A Quick Guide to commAs:

38 simple Rules

the comma signals the very briefest of necessary pauses, but no other punctuation mark is

more vital to the meaning of the sentences you compose. the principles discussed in this guide

will help you achieve precise, reader-friendly, even elegant punctuation. punctuational correc-

tions of the illustrative sentences have been boldfaced and bracketed. For more details and

examples, check out The Writer's Diget Grammar Desk Reference.

Commas: The BasiCs

1. Commas after introductory elementsmost introductory elements—which may take the form of single words, phrases, or adverbial

dependent clauses—should be set off with commas. the commas improve the readability of

the sentences.

A. Single-Word Adverbial Introductory Elements A single-word adverbial element at the start of a sentence is almost always followed by a

comma.

• Surprisingly[,]threefilmsnominatedforbestpicturegarnerednoactingnominations.(SharonWaxman,“‘King’LeadsinNodsforOscars,”New York Times,28Jan.2004,p.B5)

the adverb then, however, is rarely set off.

Adapted from the Writer's Digest grammar Desk reference

• First,allthelightswentoutintheapartmentcomplex.Thenaloudscreamwasheard.

similarly, a comma is optional after thus or hence at the start of a sentence.

B. Introductory Transitional PhrasesA transitional phrase such as in fact, for example, as a result, and on the other hand should be

followed by a comma.

• Onthecontrary,herperformancewasheartrendingandunforgettable.

C. Introductory Prepositional Phrasesit is advisable to insert a comma after an introductory prepositional phrase that is five words

long or longer. American newspapers, however, are vividly inconsistent in their punctuation

of single prepositional phrases—and of pairs and sequences of prepositional phrases—that

appear at the beginning of sentences.

• Acrosstheskiarea’strailmapyellowbandsstretchlikecautiontape,warningofcliffbans—butnotmakingthemofflimits.(ChristopherSolomon,“ForSkiers,IsBiggerAlwaysBetter?,”New York Times,2Jan.2004,p.D4)

only in the third example has the introductory prepositional phrase been set off with a

comma—and that phrase is only two words long. in the other three sentences, many readers

would surely welcome a boundary-marking comma between the lengthier introductory ele-

ments and the independent clauses.

Not setting off an introductory prepositional phrase can sometimes lead a reader to mis-

take a sentence for a sentence fragment.

• AtthetimetheGreatSaltLakewasunusuallyshallowbecauseofadrought.(MelissaSanford,“TheSaltoftheEarthSculpture,”New York Times,13Jan.2004,p.B5)

Theprepositionalphraseat the timecaneasilybemisconstruedastheequivalentofthesubordinat-ingconjunctionwhileorwhen—andareaderwillthenregardtheentirewordgroupasanadverbialdependentclauseratherthanasacompletesentence.Ifacommaisinsertedafterat the time,how-ever,noreaderwillstumble.

it is therefore recommended that you use a comma to set off an introductory prepositional

phrase, especially a longish one, as well as an introductory pair or sequence of prepositional

phrases.

D. Introductory Participial PhrasesA comma must follow a participial phrase at the start of a sentence.

• Comingfromanotherperformer[,]thismessagemighthavesoundedtendentiousorevenself-serving....(KelefaSanneh,“EnjoyingtheMoment,PattiSmithCelebratesTime’sPassage,”New York Times,3Jan.2004,p.A20)

• WatchingConorOberst[,]it’salmostimpossibletokeepthewords“new”and“Dylan”outofyourhead.(ScottMervis,“ConorOberst/JimJames/M.Ward,”Pittsburgh Post-Gazette,24Feb.2004,p.D5)

E. Introductory Infinitive PhrasesA comma must follow an introductory infinitive phrase.

• Todiscourageshoplifters,themanagerofthestoreinstalledfoursecuritycameras.

F. Introductory Appositives

sometimes an appositive precedes the noun to which it is in apposition. Remember that an

appositive is a noun or a noun phrase that provides information about another noun. if the

appositive is nonrestrictive—that is, if it provides only supplementary, disposable information

(see rule 33A)—a comma follows it.

• Anavidbibliophile,shereadsatleastfivebooksaweek.

G. Introductory Absolute Constructions A comma always follows an introductory absolute construction. An absolute construction con-

sists of a noun (or a pronoun) and a participial phrase.

• Herpalmpressedagainsthercheek,thegirlwatchedhermotherassembletheplayhouse.

