Geological Society of AmericaSpecial Paper 405

2006

The record of impact processes on the early Earth: A review of the first 2.5 billion years

Christian Koeberl†Department of Geological Sciences, University of Vienna, Althanstrasse 14, A-1090 Vienna, Austria

ABSTRACT

Collisions and impact processes have been important throughout the history ofthe solar system, including that of the Earth. Small bodies in the early solar system,the planetesimals, grew through collisions, ultimately forming the planets. The Earthstarted growing ca. 4.56 Ga in this way. Its early history was dominated by violentimpacts and collisions, of which we only have circumstantial evidence. The Earth wasstill growing and had reached ~70%–80% of its present mass when at ca. 4.5 Ga a Mars-sized protoplanet collided with Earth, leading to the formation of the moon—at leastaccording to the currently most popular hypothesis of lunar origin. After its forma-tion, the moon was subjected to intense post-accretionary bombardment between ca. 4.5and 3.9 Ga. In addition, there is convincing evidence that the Moon experienced aninterval of intense bombardment with a maximum at ca. 3.85 ± 0.05 Ga; subsequentmare plains as old as 3.7 or 3.8 Ga are preserved. It is evident that if a late heavy bom-bardment occurred on the Moon, the Earth must have been subjected to an impactflux at least as intense as that recorded on the Moon. The consequences for the Earthmust have been devastating, although the exact consequences are the subject ofdebate (total remelting of the crust versus minimal effects on possibly emerging lifeforms). So far, no unequivocal record of a late heavy bombardment on the early Earthhas been found. The earliest rocks on Earth date back to slightly after the end of theheavy bombardment, although there are relict zircons that have ages of up to 4.4 Ga(in which, however, no impact-characteristic shock features were found so far). Interms of evidence for impact on Earth, the first solid evidence exists in the form ofvarious spherule layers found in South Africa and Australia with ages between ca. 3.4and 2.5 Ga; these layers represent several (the exact number is still unknown) large-scale impact events. The oldest documented (and preserved) impact craters on Earthhave ages of 2.02 and 1.86 Ga. Thus, the impact record for more than half of the geo-logical history of the Earth is incomplete and not well preserved, and we mostly haveonly indirect evidence regarding the impact record and its effects during the first2.5 b.y. of Earth history.

Keywords: early Earth, Hadean, impact processes, origin of the Moon, impact spherules,late heavy bombardment.

Koeberl, C., 2006, The record of impact processes on the early Earth: A review of the first 2.5 billion years, in Reimold, W.U., and Gibson, R.L., Processes onthe Early Earth: Geological Society of America Special Paper 405, p. 1–22, doi: 10.1130/2006.2405(01). For permission to copy, contact editing@geosociety.org.©2006 Geological Society of America. All rights reserved.

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†E-mail: christian.koeberl@univie.ac.at.

INTRODUCTION: CRATERING PROCESSES

It has only recently been recognized in the geological scienceshow important the process of impact cratering is on a planetaryscale (e.g., Wilhelms, 1987; Taylor, 1992b; Wetherill, 1994).During the last few decades, planetary scientists and astronomers(e.g., Wilhelms, 1987; Shoemaker et al., 1990; Taylor, 1992b;Wetherill, 1994) have demonstrated that the surfaces of theMoon, Mercury, Venus, Mars, the asteroids, and the moons ofthe outer gas planets are all covered (some surfaces to satura-tion) with meteorite impact craters (Fig. 1). Impact cratering is ahigh-energy event that occurs at more or less irregular intervals(although over long periods of time, an average cratering ratecan be established; e.g., Shoemaker et al., 1990). Part of theproblem regarding recognition of the remnants of impact eventsis the fact that terrestrial processes (sedimentation, erosion, platetectonics) either cover or erase the surface expression of impactstructures on Earth. Many impact structures are covered byyounger (i.e., post-impact) sediments and are not visible on thesurface. Others were mostly (or entirely) destroyed by erosion.In some cases, ejecta have been found far from any possibleimpact structure. The study of these ejecta has led, in somecases, to the discovery of the source impact craters. Importantwitnesses for the characteristics of the impact process are the

affected rocks. As described in more detail below, crater struc-tures are filled with melted, shocked, and brecciated rocks.Some of these are in situ, and others have been transported, insome cases considerable distances, from the source crater, repre-senting so-called ejecta. Some of the ejecta material can fallback directly into the crater, and most of the ejecta end up closeto the crater (<5 crater radii; these are called proximal ejecta),but a small fraction may travel much greater distances and isthen considered distal ejecta. The recent reviews by Montanariand Koeberl (2000), Koeberl (2001), and Simonson and Glass(2004) describe impact ejecta in some detail.

To determine whether specific rocks have been subjectedto impact, it is necessary to identify criteria that allow us to dis-tinguish the effects of such processes from those resulting fromnormal terrestrial geological processes. Only the presence ofdiagnostic shock metamorphic effects, and in some cases thediscovery of meteorites or traces thereof, are generally acceptedas providing unambiguous evidence for an impact origin. Shockdeformation can be present in macroscopic form (shatter cones)or in microscopic form (see below). The same two criteriaapply to distal impact ejecta layers and allow to confirm thatmaterial found in such layers originated in an impact event at apossibly still unknown location. As of mid 2005, ~170 impactstructures have been identified on Earth based on these criteria.With one exception (Vredefort, see below), all of these areyounger than 2 Ga.

In nature, shock metamorphic effects are uniquely charac-teristic of shock levels associated with hypervelocity impact,and the only natural process known to date associated with sucheffects is the hypervelocity impact of extraterrestrial bodies.Shock metamorphic effects are best expressed in various brecciasthat are found within and around the crater structure. Duringimpact, shock pressures of ≥100 GPa and temperatures ≥3000 °Care produced in large volumes of target rock. Such values aresignificantly different from conditions for endogenic metamor-phism of crustal rocks, and shock compression is not a thermo-dynamically reversible process; thus, most of the structural andphase changes in minerals and rocks are characteristic of the highpressures (5 to >50 GPa) and extreme strain rates (106–108 s–1)associated with impact. As described in various review papers(e.g., Stöffler and Langenhorst, 1994; Grieve et al., 1996; Mon-tanari and Koeberl, 2000; Koeberl, 2002), a wide variety ofshock metamorphic effects has been identified. The best diag-nostic indicators for shock metamorphism are features visible inthe polarizing microscope. They include planar microdeforma-tion features (especially the well-known planar deformationfeatures, PDFs); optical mosaicism; changes in refractive index,birefringence, and optical axis angle; isotropization (e.g.,formation of diaplectic glasses); and phase changes (high pres-sure phases; melting).

Another important line of evidence for impact processescomes from geochemical indications of the presence of anextraterrestrial component (cf. Koeberl, 1998). In this respect thestudy during the past 25 yr of rocks from the Cretaceous-Tertiary

2 C. Koeberl

Figure 1. Densely cratered part of the surface of the moon. This Apollo16 metric camera image (AS16–3021) shows the Moon’s eastern limband far side. The lower left part of the image shows a portion of theMoon visible from Earth. The dark area at the 8 o’clock position onthe edge is Mare Crisium (~900 km diameter of outermost ring). Tothe right of that is Mare Smythii. The upper right area shows the heav-ily cratered lunar far side.

(K-T) boundary has been very important (Alvarez et al., 1980).Only elements that have high abundances in meteorites but lowabundances in terrestrial crustal rocks are useful for such studies,for example, the siderophile platinum-group elements (PGEs:Ru, Rh, Pd, Os, Ir, and Pt) and other siderophile elements (e.g.,Co, Ni). Elevated abundances of siderophile elements in impactmelt rocks or breccias (and impact ejecta) compared to targetrock abundances can be indicative of the presence of either achondritic or an iron meteoritic component, provided that thiselevated abundance can be unambiguously shown not to be ofterrestrial (e.g., mantle) origin. Contamination from achondriticprojectiles (stony meteorites that underwent magmatic differen-tiation) is more difficult to recognize, because they have signifi-cantly lower abundances of the key siderophile elements. It isalso necessary to sample all possible target rocks to determinethe so-called indigenous component (i.e., the contribution to thesiderophile element content of the impact melt rocks from thetarget). Iridium is most often determined as a proxy for all PGEs(Fig. 2), because it can be measured with the best detection limitof all PGEs by neutron activation analysis (which was, for a longtime, the only more-or-less-routine method for Ir measurementsat sub-ppb abundance levels in small samples). Studies ofimpact glasses from some small craters for which the meteoritehas been partly preserved indicated that the siderophile elementscan show differences in their interelement ratios (fractionation)

compared to the initial ratios in the impacting meteorite. Othertypes of fractionation have also been observed; for example,impact ejecta from the Acraman structure in Australia showdeviations from chondritic PGE patterns due to low-temperaturehydrothermal alteration (see summary in Koeberl, 1998).

These problems can, in part, be overcome by the use of iso-topic tracers for extraterrestrial components. Most prominentamong those are the Os and Cr isotopic methods. In the firstcase, 187Re undergoes β– decay to 187Os. In meteorites (andmantle rocks), the Os/Re elemental ratio is ~10, whereas incrustal rocks it is ~0.1. This leads to significant differences inthe 187Os content of meteorites and crustal rocks relative toother Os isotopes (the nonradiogenic 188Os is commonly usedfor normalization purposes), so that the 187Os/188Os ratio ofmeteorites is ~0.1, whereas that of crustal rocks is much higher.In addition, chondritic meteorites typically contain severalhundred ppb of Os, and crustal rocks contain on the order of0.02 ppb Os. Thus, even a small (<1 wt%) chondritic compo-nent completely dominates the Os isotopic composition of abreccia or melt that is predominantly composed of crustal rocks(see the review by Koeberl and Shirey, 1997, for more details).With this method it is possible to determine small (subpercent)contributions of extraterrestrial material to breccias and meltrocks, but it is not possible to determine the meteorite type.

