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THE RAFAND IS NONPROFIT, NONPARTISAN, AND
COMMITTED TO THE PUBLIC INTEREST
A Research Article
Research
By
Aslıhan ABACI
RAFAND ENTERPRISE
RED APPLE FORESIGHT AND DEVELOPMENT
TURKEY
2021
ii
THE RAFAND IS NONPROFIT, NONPARTISAN, AND
COMMITTED TO THE PUBLIC INTEREST
A Research Article
Research
By
Aslıhan ABACI
ALL COPYRIGHTS OF RESEARCH, ANALYSIS AND STATISTICAL
ARTICLES BELONG TO RAFAND ENTERPRISE
RAFAND ENTERPRISE
RED APPLE FORESIGHT AND DEVELOPMENT
TURKEY
2021
iii
RAFAND ENTERPRISE
RED APPLE FORESIGHT AND DEVELOPMENT
TURKEY
2021
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quality, as a article for the degree of (Discipline Of Law And Discipline Of Health Sciences,
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Discipline Of Engineering, Discipline Of International Relations, …).
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ABSTRACT
CULTURAL DIPLOMACY AND EUROPE: THE CASE OF FRANCE
AND ITALY
Ph. D., Msc., Bachelor Department of …………………………
Supervisor: …………….
Co- Supervisor: …………….
May 2021
This article analyzes the process of writing articles in historical context and is based on
approaches in line with scientific research methods. This research determines the current
situation in the relevant study area and makes statistical estimates. The article will also try to
answer research questions and hypotheses by following the background of the needs of the
discipline covered by the relevant research.
Keywords: Cultural Diplomacy, Soft Power, European Union
v
ÖZET
KÜLTÜR DİPLOMASI VE AVRUPA: FRANSA VE İTALYA ÖRNEĞİ
Doktora, Yüksek lisans, Lisans ………………………… Bölümü
Danışman: …………….
İkincil- Danışman: …………….
Mayıs 2021
Bu makale, tarihi bağlamda makale yazma sürecini analiz etmekte ve bilimsel araştırma
yöntemleri çizgisinde yaklaşımlara dayanmaktadır. Bu araştırma, ilgili çalışma alanındaki
mevcut durumu belirler ve istatistiksel tahminler yapmaktadır. Makale aynı zamanda ilgili
araştırma kapsamına giren disiplinin gereksinimlerinin geçmişini de izleyerek araştırma
sorularına ve hipotezlere cevap vermeye çalışacaktır.
Anahtar Kelimeler: Kültürel Diplomasi, Yumuşak Güç, Avrupa Birliği
1
CULTURAL DIPLOMACY AND EUROPE: THE CASE OF FRANCE
AND ITALY SUMMARY
A country’s role and position in the world are determined by the power of its culture,
knowledge, and ideas together with the power of its economy, military abilities, and
governance. Countries aim at promoting and spreading their cultures through the interactions
of people, the exchange of language, ideas, religion, and arts in order to improve the relations
between groups and people. Cultural diplomacy is considered crucial when it comes to creating
a positive image of a country. Cultural diplomacy can be defined as a course of actions that are
based on and benefit the exchange of ideas, values, traditions and other aspects of culture or
identity to consolidate relationships, promote national interests, and improve socio-cultural
cooperation. By being aware of the importance of cultural diplomacy, the European Union is
committed to promoting diverse cultures of Europe in other states and countries. Dissemination
and promotion of culture have become vital elements in the European Union’s international
relations. This paper deals with the European Cultural Diplomacy by analyzing the European
Union’s attitude and practices, and discusses the cultural diplomacy in two European countries:
France and Italy.
1. INTRODUCTION
In today’s world, the power of culture, knowledge, and ideas as well as the power of economy,
military abilities, and the position of international governance institutions influence a country’s
role and position in the world (2011). For this reason, countries try to spread and make people
know their culture, language, ideas by means of “cultural diplomacy”. Cultural Diplomacy has
been in use for centuries and to comprehend cultural diplomacy, it is important to know the
concepts of “culture” and “diplomacy”. There several definitions of culture made by different
theorists. According to Samovar and Porter, culture is “the cumulative deposit of knowledge,
experience, beliefs, values, attitudes, meanings, hierarchies, religion, notions of time, roles,
spatial relations, concepts of the universe, and material objects and possessions acquired by a
group of people in the course of generations through individual and group striving” Gudykunst
and Kim define culture as the systems of knowledge that is shared by a large group of people.