H. Introductory Adverbial Dependent ClausesA comma should follow an adverbial dependent clause at the start of a complex or compound-

complex sentence. the omission of the comma will puzzle or distract some readers, especially

in a sentence such as the following.

Faulty:Whenyougasuptheattendantasks,“CanIre-duct-tapethatwindshieldforyou?”(“TopTenReasonsto…ReplaceYourCar,”Pennysaver,Greensburg[PA]East77edition,28Apr.2004,p.19)

Ifthewriterdoesnotinsertacommatomarktheboundarybetweentheintroductoryadverbialclauseandtheindependentclause,areadercaninitiallymistakeattendantforthedirectobjectofgas upinsteadofrecognizingitasthesubjectoftheindependentclause.

the inclusion of the comma between an introductory dependent clause and the independent

clause will never require a defense, but its omission most likely will. Remember that adver-

bial dependent clauses begin with subordinating conjunctions, the most common of which

are because, although, though, even though, if, unless, after, as, before, while, when, whenever, since,

and until.

the following sentences were published without commas after the introductory adver-

bial dependent clauses. inserting a comma to mark off the borderline between the dependent

clause and the independent clause improves the readability of each sentence and clarifies its

structure.

• IfweknowonlyonethingaboutSirWalterRaleigh[,]itishisgallantefforttopreservetheequanimityofthequeen’sdaintyfootonastormyday.(StuartFerguson,“Bookshelf:ExploitsandExecution,”Wall Street Journal,6Jan.2004,p.D10)

A comma is especially helpful when two consecutive adverbial dependent clauses precede the

independent clause.

• Butsincemanyconsumersthesedayseitherbuyorrentamovieassoonasitcomesoutonvideo[,]thereislittleinterestinwatchingthemoviebythetimeit’savailableon-demandontelevisionamonthlater.(MartinPeers,“MergerCouldAlterHollywoodBalanceofPower,”Wall Street Journal,13Feb.2004,p.B1)

2. Commas setting off sentence-ending Participial Phrases A sentence-ending participial phrase should be preceded by a comma—unless the participial

phrase has a restrictive function (see rule 33c).

• Neithertheeditorsnorthewritershewtofashionablechoices[,]preferringinsteadtoemphasizeindividualachievement.(PaulaDeitz,undatedsubscription-solicitationletterforHudson Review,p.3)

3. Commas separating elements in a series (a, b, and c)When three or more elements are listed in a series, a comma should follow every element

except the final one. All American daily newspapers and some magazines, however, omit the

comma between the second-last element and the coordinating conjunction and.

• Tensofthousandsofsurvivorsremainhomeless,hungryandvulnerabletodisease.(“InDarkHour,HumansShine,”editorial,USA Today,29Dec.2003,p.11A)

the comma inserted before and in a series is known as the serial comma. some editors attempt

to justify the omission of the serial comma by claiming that, since the word and is separating

the two final elements in the series, the comma before and is redundant. But their reasoning is

faulty. And is not separating the two final elements; and, a conjunction, is uniting them. in the

following sentence, for instance, sony and dell appear to have merged.

• TechplayersMicrosoft,Hewlett-Packard,SonyandDell,amongothers,willopenonlinemusicstores in2004.(ByronAcohido,“2004MaySee‘BitofaGoldRush’forDigitalTunes,”USA Today,29Dec.2003,p.4B)

the a, b, and c pattern is favored by most magazines and by most publishers of books—

because it prevents misreading and ambiguity. A frequent problem with the a, b and c pattern

is that the b and c elements can be mistaken for appositives.

• Thecompanyhiredfivecopyrightspecialists,threelawyersandtwoparalegals.

did the company hire five persons or ten? A comma before and will make it clear that ten were

hired.

A second problem arising from the widespread use of the a, b and c pattern is that a trio

of words or phrases not intended as a series can easily be mistaken for a series.

• Thanksinparttopoverty-levelwages,hungerandhomelessnessareupsharply,accordingtothenewU.S.ConferenceofMayorssurvey.(HollySklar,“TwoDifferentAmericasSettoRinginNewYear,”Pittsburgh Post-Gazette,28Dec.2003,p.C2)

Atfirst,readersarelikelytoregardhungerandhomelessnessasthesecondandthirdobjectsoftheprep-ositiontoratherthanrecognizehunger and homelessnessasthecompoundsubjectoftheindependentclause.Notuntilreadersreachthepredicateofthesentencewilltheyrealizethattheyhavemisreadtheopening.