In contrast, the Cr isotopic method (cf. Shukolyukov andLugmair, 1998) relies on the fact that all terrestrial rocks have auniform Cr isotopic composition, whereas different meteoritetypes have different isotopic anomalies (the difference betweencarbonaceous chondrites and other meteorites being particularlysignificant). The Cr isotopic method has, thus, the advantageover both the use of Os isotopes or PGE abundance ratios ofbeing selective not only regarding the Cr source (terrestrialversus extraterrestrial) but also regarding the meteorite type.The complicated and time-consuming analytical procedure is,however, problematic. Also, a significant proportion of the Crin an impactite, compared to the abundance in the target, has tobe of extraterrestrial origin. As discussed in detail by Koeberlet al. (2002), the detection limit of this method is a function ofthe Cr content in the (terrestrial) target rocks that were involvedin the formation of the impact breccias or melt rocks. For exam-ple, if the average Cr concentration in the target is ~185 ppm(i.e., the average Cr concentration in the bulk continental crust),only an extraterrestrial component of more than 1.2% can bedetected. In contrast, the Os isotopic method can detect meteoriticcomponents at about one tenth of these abundance levels. Thus,while being more selective than the Os isotopic method, the Crisotopic method is less sensitive.

After this short discussion of the methods for the recogni-tion of the products of impact events, I will now briefly reviewthe impact history of the Earth from its origin to ca. 2 Ga. Thisinterval covers more than half of the history of our planet butincludes only one impact structure plus limited evidence in theform of several ejecta layers for a few other impact eventsbetween 3.4 and 2.5 Ga.

Record of impact processes on the early Earth 3

Figure 2. Siderophile elements, especially the platinum group ele-ments, typically have high contents in extraterrestrial materials andsignificantly lower contents in terrestrial rocks. Shown here is therange of the contents of the platinum group element iridium in typicalterrestrial and extraterrestrial rocks (diagram after Koeberl, 1998).

ACCRETION OF THE EARTH AND THE MOON-FORMING IMPACT

As noted above, collisions between planetary bodies havebeen of fundamental importance in the evolution of the solarsystem. Studies of the past several decades have shown fairlyconvincingly that the planets formed by collision and hierarchicalgrowth starting from small objects, i.e., from dust to planetesimalsto planets (e.g., Wetherill, 1994; Taylor, 1992a, 1992b). It iscurrently assumed that the Earth and other planets formed byaccretion of smaller objects (cf. Canup and Agnor, 2000). Lateduring the accretion of the Earth (some time around or after4.5 Ga), when the Earth had ~70%–90% of its final mass, it wasprobably impacted by a Mars-sized body, which has become theprevailing hypothesis for the origin of the Moon (e.g., Canupand Asphaug, 2001; Canup, 2004a, 2004b; and papers in Canupand Righter, 2000). The consequences of such an impact eventfor the proto-Earth would have been severe and would haveincluded almost complete remelting of the Earth, loss of anyprimary atmosphere, and admixture of material from theimpactor. The material remaining in orbit after accretion of theMoon would have continued to impact onto the Earth (and theMoon) for millions of years or more. Core formation wascoeval with the accretion, and the core of the Mars-sizedimpactor is likely to have merged with the core of the proto-Earth almost instantaneously.

It has been known for some time that the age of the Earth isclose to that of most meteorites at 4.55 Ga (see review in, e.g.,Taylor, 1992b). More recent studies, using a variety of isotopesystems, have yielded somewhat younger ages for the Earth andhave provided information on the accretion history of the Earth(e.g., references in Canup and Righter, 2000; Zhang, 2002). Ofcourse, it has to be defined what “age of the Earth” reallymeans: when the meteorites formed, which are dated atca.4.57–4.54 Ga (see Zhang, 2002), no large planetesimals orplanetlike objects existed. The question that has to be asked is,how long did it take for the Earth to accrete? Can we set the“age” of the Earth to when it was accreted to 50% of its currentmass, or, as more commonly done, 90%? Was the core forma-tion completed at the time? Was it fast or slow? All these agesare difficult to impossible to determine at this time; it is likelythat any “reset age” would be the age of the last giant impact(most likely the moon-forming impact event, see below).

A combination of the U-Pb, Hf-W, I-Pu-U-Xe, Sm-Nd, andNb-Zr isotopic systems provides some information. New Sm-Ndisotopic data, using the 142Nd/144Nd ratio, indicate that globaldifferentiation of the Earth already seems to have occurred at4.53 Ga, while the accretion must still have been in progress(Boyet and Carlson, 2005). As pointed out by Zhang (2002),information from the U-Pb and Hf-W isotopic systems rules outrapid accretion (at ca. 4.55 Ga) followed by smooth and contin-uous core formation but allows at least two different models, asillustrated in Figure 3. I-Pu-U-Xe data indicate a relativelyyoung age of 4.45 ± 0.02 Ga for Xe closure, and the earliest

possible formation age of the crust, as constrained by U-Pb,Sm-Nd, and Nb-Zr isotope data, is ca. 4.45 ± 0.05 Ga. Zhang(2002) summarized these data and discussed that they allow fortwo scenarios for the accretion and differentiation of the Earth:(1) continuous Earth accretion and simultaneous core formationwith a mean age of 4.53 Ga (representing a mean accretion timeof 30 m.y. from the age of the meteorites) (Fig. 3A); or (2) asingle age of 4.45 ± 0.02 Ga for all events related to instanta-neous differentiation (e.g., core formation), probably represent-ing the time of the last giant impact; at this time Earth hadaccreted ~80%–90% of its present mass (Fig. 3B). In the firstscenario, there were numerous large impacts, but they were notpowerful enough to rehomogenize the whole Earth. The last ofsuch impacts (by a body the size of the Moon or greater)occurred at ca. 4.45 Ga; it stripped the atmosphere from theEarth and remelted the crust of the Earth. In contrast to the sec-ond option, in this version some history of the proto-Earthbefore 4.45 Ga is preserved in the isotope data. However, otherdata (see below) indicate that the impacting body was larger

4 C. Koeberl

Figure 3. Two possible scenarios for the accretion of the Earth, coreformation, late impact, and Xe retention. Both versions agree with theavailable noble gas evidence. Diagrams after Zhang (2002). (A) Dur-ing continuous accretion that leads to the formation of the Earth, thecore also continually forms and increases in size, until a giant impactof a lunar-sized body stripped the Earth of its early atmosphere andremoved any Xe that had formed previously. After the giant impact Xeis retained, and thus the Xe retention age indicates the time of theimpact. (B) In a more likely scenario (see text), the Earth grew, from4.54–4.45 Ga, to ~70% of its present mass (the accretion was probablyfaster early on and then slowed down exponentially). The core grewas well. At 4.45 Ga, a Mars-sized impactor hit the Earth, causing strip-ping off of the atmosphere (and resetting the Xe isotope system) andtotal rehomogenization of the core and mantle, with some contributionto them from the impactor. The addition of mass from the impactor ledto a sudden increase in total Earth mass. The core reformed fairlyquickly, probably within just a few million years, and this was fol-lowed, after 4.45 Ga, by accretion of the remaining Earth mass in theform of late veneers.

than Moon sized (e.g., Canup, 2004a, 2004b). The essentialaccretion and core formation of the Earth appears to have beencompleted ca. 100–50 Ma after the initial collapse of the solarnebula (e.g., Lee and Halliday, 1995, 1996; Halliday et al.,1996), in a time scale apparently more stretched out than thatfor smaller planetesimals and Mars (e.g., Wetherill, 1994).

Much of the material impacting on the Earth during itsgrowth (pre–4.45 and post–4.45 Ga) is thought to have been inthe form of differentiated planetesimals, although undifferenti-ated volatile-rich objects probably also played a part. Aspointed out by Halliday (2004), this complex accretion historyis not well simulated by existing isotopic models. Customarily,two-stage U-Pb and Hf-W model ages have been used to definean artificial time, at which the Earth’s core instantaneouslyformed or last equilibrated with the silicate Earth. Such consid-erations might have been useful for understanding the broadpicture, but calculations based especially on short-livednuclides are of limited importance for open systems like theEarth, which grew over a significant time interval. Even the ini-tial accretion of the embryo of the Earth took (possibly consid-erably) longer than 5 m.y., depending on the amount of gaspresent in the solar nebula (cf. Taylor, 1992b), rendering two-stage model ages meaningless in terms of precise rates orabsolute time. In particular, this is the case when considering ashort-lived isotope like 182Hf, which has a half-life of 9 m.y.,because late core formation would have no effect on the W iso-topic composition of the Earth. The two-stage Hf-W model agefor the Earth’s core would be 30 Ma (e.g., Lee and Halliday,1995, 1996; Halliday, 2004), which defines the last time theEarth could have globally re-equilibrated. However, Halliday(2004) notes that there is no basis for believing that such anevent occurred, and as far as W isotopes are concerned, roughlyhalf the Earth’s core could have formed much later.

As mentioned above, it is currently believed that the Moonmost likely formed in the collision of a Mars-sized planetaryembryo with the proto-Earth. The exact mass of the Earth at thetime of this impact is not certain but was probably on the orderof 80%–90% of its current mass (e.g., Canup, 2004a, 2004b;Kleine et al., 2004). Hydrodynamic simulations (see Canup,2004a, 2004b) of potential Moon-forming impacts revealedthat the most favorable conditions for producing a sufficientlymassive and iron-depleted (Taylor, 1982) protolunar diskinvolve collisions with impact angles of ~45° and impact veloc-ities of less than 4 km/s. Such impacts place about one lunarmass of material into Earth orbit outside the Roche limit, with~10%–30% of the material consisting of vapor. Most of theorbiting material, which eventually became the Moon, wasderived from the impactor, agreeing with geochemical consid-erations (cf. Taylor, 1982, 1992b, 1993; papers in Canup andRighter, 2000).