Williams defines it as “a particular way of life of a group of people—the behaviors, beliefs,
2
values, and symbols that they accept, and that are passed along by communication and imitation
from one generation to the next”.
Diplomacy can be defined as “a dialogue between states” (Watson 1982) and a “communication
that facilitates international society, the diplomatic profession being the custodian of the idea
of international society” (Bull 1995). According to Viotti and Kauppi, diplomacy is the
“management of international relations by communications to include negotiations, leading to
a bargain or agreement” (2001). In a more general definition, diplomacy is defined as the
activity of diplomats in the name of governments. A diplomat can be considered as a spokesman
or messenger of the states or governments and his/her mission is to convince another
government or group of governments on issues concerning trade rights, territory or national
interests.
The interactions of people, the exchange of ideas, language, arts, religion, and societal
structures have developed relations between groups ("Institute for Cultural Diplomacy", 2018).
To form a positive image of a country, cultural diplomacy is considered having of paramount
importance by countries and governments. It aims at the promotion of foreign policy interests
of the state by fostering cultural exchange with other states (Kiełdanowicz, n.d.). Cultural
diplomacy is defined as “a course of actions, which are based on and utilize the exchange of
ideas, values, traditions and other aspects of culture or identity, whether to strengthen
relationships, enhance socio-cultural cooperation, promote national interests and beyond;
Cultural diplomacy can be practiced by either the public sector, private sector or civil society"
("Institute for Cultural Diplomacy", 2018).
The European Union is dedicated itself to promoting and spreading diverse cultures of Europe
in other countries (Trobbiani, 2017). Promotion of the culture has become a crucial element in
the European Union’s international relations. Culture is considered to be “a fundamental pillar”
in the European agenda for culture, and it is used to support EU’s foreign policy goals
(Trobbiani, 2017). Through cultural diplomacy, the EU aims at ensuring the wellbeing, social
and civil rights, and peace in target countries as well as constructing a lasting cultural relations
and dialogue (Trobbiani, 2017). In this study, two European countries France and Italy will be
discussed and their national attitudes and practices of Cultural Diplomacy will be analyzed.
2. DEFINITIONS OF CULTURE AND DIPLOMACY
3
To start with, it is important to define the concepts of culture and diplomacy, which will make
it easier to analyze the concept of cultural diplomacy. The concept of “culture” is defined in a
variety of ways by different theorists. Samovar and Porter define culture as “the cumulative
deposit of knowledge, experience, beliefs, values, attitudes, meanings, hierarchies, religion,
notions of time, roles, spatial relations, concepts of the universe, and material objects and
possessions acquired by a group of people in the course of generations through individual and
group striving” (1994). According to Gudykunst and Kim, culture is the systems of knowledge
that is shared by a large group of people (1992). Williams defines it as “a particular way of life
of a group of people—the behaviors, beliefs, values, and symbols that they accept, and that are
passed along by communication and imitation from one generation to the next” (2014).
On the other hand, diplomacy is a “dialogue between states” (Watson 1982) and a
“communication that facilitates international society, the diplomatic profession being the
custodian of the idea of international society” (Bull 1995). Viotti and Kauppi describe
diplomacy as the “management of international relations by communications to include
negotiations, leading to a bargain or agreement” (2001). Nicholson states that diplomacy is the
“management of international relations by negotiation, the method by which these relations are
adjusted and managed by ambassadors and envoys–the business or art of the diplomat” (1969).
Moreover, it is said that diplomacy is the “management of relations (political, security, military,
economic, scientific, cultural, etc.) between states and between states and other international
actors, such as global/regional organizations, INGOs, transnational corporations, etc., by
negotiation” (McDermott 1973).
In a more general definition, diplomacy is the activity of diplomats in the name of governments
("Institute for Cultural Diplomacy", 2018). A diplomat is seen as a spokesman or messenger of
the states or governments and his/her mission is to persuade another government or group of
governments on issues concerning trade rights, territory or national interests. Diplomats are
regarded as “negotiators”. Diplomacy was normally limited to the governments’ relations but
it has changed in the last 50 years and now a diplomat is supposed to broaden his/her target
group to include public organizations and also media, companies, and the civil society in the
host country ("Institute for Cultural Diplomacy", 2018). A diplomat’s role could be peaceful
and hostile. Diplomats are the governments’ messengers and according to the agenda of the
government, the diplomat might try to avoid a war or prepare a war, and if there is an ongoing
4
war, a diplomat negotiates peace or cease-fire conditions ("Institute for Cultural Diplomacy",
2018).