Finally, the a, b and c pattern can obscure the structure of a lengthy sentence.

• Andhedetailsits[thefire’s]wide-rangingaftermath,whichpromptedacomprehensivereformoflaborandworker-safetylaws,recastTammanyHallfromapoliticalmachinethathadoncebrokenstrikesintoonethatallieditselfwiththeworkersandsetayounglegislatornamedAlfredE.Smithontheroadthatwouldleadtothegovernor’smansionandthe1928Democraticpresidentialnomination.(EricFettmann,“$75perVictim,”New York Post,11Jan.2004,p.30)

Withoutacommabetweenworkersandand,readerscaneasilymisregardtheverbphrasebeginningwithset a young legislator on the roadasthesecondhalfof thepredicateoftheadjectivaldependentclausebeginningwiththat allied itself with the workers.Acommaafterworkerswillmakeitimmediatelyclearthattheadjectivaldependentclausebeginningwithwhichhasathree-partpredicate:prompted … , recast … , and set. . . .

4. Commas Between Two or more Consecutive adjectives Before a Nouncommas always separate two or more coordinate adjectives positioned before a noun.

commas never separate two or more cumulative adjectives positioned before a noun.

coordinate adjectives are consecutive adjectives that individually modify the noun they

precede. commas must be inserted between coordinate adjectives.

the following phrases include coordinate adjectives.

• along,frustratingday • anunderweight,fidgetyteenager

coordinate adjectives need to be distinguished from cumulative (or noncoordinate) adjec-

tives, which are never separated by commas. cumulative adjectives do not individually modify

the noun they precede. instead, in a pair of cumulative adjectives, the adjective right before

the noun modifies the noun, and the first adjective in the pair modifies the duo formed by the

second adjective and the noun. thus in the sentence She lives in an old brick house, brick modi-

fies house, and old modifies brick house as a duo.

the following phrases include cumulative (noncoordinate) adjectives.

• adeeppersonalinterestinthematter • adecayingmanufacturingtown

the presence or absence of a comma between two consecutive adjectives can make all the dif-

ference in what a sentence means.

• PaulSimonisquotedassayingthattheideafor‘’TheCapeman,’’hisfirst,extremelyproblematicBroadwaymusical,cametohiminaninstant.(VincentCanby,“‘Capeman’Doesn’tFly,DespitetheMusic,”New York Timesonline,8Feb.1998,paragraph1)

Withthecommabetweenfirstandextremely problematic,thesentenceistellingusthat,atthetimeofwriting,SimonhadcreatedonlyoneBroadwaymusicalandithappenedtobeextremelyproblematic.Withoutthecomma,thesentencewouldbetellingusthatThe CapemanwasthefirstofatleasttwoextremelyproblematicBroadwaymusicalscreatedbySimon.

5. Commas with Direct addresscommas set off the names of persons being written to or spoken to in direct address. commas

also set off words like sir and ma’am. Finally, commas set off plural nouns denoting groups of

people being addressed directly.

• MomandDad,Ihavesomethingtotellyou. • Sir,you’llneedtofollowmeintotheexaminationroom.

6. Commas after interjectionsonly two punctuation marks are used after interjections (words like ouch, whoops, and drat)—

the comma and the exclamation point.

• Wow,Iloveyourjacket. • Whew!Thatwasaclosecall.

7. Commas in elliptical Constructionsuse a comma to indicate that one or more words have been intentionally withheld from a

sentence with the expectation that the reader can fill in the missing word or words. such a sen-

tence is called an elliptical sentence.

• In2002,thechainopenedthirty-ninerestaurants;in2003,fifteen;in2004,twenty;andin2005,eleven.

8. Commas Preceding Nominative Dependent Clauses from Which the indefinite Relative Pronoun that has Been omittedA comma often takes the place of the indefinite relative pronoun that when a form of the link-

ing (equational) verb to be is followed by a nominative dependent clause.

• Thetroubleis,thecompany’sturnoverratehasincreasedexponentially.

if the sentence included the pronoun that, no comma would precede the pronoun.

• Thetroubleisthatthecompany’semployee-turnoverratehasincreasedexponentially.

9. Commas with Correlative Conjunctionsdo not use a comma before the second half of a correlative-conjunction pair (such as not

only … but also; not … but; either … or; and neither … nor) unless an independent clause fol-

lows each half of the correlative-conjunction pair. the commas before but in the following two

sentences should thus be deleted.