Accretion of the Moon from the protolunar disk followedvery rapidly. This impact event is thought to have been the lastof the major collisions that were involved in the accretion of theEarth, and the enormous energy deposited onto the Earth during

the impact event was thought to have been responsible for leav-ing the Earth covered with a global magma ocean of debatedduration (e.g., papers in Canup and Righter, 2000), leading tothe establishment of the equilibrium distribution of the moder-ately siderophile elements between core and mantle toward theend of the Earth’s accretion. Tungsten isotopic considerationsare important for understanding the early history of the Earth.The small excess of 182W in the bulk silicate Earth (BSE) com-pared to the isotopic composition of chondrites indicates thatcore formation occurred during the lifetime of the now-extinct(9 m.y. half-life) parent isotope 182Hf. The potential of tungstenisotope geochemistry is illustrated in Figure 4. Figure 4A showsa case in which the Moon-forming impact occurred 55 m.y.after T = 0 (= origin of the solar system), with a bulk silicateHf/W ratio of the impactor mantle (BSI; bulk silicate impactor)of 15, the same as that of the BSE before impact, and 26% ofthe impactor core equilibrated with the BSE; the giant impactwould drastically increase the ε182W value of the BSE. Onlywith these assumptions can a present-day ε182W value of zerobe accomplished. However, the Hf/W ratios in planetary mantleswere unlikely constant (Halliday, 2004). A second possibility,shown in Figure 4B, involves a Hf/W ratio of 5 in both BSI andBSE (similar to that of Mars) and a giant impact at 50 Ma; inthis case a present-day value of ε182W of zero is achieved ifonly 4% of the tungsten in the mantle of the impactor equili-brates with the BSE during the giant impact. The exact timingof these events is still debated, however (e.g., Kleine et al.,2004). The results of these considerations (Halliday, 2004)show that the initial Hf/W ratios of the BSI (and possibly theBSE) were less than those in the Moon or silicate Earth today,maybe similar to values inferred for the Martian mantle.

The Moon-forming impactor planet, called Theia (e.g.,Halliday, 2004), contributed ~10% of the (then) mass of theEarth, thus contributing a further 9% of the current Earth mass.After this event, there was probably no significant amount ofaccretion (Halliday, 2004), because significant further accretionwould have disrupted the identical oxygen isotopic compositionsof the Earth and the Moon. Calculations related to the formationof the Moon (Canup, 2004a, 2004b) indicate that after the Moon-forming impact the Earth was more than 95% accreted. This isnot inconsistent with a so-called “late veneer” of extraterrestrialmaterial that is required to explain, for example, the relativelyhigh PGE contents of the Earth’s mantle (see, e.g., papers inCanup and Righter, 2000), but in terms of total mass of the Earthit was not important, having probably contributed not more than1% of additional Earth mass. Independent evidence for a lateveneer comes from Os isotopic studies (Morgan, 1985) and acomparison of mantle rocks with the composition of the bodiesthat bombarded the ancient lunar crust (Morgan, 1986).

The age of the Moon itself is not well defined, dependingon which isotope system is used. For example, U-Pb and Sm-Ndages of ca. 50–120 Ma (relative to the age of the solar system)have been quoted (see review by Halliday, 2004, for references).Initial Hf-W isotope data indicated a model age of ca. 55 Ma

Record of impact processes on the early Earth 5

(Lee et al., 1997), but a major portion of this was produced fromcosmogenic 182Ta, leading to a revised Hf-W model age of ca.30 Ma (Halliday, 2004) to 40 Ma (Kleine et al., 2004). However,such a number assumes that the Moon formed from undifferen-tiated (with respect to Hf-W) chondritic material, which isunlikely. A variety of considerations, as described by Halliday(2004), lead to the current best estimate of the Hf-W age of theMoon between 44 and 54 Ma, which agrees with an independentestimate, based on a different W isotope data set by Kleine et al.(2004). After the giant impact with the proto-Earth, the Moonseems to have accreted rapidly (e.g., Canup, 2004b).

The consequences of such an impact event for the proto-Earth would have been severe, ranging from almost completemelting and formation of a magma ocean, thermal loss of pre-existing atmosphere, changes in spin rate and spin-axis orienta-tion, to accretion of material from the impactor directly orthrough rapid fallout from orbital debris below the Roche limit.Much of the material blasted off in the impact eventually reim-pacted the Earth; some of the ensuing Earth-orbiting debriswould have rapidly coalesced to form most of the Moon andprobably some smaller moonlets. Some of this geocentricallyorbiting material would have continued to impact both bodiesfor perhaps tens of millions of years (e.g., Canup, 2004b) afterthe Moon-forming impact.

In terms of the evolution of a magma ocean, Kleine et al.(2004) found from their data that formation of a magma oceanas a result of the (late) Moon-forming impact event alone is notsufficient to remove the radiogenic 182W from the Earth’s mantlethat would have accumulated during early core formation. Theysuggest that more than half of the metal-silicate equilibrationwas already achieved before the formation of the Moon, indi-cating core formation by metal-silicate separation had alreadyoccurred in earlier magma oceans. Kleine et al. (2004), thus,concluded that the Moon-forming impact was only the latest ina series of large-scale impact events that led to several episodesof magma ocean formation or that a magma ocean existed for aprolonged time period, probably during most of the early periodof Earth formation (however, see below for considerations onthe early crust of the Earth). New trace element fractionationdata and 146Sm-142Nd geochronology indicated that an episodeof mantle fractionation took place at around 4.46 ± 0.11 Ga,very soon after the end of the main accretion period and the for-mation of the Moon (Caro et al., 2005).

The period on Earth between the end of accretion and theproduction of the oldest known crustal rocks is commonlyreferred to as the Hadean Eon (e.g., Harland et al., 1989), whichis a chronostratic division. Its terminal boundary is actually notdefined on the Earth; Harland et al. (1989) equated it with theOrientale impact on the Moon. As explained by Ryder et al.(2000), Orientale is the last of the largest impact basins on theMoon, but it is difficult to date absolutely, as Orientale is farremoved from any sites sampled so far. Based on crater counts,the abundance of secondary craters, and stratigraphic consider-ations, it is older than the oldest affected mare plains and, thus,

6 C. Koeberl

Figure 4. Two possible scenarios for the evolution of the tungsten iso-topic composition of the Earth, after Halliday (2004). Both are tuned toreproduce the present-day ε182W value (near zero) for the bulk silicateEarth (BSE). There is a small, but resolvable excess of ε182W of theBSE compared to chondrites, which is explained by core formationduring the lifetime of 182Hf, the precursor of 182W. The step-pattern inthe values for the Earth’s core and the BSE indicate accretion of largeplanetesimals followed by equilibration between mantle and core. Thecurve showing the evolution of the total (bulk) Earth is identical to theone for chondritic meteorites, which are believed to be composition-ally similar to the source of the planetesimals that formed the Earth. Incase (A), a (Moon-forming) giant impact happens at 55 Ma after thebeginning of the formation of the solar system. The ratio of Hf/W of 15in the BSE is assumed to be identical to that in the mantle of theimpactor (BSI; bulk silicate impactor). This model requires that 26%of the core of the impactor, called Theia, would equilibrate with theBSE. In case (B), the giant impact occurs already at t = 50 Ma, and aratio of Hf/W of only 5 in the BSI and BSE is assumed. In this modelonly 4% of the core of Theia would need to equilibrate with the BSE,but even such a number is difficult to reconcile with the W isotopiccomposition of the Moon. These diagrams demonstrate how model-dependent the implications regarding timing and amount of coreformation and giant impact are.

construed as older than ~3.80 Ga. In this review the termHadean is used to represent the time period between the forma-tion of the Moon at ca. 4.5 Ga and the beginning of the contin-uous terrestrial rock record at 3.8 Ga.

Walter and Trønnes (2004) described the physical andchemical processes of the differentiation of the early Earth as aconsequence of the impact-induced magma oceans. The depthand duration of a magma ocean depends on a variety of parame-ters that include the mass and energy deposited onto the proto-Earth and the initial temperature and the presence or absence ofan atmosphere. Without an atmosphere, heat radiation intospace is very efficient, and the deeper parts of the magma oceancould cool and crystallize within thousands of years (with theupper part of a shallow upper mantle staying molten longer).With a rock vapor or steam (H2O and/or CO2) atmosphere pres-ent, the cooling times of even the lower parts of a magma oceancould be prolonged considerably, up to several tens of millionsof years (e.g., Abe, 1997; Matsui and Abe, 1986; Walter andTrønnes, 2004). Following the differentiation and solidificationof the magma ocean, the first crust formed.

WHAT HAPPENED TO THE EARTH’S OLDEST CRUST?

The terrestrial rock record, in form of crustal rocks,extends back to only ~89% of the history of the planet to ca.3.90 Ga (with the oldest rocks showing very limited exposuresat Isua and Akilia, Greenland, and Acasta, Canada; see, e.g.,papers in Fowler et al., 2003; Hartlaub et al., this volume). Therecord is improved somewhat if we include the information thatcan be obtained from rare detrital zircon grains found in rocksat Mount Narryer and Jack Hills, Western Australia (e.g.,Compston and Pidgeon, 1986), the oldest one of which wasdated at 4.40 Ga (Wilde et al., 2001). So the question is, whathappened to the crust that must have existed before 3.9 Ga?

It is likely that the Moon-forming impact led to large-scalemelting of the Earth and the existence of an early magma ocean.Mantle temperatures in the Hadean were much higher (probablyby a factor of up to five) than today as a result of a higher heatflow (about half of all heat produced by 235U decay to 207Pb wasreleased during the Hadean, adding several hundred degrees tothe internal temperature of the Earth) and thermal energyreleased during the impact of late accretionary bodies (e.g.,Davies, 1985). The terrestrial heat flow at the surface at 4.45 Gawas probably on the order of 1.3 × 1014 W, compared to a present-day value of 4 × 1013 W (Smith, 1981). Due to the hotter mantleand the temperature dependency of the dehydration reactionsthat control how much water is recycled to the mantle, theHadean mantle was drier than its modern counterpart. The ocean,which was already in existence probably as early as 4.4 Ga(Valley et al., 2002), contained most of the Earth’s water and itsvolume may have been up to twice that of today’s oceans.

The nature and amount of the earliest crust on Earth hasbeen debated, but comparison with other planets suggests thatthe earliest crust on Earth was basaltic (e.g., Taylor, 1989; Arndt

and Chauvel, 1991). As noted by Russell and Arndt (2005),high-degree melting of hot dry Hadean mantle at ocean ridgesand plumes resulted in a crust ~30 km thick, overlain in placesby extensive and thick mafic volcanic plateaus, but continentalcrust, by contrast, was relatively thin and mostly submarine.Morphological, mineralogical, and geochemical characteristicsof the 4.4–4.1 Ga zircons (see below) indicate a composite gran-itoid source of continental provenance for these zircons. Thus,there is evidence for at least minor amounts of felsic igneousrocks in the Hadean, which may have formed in small amountsfrom remelting of basaltic crust that sank back into the mantle(e.g., Taylor, 1989). Granitic crust requires multistep derivationfrom the primitive mantle by recycling of subducted basalticcrust through a “wet” mantle, which will slowly lead to anincreasing amount of granitic crust through time (Taylor andMcLennan, 1995). Thus, the Hadean Earth was most probablycharacterized by a thick basaltic crust covered by an ocean, withlittle dry land and minor amounts of felsic rocks (granitoids).

