somereputable varieties for table quality

7

1

2

3

4

5

90 110 130 150 170 190 210 230

Maturity (days)

Var

iety

dis

tribu

tion

(n=3

9)

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

90 110 130 150 170 190 210 230

Maturity (days)

Var

iety

dis

tribu

tion

(n=6

0)

Figure 1C. Maturity characteristics of IR-variety series released inthe Philippines

Figure 1D. Maturity characteristics of PSB- and NSIC-variety seriesreleased in the Philippines

• Early maturing varieties probably differentiated from plants with weak sensitivity tophotoperiod

• They were also selected from areas where the rainy season was comparatively shorter orwhere irrigation water was reliable

• The standard varieties grown nowadays all belong to the early maturing category• They are also non-sensitive to photo-period and could therefore be grown any time of the

year• With improvements in irrigation systems, two seasons of successive rice crops became

tenable specially with early maturing varieties

Modern HYVs are early maturing

8

Search # 2: High yielding varieties• Rice was already the main article of food in these islands in 1573 (Diego de Artieda c.

1573)• The local inhabitants were used to harvesting large crops not only of rice (Father Pedro

Cirino c. 1590-1602)• The abundance of rice permitted the export of its excess to China (Jean Mallat, a member

of the French Geographical Society who visited the Philippines in c.1838-1842)• Overproduction of palay and the export of Philippine varieties of rice to Sevilla, Spain

(Economic Society of Friends of the Country, c.1855)• The so-called land frontier effectively elicited growth in Philippine rice domestic production

until the mid-1960s• Opportunities from the land frontier rapidly closed out in terms of average annual growth

rate in rice area from 1965 to 1980• The growth rate in Philippine population reached its most explosive levels also around this

period• These prompted the shift in production strategy - from opening of new rice areas to

breeding varieties with high yield potentials• See Figure 2

Figure 2. Average growth rates in rice area, production, and totalpopulation, Philippines

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

4

Ave

rage

ann

ual g

row

th ra

te (%

)

1920 1940 1960 1980 2000Year

AreaProduction��

�� Population

9

Search # 3: Varieties with strong culms• The traditional varieties of rice were mostly tall and their leaves were wide and prone to

drooping• Tall varieties with culm lengths ranging from 111 cm to 130 cm (descriptor code of 5 in

Figure 3, 4) were widely cultivated in the Philippines until the mid-1960s• Plant breeders believed that light interception and dry matter production is not very effective

in this type of plant architecture• As shown by the long experience of our farmers it was difficult to elicit economic response

to fertilizer application from many of these tall and leafy varieties• Low nitrogen fertilizer rates, e.g. less than 20 kg/ha, were commonly applied then which

helped minimize lodging• Studies conducted between 1911 and 1919 demonstrated the yield-incrementing effect of

fertilizer application especially when combined with use of selected seed• Selection for breaking strength of culm in rice was reported in the country (UPCA) in 1920.

Breaking strength is closely associated with lodging resistance• Short statured and fertilizer responsive varieties, known to Japanese and Taiwanese

farmers since the 1800s, reached our consciousness via IR8 and IRRI

1

21

41

61

81

101

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Culm length descriptor

Var

iety

dis

tribu

tion

(n=2

71)

Figure 3A. Culm length characteristics of rice varieties andstrains in the Philippines (c.1893-c.1960)

From lodging resistant but not semi-dwarfs

10

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

1 2 3 4 5 6 7


Var

iety

dis

tribu

tion

(n=3

9)

Figure 3B. Culm length characteristics of OSRV, PSBV and somereputable varieties for table quality

to HYVs with the semi-dwarfing gene

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

1 2 3 4 5 6 7


Var

iety

dis

tribu

tion

(n=3

9)

0

510

1520

2530

35

1 2 3 4 5 6 7


Var

iety

dis

tribu

tion

(n=5

6)

Figure 3C. Culm length characteristics of IR-series varietiesreleased in the Philippines

Figure 3D. Culm length characteristics of PSB- and NSIC-varietyseries released in the Philippines

11

From varieties with long, drooping leaves

1

41

81

121

161

1 2 3 4 5

Leaf length descriptor

Var

iety

dis

tribu

tion

(n=2

71)

1

5

9

13

17

21

1 2 3 4 5


Var

iety

dis

tribu

tion

(n=3

9)Figure 4A. Leaf length characteristics of rice varieties and

strains in the Philippines (c.1893-c.1960)

Figure 4B. Leaf length characteristics of OSRV, PSBV and somereputable varieties for table quality

12

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

1 2 3 4 5


Varie

ty d

istri

butio

n (n

=39)

0

5

10

15

20

25

1 2 3 4 5


Var

iety

dis

tribu

tion

(n=3

5)

to HYVs with shorter and erect leaves

Figure 4C. Leaf length characteristics of IR-series varietiesreleased in the Philippines

Figure 4D. Leaf length characteristics of PSB- and NSIC-varietyseries released in the Philippines

13

The Rice That Filipinos Eat• Rice as a bland staple traditionally provided the background to the various flavors and

eating patterns of the diverse Filipino diet• In interpreting Pigafetta’s notes (c.1521-1523) of “half-cooked and very salty viands” from a

local ceremony thus, Veneracion (2001) wrote that “What appeared as salty was becauseof a kind of meal meant to be balanced by rice for the main dish.”