Faulty:Theanswerstothesequestionsnotonlyaffectthepersonalsatisfactionwiththesale,butalsohowmuchthesellermightgetforabusiness.(MarkA.Stein,“SellingaFamilyEnterprise:ToughtoDecideandtoDo,”New York Times,19Feb.2004,p.C6)

the comma in the following sentence is correct, because each half of the correlative-conjunc-

tion pair is followed by an independent clause (the first of which is in inverted form).

• Notonlyhas she revitalizedouradvertisingdepartment,but shehasbecomeourmost forward-thinkingmanager.

10. Commas That Prevent misreadingAs you recall from our discussion of introductory elements (rule 1), the omission of a bound-

ary-marking comma often obscures, rather than clarifies, the structure of a sentence.

Faulty:Notlongintothedisputeabout300protestersleftarallyinMellonSquareandmarchedtowardtheUSXTowerofficesofDonaldO’Connor,thelaborlawyerwhorepresentedmanagement.(JimMcKay,“ExecutiveintheSpotlight:BillyJoeJordan,”PittsburghPost-Gazette,23Feb.1998,p.E5)

Becausethereisnocommabetweendisputeandabout,thereadercaninitiallymisconstrueabout 300 protestersasanadjectivalprepositionalphrasemodifyingdisputeinsteadofrecognizingprotestersasthesubjectofthesentence.Theinsertionofacommaafterdisputewillresolvetheproblem.

11. Commas with that is, namely, i.e., and similar Phrases and abbreviations A comma always follows that is, i.e., e.g., and similar phrases and abbreviations. A comma

often precedes such elements as well, but stronger punctuation (such as a semicolon or a dash)

is usually more desirable, especially if the construction following the element is a long phrase

or an independent clause.

• Hishobbyisnumismatics,i.e.,coincollecting. • He’sanumismatist;thatis,hecollectscoins.

12. Commas in Constructions such as the simpler the betterif such a construction is short and consists of two phrases, omit the comma between the two

halves. if the two halves of the construction are longer phrases or are clauses, the comma is

necessary.

• Thebiggerthebetter. • Thebiggertheycome,thehardertheyfall.

13. Commas Between identical WordsReadability improves when a comma separates two consecutive uses of the same word.

• Whathappened,happened. • Whatitis,isnothingshortofmiraculous.

But it is often better to rephrase such a sentence.

• Itisnothingshortofmiraculous.

14. Commas with Contrasted Phrasingcommas set off phrases or clauses being contrasted.

• Basketball,notsoccer,washerfavoritesportincollege. • Butnotalltaskslendthemselvestoself-serve,andyouwonderwhethersomeincreasesinworkerproductiv-

itycomefromthecustomer’ssweat[,]nottheworker’s.(AnnBelser,“UntoldStoryofWorkerProductivity:LettheConsumerDoIt,”Pittsburgh Post-Gazette,7Sept.2004,p.A1)

15. Pairs of Commas enclosing interruptive and Parenthetical elementsAn interruptive or a parenthetical element—which may take the form of a single word (such as

however or therefore), a short transitional expression (such as for example or as a result), a phrase,

or a nonrestrictive dependent clause (see rules 33d and 33e)—must be set off by punctua-

tion at both ends. An element is said to be interruptive or parenthetical if it is not essential to

the meaning of the sentence. it is added to the sentence as a kind of bonus—and thus it often

enhances the reader’s understanding of the main point of the sentence.

• Cellphones,though,mayhavechangedourlivesfortheworse. • Therewasatime,nottoolongago,whenshehadbeenconsideredapromisingathlete.

explanatory interrupters are a special subcategory of interruptive elements. An explanato-

ry interrupter consists of the coordinating conjunction or and a noun or noun phrase that

functions like an appositive, renaming or clarifying the noun that precedes the interrupter.

explanatory interrupters must be set off punctuationally at both ends.

• Mad-cow disease, or bovine spongiform encephalopathy, has killed almost a hundred and fifty peopleworldwide.

All too often, interruptive elements appear with asymmetrical punctuation—that is, the inter-

ruptive elements are set off punctuationally at only one of their two ends. such mispunctuation

is very likely to occur when an interruptive element includes, at its end, another interruptive

element—especially one that is enclosed within parentheses. the boldfaced, bracketed com-

mas correct the asymmetrical punctuation of interruptive elements in the following sentenc-

es.