Russell and Arndt (2005) give an excellent description ofthe nature of the early crust, its probable composition, and platetectonic processes operating in the Archean, and also give avivid account of the topography of the Hadean Earth, which dif-fered significantly from that of the modern Earth. Because ofthe higher concentrations of radioactive elements in the Hadeangranitic crust, it was hotter, less viscous, and thinner than mod-ern continental crust, and, due to the hotter mantle, the conti-nental lithosphere was thinner. The Hadean oceanic crust wasmuch thicker than modern oceanic crust, as thick or thicker thanthe early Archean continental crust. Due to the larger oceanmass, a greater area of the Earth’s surface was flooded. In con-trast to today, most of the continents were submerged, and onlymountain ranges at convergent margins and vast volcanicplateaus occasionally breached the ocean surface (Russell andArndt, 2005), resulting in little subaerial weathering and ero-sion of the mainly submerged continents and comparatively littleclastic sedimentation.

Grieve et al. (this volume) considered the possibility thatearly large impact events led to the formation of felsic crust onthe Hadean Earth. From computer modeling of such large-scaleimpacts, they found that impact melt volumes exceed transientcavity volumes at transient cavity diameters greater than ~500 kmon the Earth. Impact basins on the Moon would have to be muchlarger—on the order of 300 km in diameter—before such effectswould occur, and the form of such large basins on the Earthwould be unlike Mare Orientale (a common analog) but morelike the Valhalla multi-ring basin on the Jovian moon Callisto.These structures would, according to Grieve et al. (this volume),be characterized by extensive mafic impact melt pools that woulddifferentiate, leading to the crystallization of more felsic rocks.Thus Hadean impacts (between ca. 4.45 and 3.9 Ga) provide amechanism to reprocess the initial basaltic Hadean crust to pro-duce pockets of felsic crust, as evidenced by pre–3.9 Ga relict zir-con crystals (see below), without necessitating crustal recyclingmechanisms. And scaling of lunar impact basins yields a cumu-

Record of impact processes on the early Earth 7

lative melt production on the Hadean Earth by such basins aloneto the order of 1011–1012 km3. Grieve et al. (this volume) suggestthat the cumulative felsic rocks produced through differentiationof such impact melt pools could approach volumes comparableto 50% of the current continental crust.

Very few rocks on Earth with ages approaching 3.9 Gahave been found, but some rare older detrital zircon grains up toca. 4.4 Ga are known (e.g., Compston and Pidgeon, 1986; Maaset al., 1992; Amelin et al., 1999). In contrast to the suggestionby Grieve et al. (this volume) that crustal recycling is not nec-essary in the Hadean, the data obtained by Amelin et al. (1999)do indicate that such recycling did occur, however. Theseauthors studied the Lu-Hf isotopic signatures of single zirconsfrom the Narryer Gneiss Complex (Australia) with ages of up to4.14 Ga. They found that about half the grains they analyzedseemed to have formed by remelting of significantly oldercrust, indicating that crust production and reworking seem tohave been important processes during the Hadean.

In addition, there is some evidence that the Earth’s uppermantle had already undergone some differentiation at the timeof formation of the oldest rocks preserved on the Earth’s sur-face (e.g., Harper and Jacobsen, 1992; McCulloch and Bennett,1993; Bowring and Housh, 1995; Kamber and Moorbath, 1998;Kamber et al., 1998; Boyet et al., 2003). In particular, there isevidence from 142Nd isotopic studies (involving the short-lived146Sm-142Nd decay, half-life 103 m.y.) that the Earth’s uppermantle had already undergone some differentiation at the timeof formation of the oldest rocks preserved on the Earth’s sur-face, but until recently there was disagreement about the realityof the observed isotopic anomaly. However, the existence of142Nd anomalies in Isua rocks has been confirmed by Caro et al.(2003). These authors found a statistically significant 142Ndanomaly of 15 ± 4 ppm, which, together with initial ε143Ndvalues, indicates an age of mantle differentiation of 4.46 ±0.12 Ga. This age could well be related to the Moon-formingimpact discussed above, which led to large-scale melting of theEarth and the existence of an early magma ocean, in which themantle differentiation occurred. Early crust formation, which isindicated by the isotopic data, may have been aided by thehigher than present heat flow. There has been a lot of debateregarding the existence of plate tectonics in the Hadean (or evenin the Archean; e.g., Kröner and Layer, 1992), but the evidencefor recycling of early crust (e.g., Kamber et al., 2003; Harperand Jacobsen, 1992; McCulloch and Bennett, 1993; Bowringand Housh, 1995; Kamber and Moorbath, 1998; Kamber et al.,1998; Boyet et al., 2003) coupled with the higher heat flow (seediscussion above on mantle temperatures) seems to demand thatplate tectonics, even in limited form, as well as accretion offelsic crust, were operating shortly after the solidification of themagma ocean. Any late accretionary bodies would have addedfurther thermal energy to the already elevated budget of heatflow in the early Earth (e.g., Smith, 1981; Davies, 1985; Taylor,1993). Alternatively, the mechanism suggested by Grieve et al.(this volume), through production of large amounts of felsic

crust in differentiated impact melt sheets, may also account forthe production and recycling of differentiated early crust.

Grieve (1980), Frey (1980), and Grieve and Parmentier(1984) discussed the effect of large impact events resulting inimpact structures with diameters exceeding 100 km on theancient Earth, with ages larger than 3.8 Ga. By scaling the lunarimpact record to the Earth these authors concluded that ~2500–3000 impact structures with diameters larger than ~100 kmcould have formed. Their simulations yielded close to 1000craters with diameters exceeding 200 km, and possibly someten structures with diameters larger than that of the Imbriumbasin on the Moon (~1300 km diameter). This crater populationwould have covered ~40% of the surface of the Earth. Using theminimum estimate for the cratering frequency, Grieve (1980)derived a cumulative energy of ~1029 J added to the HadeanEarth due to impact events and concluded that the net effect oflarge impact events was to localize and accelerate a variety ofendogenic geological activities.

Recent data indicate that the magma ocean may have beenshorter lived than previously thought and that differentiation andrecycling could have started shortly after the Moon-formingimpact. Work by Peck et al. (2001) and Wilde et al. (2001)showed the existence of detrital zircon cores from the NarryerGneiss Terrane in Western Australia with ages of up to 4404 ±8 Ma, very close in age to the inferred age of the Moon-formingimpact event. These authors found variations in the oxygen iso-topic composition of these zircons that indicate that these zir-cons have grown in evolved granitic magmas and showevidence for low-temperature surficial processes, including dia-genesis, weathering, and low-temperature alteration (see alsoSleep et al., 2001). In other words, the data seem to indicate thepresence of liquid water on the surface of the Earth ~50 m.y.after the Moon-forming giant impact and the presence of gra-nitic (not just basaltic) pockets of continental crust. Graniticcrust requires multistep derivation from the primitive mantle byrecycling of subducted basaltic crust through a “wet” mantle,which will slowly lead to an increasing amount of granitic crustthrough time (Taylor and McLennan, 1995). Valley et al. (2002)called, thus, for a cool early Earth and took these data to indi-cate that the frequency of meteorite impacts during the timespan between 4.4 and 4.0 Ga was less than previously thought.

Recently, a study by Watson and Harrison (2005) providedindependent confirmation of the cool early Earth with waterconcept by determining the crystallization temperatures of theWestern Australian Hadean zircons, using a geothermometerbased on the titanium content of these zircons. Their datashowed that the crystallization temperatures of these zirconscluster at ~700 °C, which is indistinguishable from tempera-tures of granitoid zircon growth today and strongly suggests aregulated mechanism producing zircon-bearing rocks duringthe Hadean. The low temperatures found by Watson and Harri-son (2005) substantiate the existence of wet, minimum-meltingconditions within 200 m.y. of solar system formation and fur-ther confirm the earlier suggestion (see above) that Earth had

8 C. Koeberl

settled into a pattern of crust formation, erosion, and sedimentrecycling as early as 4.35 Ga.

These zircons are the only record that persisted fromHadean times. It would be interesting to study these Hadean zir-cons (or at least their cores, as most of them have been over-grown later) for any shock effects, although this could bedifficult because of later annealing. The question has beenraised why there is no preserved crust of >4 Ga (e.g., Bowringand Housh, 1995), and it has been suggested (e.g., Koeberl andSharpton, 1988; Koeberl et al., 2000) that any early Hadeancrust was destroyed at around the same time that massiveimpacts reshaped the surface of the Moon (see next section).Any existing crust would have been mixed back into the uppermantle. Any sedimentological record, which would host infor-mation specific to surface environments such as the rate andviolence of meteorite impact and the presence of life, has beenlost from Hadean times.

A LATE HEAVY BOMBARDMENT AT 3.9 GA?

In contrast to the youthful age for most of the crust of theEarth, the surface of the Moon displays abundant evidence ofan intense bombardment at some time between its originalcrustal formation and the outpourings of lava that form the darkmare plains. Even prior to the Apollo missions, these plainswere calculated to be ca. 3.6 Ga based on crater counting statis-tics and realistic flux estimates, and, thus, the heavy bombard-ment was inferred to be ancient (Hartmann, 1966). Isotopeanalysis of lunar highland samples showed isotopic resettingfrom thermal heating, for which there is abundant evidence interms of heating and melting by impact events with ages ofaround 3.9–3.8 Ga. The most ancient volcanic rocks from mareplains have ages of ca. 3.8 Ga (see, e.g., Taylor, 1982; Wil-helms, 1987). The highland ages have been interpreted to eitherrepresent a short and intense “late” heavy bombardment periodat 3.85 ± 0.05 Ga (e.g., Tera et al., 1974; Wetherill, 1975; Ryder,1990) or the tail end of an extended post-accretionary bom-bardment (e.g., Baldwin, 1974; Hartmann, 1975), as discussedin detail by Hartmann et al. (2000). It should be noted that theterm “late heavy bombardment” (LHB) has been used by dif-ferent authors to denote different things. On the one hand, it isused to describe the long-term (but decreasing) heavy bom-bardment between the formation of the Earth (and Moon) atca. 3.8 Ga, and on the other hand it has been used to describe anintense spike in bombardment around 3.85 Ga. Herein, I use theterm LHB in the latter sense.