Search # 4: Long, slender grained varieties• More than twenty years of consumer preference studies have indicated that Filipinos prefer

rice grains which are long, slender shaped, translucent, non-glutinous, white and aromatic• Between the 1980s to 2000 market samples have shifted from high to intermediate amylose

content and low to intermediate gelatinization temperature for softer cooked rice• Many of the varieties grown by our farmers until around 1960 belong to the long to extra-

long and intermediate to slender paddy grain types (Figure 5, 6)• Particular bias for long and slender rices is a relatively recent trend

1

6

11

16

21

5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Grain length (in mm).

Var

iety

dis

tribu

tion

(n=2

95)

1

2

3

5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Grain length (mm)

Var

iety

dis

tribu

tion

(n=4

1)

Figure 5A. Grain length characteristics of rice varieties andstrains in the Philippines (c.1893-c.1960)

Figure 5B. Grain length characteristics of OSRV, PSBV and somereputable varieties for table quality

14

1

2

3

4

5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Grain length (mm)

Var

iety

dis

tribu

tion

(n=3

9)

1

2

3

4

5

6

5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Grain length (mm)

Var

iety

dis

itrib

utio

n (n

=60)

Figure 5C. Grain length characteristics of IR- variety seriesreleased in the Philippines

Figure 5D. Grain length characteristics of PSB- and NSIC-varietyseries released in the Philippines

1

6

11

16

21

26

31

36

1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5

Grain shape (L/W)

Varie

ty d

istri

butio

n (n

=295

)

Figure 6A. Grain shape characteristics of rice varieties andstrains in the Philippines (c.1893-c.1960)

15

1

2

3

4

5

6

1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5

Grain shape (L/W)

Var

iety

dis

itrib

utio

n (n

=41)

Figure 6B. Grain shape characteristics of OSRV, PSBV and somereputable varieties for table quality

1

2

3

4

5

6

1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5

Grain shape (L/W)

Var

iety

dis

tribu

tion

(n=3

9)

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0

Grain shape (L/W)

Var

iety

dis

tribu

tion

(n=6

0)

Figure 6C. Grain shape characteristics of IR- variety seriesreleased in the Philippines

Figure 6D. Grain lshape characteristics of PSB- and NSIC-varietyseries released in the Philippines

16

The traditional Philippine rice varieties…

• Apostol, Azucena, Bengawan, Bluebonnet, Burma, Champasorn, Consejala, DemeraraCreale, Dourado Agulha, Fortuna, Khao Bai Sri, Magsanaya, and Mangasa are examplesof old Philippine varieties or strains with extra-long paddy grains

• Varieties with slender shapes included BE-2, Bengawan, Binicol, Bluebonnet, BrondolPutih, Burma, Century 52, Consejala, Dourada Agulha, Dinalaga, Fortuna, Kinandang Pula,Malagkit, and Mangasa

• Guinata and Milagrosa belonged to the bold shaped varieties

excellent in table quality and aromatic

• Azucena, Binacroy, Fortuna, Kinandang Pula, and Magsanaya reportedly had good to verygood table qualities

• Other varieties with recorded reputation for very good to excellent table qualities wereApostol, Binirhen, Canoni, Elon-elon, Inadhica, Kinandang Puti, Kinamalig, Macaraniag,Makapilay Pusa, Milbuen, Milfor 6-2, Palawan, Ramelon, Raminad, Seraup Besar 15, andWagwag

• Guinata and Kinandang Pula were documented to be scented or aromatic as well• Aromatic or fragrant rices belong to the so-called specialty type rices which can be sold at

more expensive prices in the market• Usually, the aroma compound of such varieties is better recognized when the grain is boiled• It was reported in 2002 that pre-soaking for 1 hour in water achieved the same effect• Other aromatic varieties reported in literatures are Azucena, Binicol, Milagrosa, Milfor 6,

Mimis, and Sinampablo• In the case of unscented varieties aroma is commonly introduced before steaming is done

using the leaves of the pandan plant (screw pine) which also acted as a flavor enhancer

“Setback” from a modest breeding project

• Initiated a breeding project to retrieve many of these germplasm materials from genebankstorage and possibly re-introduce their previously appreciated culinary values

• An initial (though quite to be expected) “setback” was that many of the varieties wererepresented in the germplasm collection by more than one accession (seed deposit)number

• Different accession numbers and seeds of varieties like Milagrosa and Wagwag• See photos