• Mr.Cox,onceadesignerforTommyHilfiger,andMr.Silver,aformerdaytimetalk-showproducer(whoinsists thathehoped towriteabookabout thatexperiencecalled“ButDoTheyHaveTeeth?”)[,]havemadebrightcolorcontraststheirtrademarkwhilekeepingcutsandshapesuncomplicated.(GiniaBellafante,“TheNewestStarstoWatchin2004,”NewYorkTimes,30Dec.2003,p.C20)

Theparenthesized element is alsoweakenedby amisplacedparticipial phrase (called “But Do They

Have Teeth?”);seeChapter8.

Another common form of the mispunctuation of interruptive elements occurs when the writer

mispositions the second of the two commas setting off the interruptive element. Below, the

mispositioned comma is enclosed between braces, and that comma should be deleted from

the sentence. the correctly positioned second comma is bracketed and boldfaced.

• Oneof thesickest,and funniest[,]blackcomedies inyears{,} starsBillyBobThorntonasamisanthropicdepartmentstoreSanta....(JackMathews,capsulefilmreviewofBad Santa,New York Daily News,19Dec.2003,p.70)

Finally, writers sometimes completely forget to punctuate an interruptive element, and their

failure to insert the two commas can distort the meaning of a sentence.

Faulty:Shockradioisgettingitsmouthwashedoutwithaheavy-dutybarofsoap—notasexpectedbytheguardiansattheFederalCommunicationsCommissionbutbythenation’stopradioconglomerate.(AdrianMcCoy,“BroadcastGiantTakesWhackatShockRadio,”PittsburghPost-Gazette,27Feb.2004,p.A1)

Becausethewriterhasneglectedtosetoffthephraseas expectedwithacommaateachend,thesen-tenceistellingus,erroneously,thatitwastheradioconglomerate,andnottheguardians,whoweredoingtheexpecting.Butthewriter’sintentionisnottoemphasizeeithertheconglomerateortheguard-iansasexpectants.Withcommasaroundasexpected,thesentencewillmakeitclearthattherewasanexpectationonthepartofthegeneralpublicthatshockjockswouldbecensuredandcensored.

16. Commas with Clauses of attribution use a comma between a clause of attribution (such as she said) and a full-sentence direct quo-

tation. the clause of attribution can appear at the beginning of the sentence or at the end.

• Shesaid,“I’mnotsurewe’vemadethewisestdecision.”

use a pair of commas to set off a clause of attribution that is inserted between the two halves

of a full-sentence direct quotation. each half of the quotation must be enclosed by a pair of

quotation marks.

• “TherewereafewwarningsignsIshould’veheeded,”shesaid,“butIdon’tregretmarryinghim.”

do not use a comma after a clause of attribution that is followed by the indefinite relative pro-

noun that and a direct quotation. the indefinite relative pronoun and the quotation together

form a nominative dependent clause functioning as the direct object of the verb of attribution

in the independent clause. the initial letter of the first word in the direct quotation will not be

capitalized unless the first word is a proper noun or proper adjective (either of which always

requires capitalization) or the pronoun I.

Faulty: It [the record’s jacket] claims of Johnson that, “He even creates his own thunder and lightningstorm.”(MichaelDevine,“BinThere,HeardThat,”PittsburghCity Paper,26May–2June2004,p.61)

Thecommaafterthatshouldbedeleted,andtheHinHeshouldbelowercased.

the same principles of punctuation and capitalization apply when the attribution is provided

within an adjectival dependent clause. the following sentence should lose the comma after

that.

Faulty:Atthetime, I talkedwithRobertFrederick,assistantdirectoroftheCenterforBusinessEthicsatBentleyCollegeinWaltham,Mass.,whoworriedthat,“CEOshavemovedthemselvesintoanewclassofAmericanaristocracy.”(SteveMassey,“WhatTheyMake,andWhyWeTellYou,”PittsburghPost-Gazette,23May2004,p.E3)

do not insert a comma after a clause of attribution that is followed by an indirect quotation.

if a clause of attribution follows an indirect quotation, a comma must separate the two ele-

ments.

• Shesaidwe’llneedtohiretwomoreparalegals.

• We’llneedtohiretwomoreparalegals,shesaid.

17. Commas separating Clauses in Compound, Complex, and Compound-Complex sentencessee chapter 25 of The Writer's Digest Grammar Desk Reference.