As mentioned above, the accretion of the Earth appears tohave been completed ~50–100 m.y. after the initial formationof the solar nebula, defining the initiation of the so-calledHadean Eon. Whereas there is almost no evidence of terrestrialwitnesses to the Hadean Eon, the pre-Nectarian and Nectarianperiods cover this time interval on the Moon. Soon after theformation of the Moon, the feldspathic highland crust formed(e.g., Taylor, 1982). On Earth such a crust did not form, probably

because feldspar-rich anorthosite melts are buoyant only in theabsence of water, and the Moon, having originated in thevolatile-depleting giant impact event, had not even traces ofwater left. The morphology of the highlands of the Moonrecords numerous impacts that occurred prior to the extrusionof the volcanic flows that form the mare that so clearly markthe near side of the Moon today (e.g., Wilhelms, 1987).Geochronological studies of brecciated highland samplesshowed that impact-related thermal events are concentrated atca. 3.9–3.8 Ga.

The best way to date an impact event is from a clast-free orclast-poor impact melt (cf. Deutsch and Schärer, 1994), andRyder (1990) discussed the lack of impact melts in the samplecollections that are older than ca. 3.95–3.92 Ga (Fig. 5); this isunlikely to be the result of resetting of all older ages, given thedifficulties of such resetting without complete melting in animpact event (Deutsch and Schärer, 1994). Thus, the lack ofsuch ages in lunar impact melts can be taken as evidence thatthere were no significant impact events prior to that time, inagreement with the interpretations of Valley et al. (2002) andWatson and Harrison (2005) regarding the “cool early Earth”between ca. 4.4 and 4 Ga. There is not enough space here toreview the arguments for the ages of the large impact basins(now Maria) on the Moon, and the reader is referred to Ryderet al. (2000) and Stöffler and Ryder (2001) for details. It should

Record of impact processes on the early Earth 9

Figure 5. Cumulative amount of impact melt in the lunar highlands,after Ryder (1990). The curve labeled “actual” refers to earlier data thatdid not take into account the lack of impact melt rock samples with agesgreater than 3.9 Ga; if corrected for this effect, as explained by Ryder(1990), the curve is shifted toward the left and results in the curvelabeled “actual samples of impact melt.” Both curves deviate signifi-cantly from the one that was calculated for a continuous heavy bom-bardment as proposed by Hartmann (1966, 1975) or Baldwin (1974).

be noted, though, that all large impact basins have formationages of ca. 4–3.8 Ga (the magma that filled these impact basinsto form the Mare is, of course, younger, at ca. 3 Ga).

The most likely ages are for the Imbrium Basin, 3.85 ±0.02 Ga; Nectaris, ca. 3.90 Ga; Serenitatis, 3.893 ± 0.009 Ga;and Crisium, ca. 3.89 Ga, with several other basins, e.g.,Herzsprung and Humorum, having formed after Nectaris(Ryder et al., 2000). Thus, there was considerable bombardmentof the Moon in the 60 m.y. between 3.90 Ga and ca. 3.84 Ga.Recent work by Cohen et al. (2000) and Kring and Cohen(2002) confirmed that the ages of impact melts from the lunarmeteorites, which constitute random collections of lunar sur-face material, also cluster in the same age bracket (Fig. 6); theseobservations support the interpretations of Ryder (1990, 2002)and Ryder et al. (2000). This period of bombardment ended at3.85 Ga with the near simultaneous creation of the Imbrium,Schrödinger, and Orientale basins.

The data summarized by Ryder et al. (2000) indicate amassive decline in the flux of bombardment on the Moonover a short period of time. The cratering rate derived from thesurface of the Nectaris ejecta, which have an age of 3.90 Ga,is a factor of four higher than the rate calculated fromImbrium ejecta, which, in turn, is a factor of two to fourhigher than that for the oldest mare plains (=3.80 Ga). Thus,during the period 3.90 Ga to ca. 3.85 Ga the flux was ~1000times greater than it is now and still a few hundred times

greater in the subsequent 50 m.y. It is possible that thedecline took place over only the first 10 of these 50 m.y., sothat by 3.84 Ga or 3.83 Ga the flux was decreasing to levelssimilar to present-day levels.

An independent argument in favor of an LHB can also bemade using the masses of basin-forming projectiles on theMoon. Ryder (2001, 2002) provided a detailed discussion ofthis topic, so a short summary will suffice. The masses of theImbrium and Orientale projectiles, for instance, have beenestimated at between 8 × 1020 to 2 × 1021 g and 4 × 1020 to1.5 × 1021 g, respectively. Thus, the aggregate mass of the ~15Nectarian and early Imbrian basin-forming projectiles wouldbe on the order of 1021 to 1022 g. Given that the formationages of these basins are within ~80 m.y. (see Fig. 7), this leadsto a lower limit of the accretion rate on the Moon of ~1.2 ×1013 g/year. This is about one to two orders of magnitudeabove the smoothly declining curve of lunar accretion andthree orders of magnitude above a back-extrapolated currentaccretion rate. If we assume a much longer age spread forthese basins (Nectaris age at 4.12 Ga), the average massaccretion rate of at least 3 × 1012 g/year for 300 m.y. is stillabout an order of magnitude larger than the back-extrapolatedcurve (solid line in Fig. 7). If one assumes that the mass accre-tion in the first case is the tail end of the early lunar accretionand not a spike, this means that back-extrapolating the masses

10 C. Koeberl

Figure 6. Idealized histogram of ages of 31 impact melt clasts fromlunar meteorites, after Cohen et al. (2000). The shaded bar marks theage constraints of the LHB (late heavy bombardment) as derived byRyder (1990) and Ryder et al. (2000). These measurements provide anindependent confirmation of the lack of impact melt ages of >3.9 Ga,as noted by Ryder (1990). In this case there cannot be any bias fromone or two large impacts that might have dominated the Apollo rockcollections.

Figure 7. Various interpretations of the mass flux (accretion rate) onthe Moon (simplified after Koeberl, 2004; modified after Ryder, 2001,2002). Ages of the most important major impact basins are indicated.The solid line is the present-day background flux (constrained by pres-ent-day accretion rates and lunar impact data; e.g., Culler et al., 2000)extrapolated back in time toward the origin of the solar system. Thecurve marked LHB indicates the spike in the accretion rate that is sug-gested to be the LHB. The dotted line indicates an accretion curve thatincludes the masses of the basin-forming projectiles; this curve isunlikely, because it leads to the accretion of the Moon at 4.1 Ga insteadof 4.5–4.4 Ga (indicated by the gray band, which marks the age of theMoon obtained from isotopic constraints).

of basin-forming projectiles accreting onto the Moon between3.8 and 4 Ga indicates that the current mass of the Moon wasexceeded already at ca. 4.1 Ga instead of 4.45 Ga. An alterna-tive (but similar) interpretation of the early impact record byArrhenius and Lepland (2000) is shown in Figure 8. Thus, theevidence marshaled by Ryder (1990, 2001, 2002), Ryder et al.(2000), and Kring and Cohen (2002) makes it difficult not toaccept that a cataclysmic LHB occurred in the inner solarsystem at ca. 3.85 Ga. Such a peak in impact flux in the innersolar system was also noted by Bogard (1995) on the basis ofmeteorite ages.

Norman et al. (2002) recognized that chemical evidencefor multiple impact events and the clear signatures of specifictypes of meteoritic impactors in the Apollo 17 melt brecciasshow that the lunar crust was not comprehensively reworked byprior impacts from 4.5–3.9 Ga, an observation more consistentwith a late cataclysm than a smoothly declining accretionaryflux. Late accretion of chondritic material during a 4.0–3.8 Gacataclysm may have contributed to siderophile element hetero-geneity on the Earth but would not have made a significant con-tribution to the volatile budget of the Earth or oxidation of theterrestrial mantle.

Thus, while there is only limited evidence of the Hadeanimpact history on the Earth, the evidence from the Moon,which preserves the early impact history of the solar system somuch better than the Earth, is convincing. Therefore, it seemsquite likely that an LHB really did happen in the inner solarsystem (cf. also Bogard, 1995; Kring and Cohen, 2002). Thisraises the question regarding the source of the impactors. Itneeds to be emphasized that the spike in the impact flux in theinner solar system could have been relatively steep, i.e., itcould be that the time window was less than 100 m.y., because

the current limits of our knowledge of the lunar impact agesare given by the precision of the geochronologic methods. Thespike could have had a half-life of only 20 or 30 m.y. In addi-tion, it is necessary to have a supply of large bodies, as theimpactors that formed the large lunar basins must have beenseveral tens of kilometers (maybe up to 50 km) in diameter,and there must have been many of them. This makes a short-term disturbance of the asteroid belt a rather unlikely source.Recent studies in celestial mechanics indicate a possible mech-anism that could supply a short-term spike in an otherwisesteady or decreasing background flux of impactors (Zappalàet al., 1998) from asteroidal sources, but, as discussed byMorbidelli et al. (2001), asteroids from the main belt are arather unlikely source of impactors for the LHB, because it isdifficult to envision a mechanism that would deliver a short-term flux increase into the inner solar system.

A new idea was suggested by Levison et al. (2001), whonoted from calculations of the accretion of planets that Uranusand Neptune did not form at the same time as the terrestrialplanets and Jupiter and Saturn, but that their formation wasdelayed until ca. 3.9 Ga. Once these planets started accreting,which would have happened very rapidly (within 10–20 m.y.),abundant planetesimals would be scattered throughout the solarsystem and could have been responsible for the LHB. The pos-sibility that (proto)–Kuiper-Belt objects are somehow relevantfor the LHB is an intriguing one. The mass flux into the innersolar system at the time of the LHB must have been significant.Values ranging from ~6 × 1021 to 1023 g of material accretedeach by the Moon, Mars, and Earth have been calculated (e.g.,Ryder, 2001, 2002; Levison et al., 2001). It can be assumed thatonly a fraction of the objects entering the inner solar systemwould be accreted by the planets and the Moon. Thus, the totalamount of matter injected into the inner solar system couldamount to a sizeable fraction of the total mass of the asteroidbelt. Mechanisms to destabilize several percent of the mass ofthe asteroid belt are difficult to quantify, although the model ofouter planet migration of Levison et al. (2001) also causesinstability in the asteroid belt. In contrast, the mass of objects inthe paleo–Kuiper Belt was several orders of magnitude largerthan the mass of the asteroid belt. Destabilization of theseobjects would provide a much more plausible source of projec-tiles for the LHB. As summarized by Koeberl (2004), it is con-ceivable that within a few 100 m.y. after formation of Neptunethis body had slowly migrated into a planetesimal-rich zone,whereupon it started to accrete more mass and rapidly migratedoutward toward 40 AU, in the process scattering the proto–Kuiper Belt objects all over the solar system, with the LHB inthe inner solar system being a consequence of this process. Veryrecently, Gomes et al. (2005) provided detailed numerical cal-culations that confirm that the formation of the outer planetsand the delayed migration of Uranus and Neptune outward canprovide a qualitative and quantitative explanation of the LHB.This is the first time that a viable and internally consistentmechanism for the LHB has been found.