17

OSVR 97 OSVR 98 OSVR 99 OSVR 100 OSVR 113 OSVR 114 OSVR 115 OSVR 116


OSVR 105 OSVR 106 OSVR 107 OSVR 108 OSVR 124OSVR 121 OSVR 122 OSVR 123


OSVR GUIDE (©JC de Leon/ PhilRice 2003) 97. Kinandang Puti 74 98. Kinandang Puti 240 99. Kinandang Puti 326 100. Makapilay Pusa 75 101. Pinursigue 123 102. Pinursigue 196 103. Pinursigue 263 104. Makapilay Pusa 251 105. Inilang-ilang 22 106. Binicol 78 107. Milfor 6 82 108. Pinulot 84 109. Milbuen 85 110. Mangazar 91 111. Tjere Mas 3 112. Guinatos 93 113. Wagwag 137 114. Wagwag 202 115. Wagwag 268 116. Wagwag 310 117. Wagwag 311 118. Fortuna 70 119. Fortuna 188 120. Fortuna 234 121. Peta 4 122. Peta 52 123. Peta 54 124. Peta 118 125. Peta 174 126. Peta 181 127. Peta 203 128. Peta 205.

About 2,500 accessions in all

From the high table quality of C4-63G

• In the market rice is sold as top or high quality rice, standard rice, household rice, andbroken rice

• The distinction is mainly dictated by the percentage of broken rice grain permissible foreach class

• Among the released varieties of UPCA, C4-63G was the most prominent because of itsexcellent grain quality

• From 1968 until 1985, C4 was the check variety for grain quality evaluation in the NCT forrice

18

To millers’ “mystical” IR64 variety

• In 1985 the PSB released IR64 for national cultivation• Miller and consumer preference for this variety has become unprecedented• This kind of attraction to it persists to this day• IR64 replaced C4-63G as the reference variety for eating quality, which is tender and soft,

both in sensory evaluation and breeding• Almost always IR64 commands a premium price in the farmer-paddy trader-miller

marketing channel• See Figure 7• A recent study by Roferos, Felix and Juliano (2003) demonstrated that several other

varieties are in fact similar to or better than IR64• The implication of this is related to the unreasonable classification and cheaper pricing of

highly similar but more productive varieties as “rumble” or literally “not like IR64”• The varieties that clustered with IR64 in the cited study included PSB Rc1, PSB Rc14, PSB

Rc18, PSB Rc22, PSB Rc42, PSB Rc54, PSB Rc58, PSB Rc64, PSB Rc72H (Mestizohybrid), PSB Rc78, PSB Rc80, PSB Rc88, PSB Rc104, and Sinandomeng

FARMERS

FARMERS’COOPERATIVE

PRIVATEMILLERS

FLGC

NFA

CONSUMERS

RETAILERS

WHOLESALERS

PADDY TRADERS

Figure 7. Rice Marketing Channels

19

• Exactly when did Filipinos start eating well-polished or white rice?• After the introduction of steam-powered rice mills in the 1830s?• In 1751, when a local method of cooking polished dehulled rice first before boiling?• Brown rice have higher vitamins, fiber, and mineral content but low bio-available iron• IR68144 brown rice grain has a reported iron concentration of about 21 mg/kg• This line can be used to expand the food-based improvement of human nutrition

A golden rice story

Do you like to eat brown rice?

• Existing information suggest that rice does not contain any vitamin A, C or D• In the endosperm of rice, for example, the precursor of vitamin A (retinol) called b-carotene

is not naturally present• This inherent limitation in the nutritional value of rice was the basis for a seven-year genetic

engineering research that introduced to the world in 1999 the prototype of a b-carotene-producing japonica rice

• This was dubbed as the “golden rice”• The development of the prototype golden rice in the rice plant system is important for

achieving future breakthroughs• The usual cross breeding approach followed by rigid selection can now be utilized to

transfer this important trait• Historically, developing countries solved the vitamin A deficiency problem through periodic

dosing, education on food selection, and food fortification• In the case of rice, there were reports suggesting that fortification products “have not been

suitable for field use in the Philippines”

Unlinking rice from exacerbating influences

• Rice is a “technology” driven by standards appropriate for solving or delivering the needs ofthe local industry

• Rice must be optimally unlinked with “influences that exacerbate inequity” –• the natural landscape and its clime,• access to material resources,• the sustainability of the former• those man-made or attributable to stake holders or market players• others . . .• Rice must remain most beneficial to as many of its users as possible

CLOSING REMARKSAmong the foods established by culture as necessarily Filipinos’ it is probably rice that

nurtured most our gift for improvisation – the ability to make do or devise something moreappropriate given our seasons, our lands, our varieties, our means, our inequalities, our mealplans.

Documents

THE RICE THAT FILIPINOS GROW AND AT THE LAST 100 YEARS · The Rice That Filipinos Grow ... breeding and propagating early maturing rice varieties to crop improvement • Improving