3. DEFINITION OF CULTURAL DIPLOMACY
Even if the term has recently been found, it is no doubt that Cultural Diplomacy has existed as
a practice for centuries ("Institute for Cultural Diplomacy", 2018). Travelers, explorers, traders,
and artists can be all seen as examples of “informal ambassadors” or “cultural diplomats”
("Institute for Cultural Diplomacy", 2018). The interactions of peoples, the exchange of
language, ideas, religion, arts, and societal structures have improved relations between groups
or people throughout history, and today cultural diplomacy has become an academic field of
research for international relations discipline ("Institute for Cultural Diplomacy", 2018).
Cultural Diplomacy is described as “a course of actions, which are based on and utilize the
exchange of ideas, values, traditions and other aspects of culture or identity, whether to
strengthen relationships, enhance socio-cultural cooperation, promote national interests and
beyond; Cultural diplomacy can be practiced by either the public sector, private sector or civil
society" ("Institute for Cultural Diplomacy", 2018). Since culture and culture’s presentation are
of prime importance in creating a positive image of a country, Cultural Diplomacy is considered
vital by the countries and governments. Cultural Diplomacy can be performed within a
particular county, abroad or it can be conducted by utilizing media, which might reach within
a country and abroad (Kiełdanowicz, n.d.).
Cultural Diplomacy aims at the promotion of foreign policy interests of the state in the sphere
of cultural diplomacy through fostering cultural exchange with other states (Kiełdanowicz,
n.d.). Cultural Diplomacy includes “assisting cultural subjects in the dissemination of national
culture and cultural identity, promoting dissemination of the national language of the sending
state in the receiving state, promoting and explaining cultural values of the sending state in the
receiving state, negotiating international treaties on cultural cooperation and, finally, supporting
and keeping up contacts with expatriate communities in the receiving state” (Pajtinka, 2014). J.
Nye thinks that cultural diplomacy can be the best example of “soft power” (1990). Soft power
enables states to communicate through the conduit of culture, ideas, and values in contrast to
hard power (Nye, 1990). Soft power may be a replacement for traditional hard power, which
uses military instruments and economic sanctions. Furthermore, soft power has become the
preferred one because its aims and trust are peaceful unlike hard power, which damages the
5
relations of the states (Nye, 1990). Since between the power blocs culture is considered as an
integral part of the contest, Cultural Diplomacy has acquired special importance as a vital
instrument of ideological struggle (Kurucz 2007, p. 64).
4. EUROPEAN CULTURAL DIPLOMACY
The European Union (EU) is devoted to promoting diverse culture of Europe in other states and
countries in alignment with the Treaty on the Functioning of the EU (Trobbiani, 2017). In EU
international relations, promotion of the culture has become a vital element and it is one of the
three main objectives of the European Agenda for Culture.
In the European agenda for culture, culture is identified as “a fundamental pillar” in external
relations (Trobbiani, 2017). Cultural cooperation with EU partners is considered as a significant
role when it comes to supporting EU’s aims regarding economic and social developments,
peace and stability, and the promotion of cultural diversity all over the world ("International
cultural relations | Culture and Creativity", n.d.). It can be seen in EU programs and policies
that culture is used to support European Union’s foreign policy goals. European Union has
invested money in bilateral and regional programs in order to promote social and cultural
development, intercultural dialogue, capacity building, and cultural exchanges (Trobbiani,
2017).
Programs such as Culture and Creativity Program, Media and culture for development in the
Southern Mediterranean region, Erasmus+, the Development and Cooperation Instrument, the
Instrument for Democracy and Human Rights (EIDHR), the ENI Cross Cooperation, the Civil
Facility, and Erasmus Mundus can be given as examples to the programs that are supported by
the European Union to promote social and cultural development, cultural exchange, and
intercultural dialogues (Trobbiani, 2017). The final aim of the European Cultural Diplomacy is
to assist ensuring wellbeing, social and civil rights and peace in target countries as well as
constructing a lasting intercultural relations and dialogue (Trobbiani, 2017).