Record of impact processes on the early Earth 11

Figure 8. An alternative depiction of the possibilities of the earlyimpact record, after Arrhenius and Lepland (2000). The dashed lineshows the back-extrapolated exponential decline curve, assuming acontinuously declining heavy bombardment similar to that envisionedby Hartmann et al. (2000), whereas repeated asteroid impact showerscould also “wipe the slate clean” in terms of an earlier impact record.The solid line shows the preferred interpretation of a late heavy bom-bardment spike centered around 3.85 Ga.

EVIDENCE FOR A LATE HEAVY BOMBARDMENTON THE EARTH?

In any given time span, the Earth has been subjected to ahigher impact flux than the Moon, as it has a larger diameterand a much larger gravitational cross section, thus making it aneasier target to hit (e.g., Maher and Stevenson, 1988; Oberbeckand Fogleman, 1989; Gogarten-Boekels et al., 1995; Zahnleand Sleep, 1997). If an LHB occurred on the Moon, the Earthwas subject to scaling of the same impact flux due to the ratioof the cross sections (Sleep et al., 1989), which would haveresulted in an impact rate ≥20 times greater than the lunar one,comprising both more and larger impact events. The conse-quences for the hydrosphere, atmosphere, and even the litho-sphere of Earth at that time must have been devastating (Zahnleand Sleep, 1997; Grieve, 1980; Frey, 1980).

Given the evidence for an LHB on the Moon and else-where as discussed above, it is clear that during that time theEarth must have been subjected to an even more intense bom-bardment. Thus, the question arises if there is any evidence ofthis bombardment preserved on Earth. The oldest rocks onEarth, from Acasta in Canada and the Isua/Akilia area inGreenland (e.g., papers in Fowler et al., 2003), are the obviousplaces to conduct such a search. In an early work, Appel (1979)reported finding chromite grains in Isua rocks with sizes of10–30 µm and of compositions unlike those found in othersimilar rocks, which he interpreted as being of extraterrestrialorigin. It is noticeable that chromite grains are also all thatremains in more or less unaltered form of the late Ordovicianfossil meteorites reported by, e.g., Schmitz et al. (2003). Thus,it is conceivable that the chromite grains found by Appel(1979) in Isua rocks could be remnants of the earliest docu-mented flux of extraterrestrial material. However, no detailedfollow-up studies of this material have been made. Cr isotopestudies could be helpful if ever sufficient numbers of thesechromites could be extracted.

In a more recent attempt to find a possible earliest Archeanextraterrestrial component, samples of some of the oldest rockson Earth from Isua, Greenland, were analyzed by Koeberl et al.(2000) for their chemical composition, including the PGE abun-dances. The idea was to search for a signature similar to what isobserved in some ejecta layers (e.g., Koeberl, 1998). Unfortu-nately, the results were ambiguous, and no clear meteoritic sig-nature was found, as discussed in detail by Ryder et al. (2000).A similar study by Anbar et al. (2001) on rocks from the nearbyAkilia Island, southwestern Greenland, also failed to detect anysignificant amount of Ir that would indicate an extraterrestrialcomponent. In addition, zircon extracted from the rocks at Isuawere studied by Koeberl et al. (2000) for the possible presenceof shock metamorphic effects similar to those found in morerecently shocked zircons from impact deposits (e.g., Bohoret al., 1993). Zircon is a very resistant mineral and would beexpected to exhibit impact-related shock features if it had beensubjected to any impact events in the past. The petrographical

studies of Isua zircons failed to show evidence for shock meta-morphism (Koeberl et al., 2000).

Several possible reasons could explain the absence of anyevidence from these samples for an LHB on Earth. First, thenumber of samples was probably too small. Second, calcula-tions that correlate impact melt production with crater dimen-sion (Melosh, 1989; Cintala and Grieve, 1994, 1998; Grieve etal., this volume) show a breakdown of such a correlation forvery large impact structures. As the magnitude of the impactincreases, the melt volume relative to the transient crater sizeincreases, with a larger proportion of melt being retained insidethe crater and the depth of melting for large impact structuresexceeding the depth of excavation. Thus, the large-scale melt-ing associated with such large impacts will actually reduce theamount of shocked rocks that are formed and preserved. In suchimpact events, which produce impact structures of several hun-dred kilometers in diameter, thermal metamorphism could bemore important than shock metamorphism. However, craterssmaller than a few hundred kilometers in diameter would stillproduce abundant shocked rocks.

Furthermore, while the Isua rocks are usually considered tohave an age of ca. 3.85 Ga (e.g., Mojzsis et al., 1996), it is onlythe cores of zircons in these rocks that have such high ages. Ithas been argued that while the zircons are indeed >3.8 Ga, therocks themselves may only be ca. 3.65 Ga (e.g., Moorbath andKamber, 1998; Moorbath et al., 1997; Moorbath, 2005). In thiscase, the LHB would have long ceased and no direct evidencefor an extraterrestrial component could be obtained. Indeed, thedata and arguments of Mojzsis et al. (1996), who used carbonisotopic compositions of graphite in apatites from these Isuarocks to suggest that life could have evolved as early as 3.85 Ga,have been shown to be problematic for a variety of other rea-sons as well (e.g., van Zuilen et al., 2002; Fedo and White-house, 2002; Lepland et al., 2005; and see below). Thus, it ispossible that the influence of impact events on early life couldhave been severe (e.g., Sleep et al., 1989; Zahnle and Sleep,1997), although Ryder (2002) suggested that this influence didnot necessarily lead to sterilization of the planet.

Aside from the intriguing chromite grains reported by Appel(1979), the only evidence for an LHB on the Earth seems to comefrom recent tungsten (W) isotopic studies of Schoenberg et al.(2002), who found W anomalies in ca. 3.85 Ga metasedimentaryrocks from Greenland (Fig. 9). Such an anomaly, if real, is diffi-cult to explain by anything but an extraterrestrial component(although Bolhar et al., 2005, consider another mechanism, e.g.,increased neutron irradiation effects on the early Earth). How-ever, it is difficult to understand why a similar meteoritic signalwould not show up in the PGE abundances, as high W abun-dances are not common in meteorites. In fact, Frei and Rosing(2005) searched for such a meteoritic signature in similar sam-ples from the Isua Supracrustal Belt in Greenland using thechromium isotopic method and found no trace of an extraterres-trial component; they, thus, comment that they cannot confirmthe findings of Schoenberg et al. (2002). Thus, little if any evi-

12 C. Koeberl

dence of an LHB phase at 3.85 Ga is preserved on Earth, but thereason may well be that the LHB destroyed any previous impactrecord with the production of enormous amounts of melts on theEarth at that time due to large-scale impact events (Cintala andGrieve, 1994, 1998), erasing any traces even of the LHB.

IMPACTS AND THE ORIGIN OF LIFE ON EARTH

The accretionary flux in the inner solar system from ca.4.4–4.0 Ga seems to have been more benign (Valley et al.,2002) than assumed earlier (e.g., Sleep et al., 1989). When

scaled to Earth, Ryder (2002) calculated that even the impactenergies associated with the bombardment between ca. 4.4 and3.9 Ga may not have produced ocean-evaporating, globallysterilizing events, in agreement with the conclusions of Valleyet al. (2002). Earlier discussions that such events took place arebased on the extrapolation of a nonexistent lunar record to theHadean (Ryder, 2002). The impact situation on the Earth fromca. 4.4–3.8 Ga may have been comparatively (to the LHB)peaceful, and the impacts themselves during that time couldhave been thermally and hydrothermally beneficial. Ryder(2002) surmised that the origin of life could have taken place atany time between 4.4 and 3.85 Ga, given the current impactconstraints, and that there is no justification for the claim thatlife originated (or reoriginated) as late as 3.85 Ga in response tothe end of hostile impact conditions.

However, accepting the LHB as a reality implies that severeenvironmental changes occurred at ca. 3.85 Ga. During this cata-clysm the Earth would have undergone events of an order ofmagnitude larger than that of the Moon and experienced manymore of them than the Moon had to endure. According to Zahnleand Sleep (1997), hundreds of objects with sizes similar to thoseof the Imbrium and Orientale impactors must have struck theEarth during the basin-forming era. Nonetheless, an Imbrium-sized impactor scaled to terrestrial collision energy had only 1%of the energy needed to evaporate Earth’s oceans, assuming anocean mass similar to today’s and that 25% of the energy of suchan impact was partitioned into the ocean (Zahnle and Sleep,1997). Such an impact would have vaporized only the upper fewtens of meters of ocean by heating from above by an impact-produced atmosphere of hot silicate vapor. Even impacts ordersof magnitude larger would have been far from sufficient, boilingoff only a few hundred meters of ocean water. Ocean-vaporizingimpacts were considered rare after 4.4 Ga in the estimation ofZahnle and Sleep (1997). The lunar record is in agreement withthis and suggests that impacts of such magnitude may have beenrare to absent (Ryder, 2002).

It is quite possible that life started on Earth as soon as theenvironment became safe enough, and the existence of liquidwater as early as 4.4 Ga (e.g., Wilde et al., 2001) or, as morerecent data show, around 4.2 Ga (Cavosie et al., 2005) mayhave provided the necessary boundary conditions. Neverthe-less, the details of the development of early life (and its record)remain relatively unconstrained, although a rapid developmenthas been suggested (e.g., Shock et al., 2000).