18. Commas with DatesWhen the sequence of month, day, and year appears anywhere in a sentence except at the end

(where a period, a question mark, or an exclamation point will follow), a comma must fol-

low the year.

• That package of antiterrorismmeasures [the USA Patriot Act], rushed into law following the Sept. 11,2001[,]attacks,issettoexpirenextyear.(BobHoover,“TakeActiontoAmend215’sAbuses,”PittsburghPost-Gazette,22Feb.2004,p.E4)

When the name of the day of the week is followed by the month and the day of the month, use

a pair of commas to enclose the unit formed by the month and the day of the month.

• Still,thenewsthatElliottSmithdiedonTuesday[,]October21[,]fromaself-inflictedknifewoundwasnolessheartbreaking,evenifitwassomehowhalf-expected.(LeahGreenblatt,“ElliottSmith1969–2003,”Time Out New York,30Oct.–6Nov.2003,p.109)

When the month is followed by the year, it is now standard to omit any punctuation.

• May2003wasourmostprofitablemonth.

A comma following the month, however, must be paired with a comma following the year.

• OurMay,2003,salesfigureswereourmostimpressiveyet.

When the day of the month precedes the month and the year, the date is presented without

commas.

• The24September2005performancewasunforgettable.

19. Commas with Place Nameseverybody knows that a comma separates the name of a town or city from the name of a coun-

ty, a state, a province, or a country. Fewer seem to know, however, that another comma must

follow the name of the county, state, province, or country.

• ElizabethSmartwasborninOttawa,Canada[,]in1913.(biographicalnoteinGraftonBooks[London,U.K.]1988paperbackreprintofElizabethSmart’sByGrand Central Station I Sat Down and Wept)

A pair of commas must also be used in sentences in which the name of a neighborhood, com-

munity, or district is followed by the name of the borough or larger municipal entity of which

it is a part.

• MayorBloombergthrowsoutthefirstpitchofaLittleLeaguegameinBayside,Queens[,]yesterday—oneoftworareSaturdaypublicappearancesbyHizzoner,who’softenoutoftownonweekends.(StefanC.Friedman,“MikeMakesaPlayatHome,”New York Post,25Apr.2004,p.7)

20. Commas in addressesAll of the components of a mailing address are separated by commas—except the state abbre-

viation and the Zip code.

• Pleasemail thecatalogueto JaneHersch, 1428NorthKromeAvenue,Apartment5-C,GrandForks,ND58201.

21. Commas with NamesWhen a person’s name is presented with the last name preceding the first name, a comma

separates the two, but no comma separates the first name from the middle name or middle

initial.

• Marr,SuzanneH.

22. Commas with Jr. and Sr.Honor the punctuational preference of the man whose name includes the abbreviation. if he

inserts a comma between his last name and the abbreviation, follow his lead. if he presents his

full name without the comma, do not insert one.

• SammyDavis,Jr.

23. Commas with academic Degrees, honorary Degrees, and military TitlesA pair of commas encloses such elements, except at the end of a sentence, where a comma pre-

cedes the element and a period follows.

• EllenFenton,Ph.D.,wasthefirstpanelisttospeak.

When such an abbreviation appears in the title of a work, such as a television series, a comma

does not follow the abbreviation unless the syntax of the sentence requires it.

• TheTVseriesMarcusWelby,M.D.starredRobertYoung. • TheTVseriesMarcusWelby,M.D.,whichstarredRobertYoung,firstairedinSeptember1969.

24. Commas with Job Titles and official TitlesWhen a person’s name is followed by a job title, the job title should be set off with commas at

both ends—except when the sentence ends with the job title.

• LeanneBrach,vice-presidentofmarketing,washonoredattheconvention.

When a title is presented without an article and precedes the title holder’s last name, no

comma separates the title from the name.

• GeneralLawrenceheldapressconferenceyesterday.

there are two principles to heed when a title precedes a person’s name. First, when the article

a or an precedes the title, the person’s name must be set off with commas.

• Anadministrativeassistant,ToddPfizer,caughttheerror.

second, when the article the precedes the title, the person’s name is set off with commas unless

one holder of the job title is being distinguished from another.

• Theassistantmanager,ToddPfizer,caughttheerror.

Thissentencemakesitclearthattheorganizationhasonlyoneassistantmanager.

• TheassistantmanagerToddPfizercaughttheerror.Thissentencemakesitclearthattheorganizationhasmorethanoneassistantmanager.