Even though not concentrated on display, showcasing or other traditional Soft Power tools,
these activities still have diplomatic reasons and foreign policy objectives of the European
Union. In order to comprehend the European Cultural Diplomacy practices and policies, two
European countries respectively France and Italy and their attitudes and practices of cultural
diplomacy will be analyzed in the following section of this paper.
6
4.1. FRANCE
French cultural initiatives date back to the “Ancien Régime” from 15th to the 18th century
(2011). In this period, cultural and diplomatic relationships were maintained and the influence
of French language and culture was impressed all around the world (2011). French alliance was
established in order to promote and spread French language and culture abroad in 1883. At the
end of the World War I, France strengthened its outreach initiatives and built up the French
association of expansion and artistic exchanges in 1992 (2011). It can be said that France
introduced the techniques of cultural diplomacy to the world (Haigh, 1974). France has
consolidated and accelerated its institutions’ activities over the past decades, and this can be
understood as the manifestations of “soft power” and “cultural diplomacy” (Adleiba & Sakaev,
2019).
To create a more charming image of its culture, language, and art, France has started to use the
leverage of “soft power” (Adleiba & Sakaev, 2019). The use of France Media, France Museums
agencies, UNESCO international institutes, Francophones, throwing mass sports and cultural
festivals, and the review and revision of approaches to their foreign cultural policy development
indicate the significance that is given to the France cultural influence spread (Adleiba & Sakaev,
2019). In our contemporary world, France still regards the cultural aspect as one of its 5
elementary pillars of diplomacy (2011).
The Ministry of Foreign Affairs has been leading active cultural outreach initiatives in
diplomacy. The main purpose is to reinforce France’s position as a leader in the fields such as
language, communication, culture, higher education, and research (2011). Today a country’s
role and position in the world can not only be estimated by the power of its economy, its military
abilities, and its position in international governance institutions but also it depends on the
power of its knowledge, ideas, and culture (2011). In this context, France has a privileged
position in the world.
4.2. ITALY
For Italian foreign policy, cultural diplomacy has always been a significant tool (Medici, 2019).
Culture was extensively used by Fascism in Italy, and in the liberal period it represented an
important resource (Medici, 2019). Cultural promotion abroad targeted at disseminating the
regime’s political and social organizational model in the inter-war period.
7
In the second post-war period, culture and cultural resources played an essential role in Italian
international relations (Haigh, n.d.). After the war time, the democratic new government
transformed this activity from a propagandistic action to a cultural diplomacy, which puts more
emphasis on the issues of dialogue and cooperation (Medici, 2019). The new policy of Italy
concerning the cultural diplomacy is devoid of political themes but aims for the sympathy and
the friendship of other countries. Italian schools abroad are the oldest instruments of cultural
diplomacy of Italy (Haigh, n.d.). Another oldest instrument of Italian cultural diplomacy is “the
Dante Alighieri Society” (Medici, 2019).
This society aims at supporting and promoting the Italian identity abroad. First the society
organized courses and lectures in order to keep the national feelings of Italian emigrants alive
but then it expanded by founding courses of Italian language, libraries, disseminating books
and publications, and organizing conferences (Pisa, 1995). Cultural Diplomacy is also carried
out by means of educational institutions and universities, bilateral cooperation programs
between universities, bilateral agreements on scientific, technologic and cultural cooperation,
the organization of major exhibitions abroad. Other instruments for Italian cultural diplomacy
are financing concerts, archeological missions, and academic exchange programs (Medici,
2019).
5. CONCLUSION
The promotion of culture, language, and ideas of the countries has become vital in determining
the role and the position of countries in the world. Cultural Diplomacy is considered vital by
the countries and governments since culture and culture’s presentation are of paramount
importance in building up a positive image of a country. The European Union gives importance
to promoting the cultures, languages, and ideas of Europe through Cultural Diplomacy. Cultural
cooperation with EU countries and other countries is seen as important in supporting EU’s aims
considering economic and social developments, peace and stability, and the promotion of
cultural diversity all around the world. Although the EU doesn’t focus on displaying or
showcasing its cultures and languages, the activities for promoting its culture have diplomatic
and foreign policy objectives.
8
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