Several studies have considered the effects of impact onthe atmosphere and hydrosphere, again, particularly for verylarge events (Maher and Stevenson, 1988; Oberbeck and Fogle-man, 1989; Sleep et al., 1989; Chyba, 1993; Zahnle and Sleep,1997). These studies have largely been expressed in the contextof the early evolution of life and impact-induced sterilization.An Imbrium-scale impact onto the early Earth would have hadthe ultimate effect of boiling off ~40 m of sea water, with a sub-sequent hot surface layer and annihilation of any surfaceecosystems (Zahnle and Sleep, 1997); possible larger events

Record of impact processes on the early Earth 13

Figure 9. Summary of tungsten isotopic compositions of terrestrialrocks, meteorites, and early Archean samples, after Schoenberg et al.(2002). Terrestrial samples and chondritic meteorites (especially car-bonaceous chondrites) show a small but measurable difference of ~2epsilon units, which indicates that core formation started while 182Hfwas still present in the solar system. The deviation of the tungsten iso-topic composition in the Archean samples was interpreted by Schoen-berg et al. (2002) to indicate the traces of a meteoritic componentderived from the LHB. See Schoenberg et al. (2002) for sample details.

would have caused correspondingly more devastating effects. Itrequires the impact of an asteroid several hundred kilometers indiameter to totally vaporize one present-day ocean mass ofwater (Fig. 10), which is not very likely, given the oxygen iso-tope evidence from Hadean zircons discussed above. Also, thescale of such events would probably be too destructive to allowpreservation of evidence. It is the probability for these vaporiz-ing impacts on the early Earth that has led to the generalimpression that impact events were a negative forcing functionfor the development and evolution of emergent life (e.g.,Grieve, 1998). Such large early impact events also must haveled to the processing and reprocessing of the Earth’s early atmo-sphere, producing molecules that are precursors for the abioticsynthesis of complex organic molecules (Fegley et al., 1986).

The time of the actual beginning of life on Earth is a highlycontentious topic (cf. Bada, 2004) that cannot be discussed inany great detail here; a short summary has to suffice. It is pos-sible, but not proven in any way, that the clement conditionsfollowing the solidification of the magma ocean ca. 4.4–4.2 Ga

with liquid water present may have been sufficient to providethe basis for life on Earth. The absence of a rock record doesnot allow for the testing of this hypothesis. However, reports ofisotopically light graphite in early Archean Isua and Akiliasupracrustal rocks from southwestern Greenland have been sug-gested to indicate remains of the earliest life on Earth (e.g.,Schidlowski, 1988; Mojzsis et al., 1996; Rosing, 1999). In par-ticular, Mojzsis et al. (1996) concluded that isotopically lightgraphite occurring as inclusions in apatite crystals in an Isuasample supported a biogenic origin. This apatite-graphite asso-ciation was proposed to be indicative of biogenic sedimentaryapatite, and such an association was considered to indicate anindependent biomarker in sedimentary rocks of early Archeanage. Mojzsis et al. (1996) reported that these geochemical,petrographic, and isotopic criteria, which they interpreted toindicate a biogenic origin for apatite-hosted graphite inclusionsin amphibolite facies Isua rocks, also applied to a sample ofgranulite facies quartz-pyroxene rock from the island of Akilia(southwest of Isua). Some researchers (e.g., Nutman et al.,1997) consider the Akilia rocks to be even older, by severalhundred m.y., than those of Isua (which would bring them closeto 3.85 Ga). However, the validity of the original argumentswas questioned, by e.g. Rosing et al. (1996), Myers and Crowley(2000), Fedo and Whitehouse (2002), and Moorbath (2005),and more recent petrographic and geochemical studies ofgraphite, including graphite inclusions in apatite from Isua(e.g., van Zuilen et al., 2002; Lepland et al., 2005; Moorbath,2005), have challenged the biogenic interpretations, as thegraphite-apatite association is found only in secondary carbon-ate veins and consequently lacks biologic relevance (referencesin Lepland et al., 2005). The interpretation of isotopically lightgraphite in Isua rocks thought to represent graded sedimentarybeds (Rosing, 1999) is not affected by these arguments.

The problems of using the apatite-graphite criterion as abiosignature in amphibolite facies rocks at Isua raise concernsabout applying it to even higher-grade rocks from Akilia, asnoted by Lepland et al. (2005). Most importantly, Lepland et al.(2005) reported results of petrographic analysis of several sam-ples from Akilia, including the actual sample used in the origi-nal study of Mojzsis et al. (1996), and found that none of theapatite crystals in these samples actually contain any graphiteinclusions. Thus, no good evidence currently exists for life onEarth in the earliest preserved rocks on our planet.

LATER (EARLY ARCHEAN) IMPACT EVENTS

In the absence of any conclusive impact record in the old-est rocks on Earth, we need to look at “younger” rocks. Thefirst “real” rock record of impact events dates ~400–500 m.y.after the end of the LHB, in the form of (distal?) ejecta layers(see reviews by Simonson and Glass, 2004, and Simonson etal., 2004). Four distinct spherule horizons in the BarbertonGreenstone belt, South Africa (designated S1 to S4), with agesbetween ca. 3.5 and 3.2 Ga, have been proposed as being of

14 C. Koeberl

Figure 10. Impact energies of the largest impacts documented on theEarth (filled boxes) and on the Moon (open boxes), after Sleep et al.(1989). The curve indicates the exponential decay of the original accre-tion flux, similar to what has been shown in Figures 7 or 8. All boxesto the right of ~3.95 Ga and at or below an impact energy of 1026 J aredocumented; the lunar ones are known impact basins. The terrestrialbox at ca. 3.5–3.4 Ga indicates the impact events indicated by spherulelayers at Barberton, South Africa, and the boxes at around 2–1.9 Gamark the two oldest impact structures, Vredefort and Sudbury. The lineshortly before the zero age point marks the Cretaceous-Tertiary bound-ary impact event. The dashed line corresponds to total vaporization ofthe ocean. However, it is debatable (Ryder, 2002; Valley et al., 2002)whether or not the impact rate before 3.9 Ga was really as high asassumed by Sleep et al. (1989; their large boxes to the left of 4 Ga). Ifthe LHB (late heavy bombardment) model applies (as shown in Fig. 7),then ocean-vaporizing events would have been rare to absent, andmaybe only one such event might have happened during the LHB.

impact origin (e.g., Lowe et al., 2003). The spherules aremostly spherical particles, up to a few mm across, of quenchedmelt droplets that supposedly formed by condensation fromvapor clouds. The spherule layers are coarse grained and havebeen interpreted to reflect high-energy depositional events inotherwise low-energy, quiet-water environments. The originalmineralogical and chemical composition of the spherules hasbeen almost completely changed by alteration. The strati-graphic positions of these layers at different geographic loca-tions are difficult to correlate, and the possibility exists thatsome of the layers represent duplication (e.g., Hofmann et al.,this volume). These spherule layers show extreme enrichmentsin the PGEs (in some cases exceeding the PGE abundancesfound in chondritic meteorites), unlike modern impact ejectadeposits (for example, those at the Cretaceous-Tertiary bound-ary, or in the late Eocene, see, e.g., Montanari and Koeberl,2000, for a review), which caused some questions regardingthe initial impact interpretation (see, for example, Hofmannet al., this volume).

An example of a sample from a Barberton spherule layer(3.48 Ma; Byerly et al., 2002) is shown in Figure 11. Thesespherule layers from the Barberton Greenstone Belt have beeninterpreted as the result of large asteroid or comet impacts ontothe early Earth (see review by Lowe et al., 2003). The extremeenrichments in the PGEs (e.g., Kyte et al., 1992; Koeberl andReimold, 1995; Reimold et al., 2000), among other problems,caused Koeberl and Reimold (1995) to question the impactinterpretation. Figure 12 shows a correlation between the abun-dances of Ir and As, a very mobile element, in samples from theBarberton spherule layers, all of which have been subject topervasive transformation into secondary mineral assemblages.This relationship between Ir and As, thus, indicates remobiliza-tion of both elements; this means that the PGE signature inthese samples is not primary (e.g., Koeberl and Reimold, 1995;Reimold et al., 2000).

More recently, though, Shukolyukov et al. (2000) and Kyteet al. (2003) reported Cr isotopic anomalies (using methods andarguments of Shukolyukov and Lugmair, 1998) in samplesfrom several of these layers that seem to support the presence ofan extraterrestrial component.

Other occurrences of unusual spherule layers were reportedby Simonson (1992) from the Hamersley Basin in WesternAustralia. On the basis of similarities to microtektites andmikrokrystites, Simonson (1992) interpreted the spherules ashaving formed in an impact event and having been redepositedin a sediment gravity flow. Later, three additional spherule-bearing layers were found in the Hamersley Basin sequence,which were also interpreted to be of impact origin (e.g., Simon-son et al., 1998). Simonson et al. (2000a, 2000b) also reportedthe discovery of a similar spherule layer (ca. 2.6 Ma) in theMonteville Formation of the Transvaal Supergroup in SouthAfrica, which might be correlated with one of the Australianlayers (e.g., Simonson and Hassler, 1997; Simonson et al.,1999; Rasmussen and Koeberl, 2004).

Record of impact processes on the early Earth 15

Figure 11. Spherule layer sample from one of the impact-derivedlayers of 3.48 Ga age (S2 or S3; see discussion of stratigraphic com-plexities in Koeberl and Reimold, 1995, and Hofmann et al., this vol-ume), from Sheba Mine, Barberton, South Africa; the sample showsmm-sized, clearly sorted spherules in bands. It is thought that the rep-etition of spherule bands in samples such as this one was caused bytectonic duplication (folding; Reimold et al., 2000). Length of sample:16 cm.

Until recently, no shocked minerals have been reported tobe associated with any of these spherule layers. It was sug-gested that this is because the impacts occurred into oceaniccrust, which has little or no quartz, and whatever else therewas in terms of shocked minerals had long been destroyed byalteration (Simonson et al., 1998). Rasmussen and Koeberl(2004), however, were able to describe one shocked quartzgrain in a sample from the 2.63 Ga Jeerinah impact layer inAustralia; this is so far the only evidence of diagnostic shockfeatures. Unfortunately, so far no definitive criteria for theidentification of Archean impact deposits are known. For noneof the South African (Barberton and Monteville) or Australianspherule layers have source craters been found, and given thescarcity of the early Archean geological record, it is unlikelythey will ever be found. It is not clear why impact events inthe Archean would predominantly produce large volumes ofspherules, which are mostly absent from post-Archean impactdeposits (i.e., those for which source craters are known),although a recent report about ejecta beds from the 1.85 GaSudbury impact structure also included observation of spherulehorizons (Addison et al., 2005). The question regarding howto identify Archean impact deposits remains open and willhopefully be addressed in future studies (but see Simonsonand Harnik, 2000, and Simonson, 2003, for discussions onthis subject).