25. Commas with Inc. if the full, official name of a business includes either the word Incorporated or the abbreviation

Inc., follow the company’s lead in inserting or omitting a comma.

• Gateway,Inc.

if a business includes the comma in its name, a comma will also follow Inc. when the name of

the business is included anywhere in a sentence except at the end.

• AlfredA.Knopf,Inc.,isJohnUpdike’spublisher.

if a business does not include the comma in its name, a comma will not follow Inc. when the

name of the business is included in a sentence.

• DellInc.isbasedinRoundRock,Texas.

26. Commas Following etc. and et ceteraA comma always precedes etc. and et cetera, and a comma must also follow (unless the sen-

tence ends with etc. or et cetera).

• Wristwatches,bracelets,necklaces,etc.,arenottobeworninthemanufacturingplant.

27. Commas Following yes and no and similar WordsA comma should follow yes, no, and any casual term such as yeah, nope, and nah.

• Yes,Iunderstandyoursideoftheargument.

A comma should also precede any such word when it appears in the body of a sentence.

• And,yes,I’lltrytoshowupontime.

28. Commas Following Greetings and FelicitationsA comma should follow a greeting or a felicitation. All too often, especially in e-mails, the

comma is carelessly omitted.

• Hi,Ottessa.

29. Commas in the salutations and Complimentary Closings of Letters and e-mailsin an informal or a semiformal letter or e-mail, the salutation—as well as the complimentary

closing—should be followed by a comma.

• DearClaudia, • Sincerely,

30. Commas in Numbers of Four or more Digitsthe insertion of commas improves the readability of long numbers that specify quantities.

Working backward from the final digit, insert a comma before each set of three digits.

• Thepopulationhasincreasedto250,394,792.

31. Commas in Phrasing That specifies a Person’s height A comma does not separate the two parts of a phrase that presents a person’s height in feet

and inches.

• Heissixfeettwoinchestall.

32. Commas in Relation to Quotation marks commas, like periods, are inserted inside, not outside, closing quotation marks.

• TheT-shirt slogans thatdrew themostprotestswere“BoysAreStupid,” “GirlsRule,BoysDrool,” and“BoysAreSmelly.”

Commas: The suBTLeTies

33. Commas setting off Nonrestrictive elementsA restrictive element in a sentence narrows down, limits, or restricts the meaning or scope of

the word or group of words immediately preceding it. the information presented in a restric-

tive element is crucial to the meaning of the sentence, because the information is necessary to

distinguish one person, place, or thing from another. A restrictive element must never be set

off with any form of punctuation.

A nonrestrictive element, in contrast, provides supplementary but disposable informa-

tion about the word or group of words immediately preceding it. the information presented in

a nonrestrictive element is not crucial to the meaning of the sentence. A nonrestrictive element

is always set off punctuationally. if the nonrestrictive element appears in the middle of a sen-

tence, the element must be set off at both ends with a pair of commas, a pair of parentheses,

or a pair of dashes. if the nonrestrictive element appears at the end of a sentence, it must be

preceded by a comma or by a dash, or it must be enclosed within parentheses.

A. Nonrestrictive vs. Restrictive AppositivesAn appositive is a noun or a noun phrase that renames or provides further information about

another noun. An appositive almost always follows, rather than precedes, the noun or noun

phrase to which it is in apposition.

examine the punctuation of the following paragraph.

• Melissa’smother,Ellen,isanattorney.Herstepmother,Frieda,isamedicalsecretary.Herfather,Carl,isacomputerprogrammer.HerbrotherJasonplaysinarockband.Herotherbrother,David,isincollege.Hersister,Greta,isafreshmaninhighschool.

in the paragraph, the names Ellen, Frieda, Carl, Jason, David, and Greta are all functioning as

appositives. Ellen, Frieda, and Carl are set off at both ends with commas because the names

are not essential to the sentences in which they appear. melissa has only one mother, only

one stepmother, and only one father— so their names are merely supplementary information.

those three names are nonrestrictive appositives. Furthermore, it is obvious from the contents

of the paragraph that melissa has two brothers. in the fourth sentence, Jason is not set off with

commas, because the reader needs to know which of her two brothers plays in a rock band.

the name Jason, in other words, is needed to distinguish one brother from the other. Jason is

thus a restrictive appositive. in the fifth sentence, David is set off with commas because the

name is not vital to the meaning of the sentence; the complete subject of the sentence, her other

brother, sufficiently identifies him as melissa’s second male sibling. David is therefore nonre-

strictive. Finally, the fact that Greta is set off with commas in the last sentence makes it clear

that melissa has only one sister.