Nevertheless, the discovery of these various spherulelayers provides interesting material for the discussion aboutthe importance of impact events in the Earth’s history. Sev-

eral lines of geological and geochemical evidence indicatethat the level of atmospheric oxygen was extremely lowbefore 2.45 Ga and that it had reached considerable levels by2.22 Ga (cf. Bekker et al., 2004). Bekker et al. (2004) pre-sented evidence that the abundance of oxygen in the terres-trial atmosphere underwent a dramatic increase by 2.32 Ga.This could have influenced the preservation of early impactsignals due to the change in oxidation parameters during theimpact event (e.g., production of oxidized versus reducedimpact deposits, such as spinels) and/or altered the nature ofthe deposits due to different weathering in oxidized andreduced atmospheres.

THE OLDEST IMPACT STRUCTURES PRESERVED ON EARTH

The earliest remnants on Earth of actual impact struc-tures—following the more controversial and difficult to quan-tify evidence from the early Archean spherule beds—date toca. 2 Ga. Thus, for more than half of the “life” of our planet wedo not have any good preserved remnants of the many impactstructures that must have formed and for which we have indi-rect evidence (also on the Moon) throughout the first 2.5 b.y. ofEarth evolution. The oldest known terrestrial impact structuresare the Vredefort and Sudbury structures with ages of 2023 ±4 Ma and 1850 ± 3 Ma, respectively (see Reimold and Gibson,1996; Gibson and Reimold, 2001), which represent the com-plete documented pre–1.85 Ga terrestrial impact record.

As there have been several good reviews of the geologyand importance of Vredefort (e.g., Gibson and Reimold, 2001)and Sudbury (e.g., Grieve and Therriault, 2000), as well as onthe subsequent impact events from 2 Ga to today, this is theplace to end the current review. I will briefly summarize someinformation on Vredefort and end at 2 Ga. The Vredefort Domeis an ~80-km-wide feature centered ~120 km southwest ofJohannesburg, South Africa, and is widely accepted to be thedeeply eroded central uplift of a large (initial diameter on theorder of 200–300 km), complex impact structure that formed2023 ± 4 Ma (Kamo et al., 1996). Therefore, it represents theremnant of the oldest currently known impact structure onEarth. The dome comprises an ~40-km-wide core of earlyArchean high-grade gneisses that is surrounded by a subverti-cally dipping sequence of late Archean to Paleoproterozoicsupracrustal rocks and intrusions. The rocks exposed there dis-play a variety of impact-related features as described in the firstchapter of this review, including shatter cones, coesite andstishovite, planar deformation features in quartz, dykes ofimpact melt breccia (the so-called “Vredefort Granophyre,”which contains traces of an extraterrestrial component), andabundant pseudotachylitic breccias (Reimold and Gibson,2005). The absence of both a definitive crater morphology anda coherent impact melt body and fallback breccias indicates thatconsiderable erosion has taken place after the impact event,removing the top 5–10 km of the post-impact surface. In much

16 C. Koeberl

Figure 12. Correlation between As and Ir in samples from the S2 or S3(see previous caption regarding uncertainties) Barberton spherulelayers; data from Koeberl and Reimold (1995) and Reimold et al.(2000). The correlation indicates that the PGE (platinum group ele-ment) concentrations in these samples—which exceed even pure chon-dritic concentrations anyway—must be the result of secondaryhydrothermal activity.

of the core of the dome, the Archean gneisses preserve pre-impact mineralogy and fabrics, which formed during upperamphibolite to granulite facies regional metamorphism at3.2–3.1 Ga (Armstrong et al., this volume). Gibson andReimold (2005) investigated the shock metamorphic zonationaround the center of the dome.

In contrast to the 1.85 Ga Sudbury Structure, for whichimpact ejecta (including an up-to-10-cm-thick spherule layer)have recently been identified in Minnesota and western Ontario650–875 km from the impact site (Addison et al., 2005), noconfirmed ejecta have to date been recovered for the Vredefortimpact. Vredefort deposits would have formed some 200 m.y.prior to the earliest sedimentary deposits known from southernAfrica, the Waterberg Group occurring widespread in the north-ern parts of South Africa (e.g., Simpson et al., 2004). To date,no evidence for shocked materials has been reported fromWaterberg sediments. Interestingly, Chadwick et al. (2001)found a spherule layer in Greenland that is in the same agebracket as Vredefort and Sudbury, at 2.1–1.9 Ga based on strati-graphic considerations, and could represent distal ejecta fromeither of these two impact events.

SUMMARY AND OUTLOOK

Following its formation by impact-driven accretion, theEarth has been subjected early in its history to a significantnumber of impact events. This early impact record is betterdocumented in lunar rocks than in terrestrial rocks. As a con-sequence of the accretion of the Earth and possibly also relatedto the giant moon-forming impact around 4.45 Ga, a large-scale magma ocean is postulated to have existed on Earth,which may have persisted for up to several hundred m.y.Related thermal effects would have effectively obliterated anypetrographic or geochemical remnants of the early intenseimpact bombardment. Following the Moon-forming giantimpact event, there is some evidence that the Earth’s uppermantle underwent differentiation to form an early crust, someof which might have involved granitic rocks; remnants of thesewould be the earliest terrestrial zircons dated at 4.4–4.3 Ga.Geochemical data show that shortly after the giant impact,clement conditions seem to have dominated on Earth, withliquid water present. Some isotopic evidence exists that platetectonics and crustal differentiation could have operatedalready in the Hadean period. Very few rocks on Earth withages approaching 3.9 Ga have been found; some rare olderdetrital zircon grains up to ca. 4.4 Ga are known. It is possiblethat the absence of any rocks older than ca. 3.9 Ga is the resultof an intense episode of impacts, the so-called late heavy bom-bardment (LHB) at around 3.8–4 Ga, during which impact-induced mixing may have recycled early crustal fragmentsback into the upper mantle. Any sedimentological record,which would host information specific to surface environmentssuch as the rate and violence of meteorite impact and the pres-ence of life, has been lost from Hadean times. The oldest rocks

on Earth that could be searched for an impact record are the ca.4 Ga Acasta Gneiss Complex in Canada and the =3.8 Ga rocksfrom Isua, Greenland. However, the results of such studieshave been ambiguous to date, and no clear impact signaturehas been found in the Earth’s oldest rocks.

Another interesting topic is the influence of impact eventson the development and evolution of life (cf. Cockell andBland, 2005). Early interpretations of the impact record sug-gested a “dead” time span before ca. 3.9 Ga because of the dele-terious effects of impacts, but more recent data show that watermust have existed on the Earth as far back as ca. 4.4 Ga, andonly during the LHB were ocean-vaporizing impacts eventspossible (but by no means proven). Unfortunately the record ofearly life on Earth remains quite controversial, suffering fromthe limited rock record and bad preservation, similar factorsthat are hampering our understanding of early impact events(cf. papers in Gilmour and Koeberl, 2000).

Possible impact debris layers have been documented in3.2–3.47 Ga Archean successions in the Barberton GreenstoneBelt (South Africa) and Pilbara Craton (Australia). These spherulelayers show extreme enrichments in the PGEs, unlike modernejecta deposits, but Cr isotopic anomalies in samples from someof these layers seem to support the presence of an extraterres-trial component. Similar spherule layers (of ca. 2.5–2.63 Ma)were found in the Hamersley Basin in Australia as well as in theMonteville Formation of the Transvaal Supergroup in SouthAfrica; these South African and Australian layers may be corre-lated with each other. Until recently, no shocked quartz, com-monly regarded as unambiguous evidence for a hypervelocityimpact event, has been found in distal ejecta horizons older thanca. 600 Ma; an exception is a single shocked quartz grain fromthe 2.63 Ga Jeerinah impact layer in Australia. The exact num-ber of impact spherule layers is not known, as it is not clearwhich ones might correlate with each other, but a minimumseven different events between 3.4 and 2.5 Ga and at 2.1–1.8 Ga has been suggested.

The oldest impact crater on Earth dates to 2 Ga (Vredefortin South Africa), and for the next billion years the impact recordon Earth is quite sparse in terms of both craters and ejecta layers.The early record of impact on the Earth is rather limited andmostly circumstantial. Thus, the impact record on Earth is sofar quite limited: nothing for the first billion years, then somespherule layers until ca. 2.5 Ga, and then less than a handful ofimpact craters prior to ca. 750 Ma. Nevertheless, the discoveryof these spherule layers aids in the discussion of the importanceof impact events in the early parts of the Earth’s history.

Figure 13 gives a summary of the impact record of the Earth,starting with the preserved rock record. The number of docu-mented events are few—seven or eight impact layers in the timespan between 3.5 and 2.4 Ga, three impact structures between ca.700 Ma and 2.1 Ga, and the rest of the ~170 presently knownimpact structures all being younger than that. Clearly the “early”impact record on Earth, which spans more than half of the age ofour planet, is still a wide-open field of research.

Record of impact processes on the early Earth 17

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This research was supported by the Fonds zur Förderung derwissenschaftlichen Forschung in Austria. I am grateful toD. Jalufka (University of Vienna) for expert drafting of all thefigures, to S. Moorbath (Oxford University) for literature and dis-cussion, and to R. Grieve (Natural Resources Canada) and W.U.Reimold (University of the Witwatersrand) for helpful reviews.

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18 C. Koeberl

Figure 13. Summary of the impact history (status 2005) documentedon Earth. Note that the number of impact structures within the past300 m.y. by far exceeds the scale used here, and actual numbers arewritten on top of the histogram bars. The dot-pattern indicates impactstructures, whereas the hatched pattern signifies ejecta and/or spherulelayers. The accretion and LHB (late heavy bombardment) flux is indi-cated by the arrow on the upper left. The diagram demonstrates howlimited the impact record over most of the history of the Earth really is.

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