Quotations sometimes serve as appositives. do not use any punctuation to set off a quo-

tation that is restrictive in function. in each of the following examples, the comma before the

quotation must be deleted, because the quotation is essential to the meaning and complete-

ness of the sentence.

• Noweverynewscasthasexpertsopiningonthequestion,“Isitsafetofeedbeeftoyourfamily?”(WalterShapiro,“TooLittleRegulationandTooMuchHysteriaFeedFoodFears,”USAToday,26Dec.2003,p.8A)

• Thisisthekindofdealthatshouldremindconsumersoftheadage,“Ifitseemstoogoodtobetrue,itprob-ablyis.”(“ProfitCenter,”editorial,PittsburghPost-Gazette,29Sept.2003,p.A16)

B. Nonrestrictive vs. Restrictive Prepositional Phrasesthe failure to use punctuation to set off nonrestrictive prepositional phrases results in illogical

sentences and sentences that distort the writer’s intended meaning. in the sentence She lived in

San Francisco until her death in 2002, for example, the prepositional phrase in 2002 is function-

ing restrictively. it is distinguishing the woman’s death in 2002 from her death in some other

year. in other words, the sentence is implying that the woman died more than once. surely,

however, that is not the writer’s intended meaning. the prepositional phrase in 2002 is in

fact providing only supplementary information, not essential information. inserting a comma

before the prepositional phrase will resolve the problem.

consider the following two-sentence passage.

• WhenhemarriedMarianne,inMay1999,hewasenthralledbyherbrilliance.Aftertheydivorced,in2003,thetworemainedclosefriends.

Without the comma after Marianne, the first sentence would be implying that he married

marianne more than once—that their may 1999 marriage is being distinguished from another

marriage of theirs. Without the comma after divorced, the second sentence would imply that

the couple were divorced more than once.

the sentences that follow were mispunctuated when they appeared in newspapers and

magazines.

• Onhisfirstjob[,]asanelevatoroperatorattheGimbelsdepartmentstoreduringthe1960s,heralliedotheryoungoperatorstofightfortherighttowearbeards.(JimMcKay,“ExecutiveintheSpotlight:BillyJoeJordan,”PittsburghPost-Gazette,22Feb.1998,p.E5)

Apersoncanhaveonlyonefirst job, so the three consecutiveprepositionalphrases (as an elevator operator at the Gimbels department store during the 1960s)togetherformanonrestrictiveelement.

• Hewas53andearningasalaryof$93,000ayearwhenhewasfired[,]in1993.(MarylynnePitz,“AgeBiasAwardLetStandinCourt,”PittsburghPost-Gazette,24Feb.1998,p.E9)

Thearticlemakesitclearthatthemanwasfiredonlyonce.Withoutthecommabeforein1993,how-ever,theprepositionalphrasein 1993isforcedintoarestrictiverole,distinguishingoneinstanceofhishavingbeenfiredfromanother.

Be especially careful with sentences in which prepositional phrases are providing supplemen-

tary, not essential, information about people or things being ranked. in the following sen-

tence, the punctuation makes it clear that at the time of writing, terry swigoff had directed

only three feature films.

• BadSantawasTerrySwigoff’sthirdfeaturefilm,afterCrumb(1994)andGhostWorld(2001).Ifthewriterhadneglectedtoinsertthecommaafterfilm,thesenseofthesentencewouldbethatBad SantawasthethirdofthreefeaturefilmsSwigoffmadeafterhavingmadeCrumbandGhost World.Inotherwords,thesentencewouldbetellingusthatatthetimeofwriting,thedirectorhadmadeatleastfivefeaturefilms.

C. Nonrestrictive vs. Restrictive Participial PhrasesA participial phrase is a phrase beginning with a participle—a verbal adjective. Remember that

participles take two forms: present participles always end in -ing, and past participles usually

end in -d or -ed. Be sure to use punctuation to set off nonrestrictive participial phrases.

• Hartmanishalfwayfinishedwithanotherplay[,]called“MadHoney.”(MarylynnePitz,“$10,000GrantsSurpriseThreeLocalArtists,”PittsburghPost-Gazette,24Jan.2004,p.C8)

Withoutthecomma,thesentenceistellingusthattheplaywrightwillhavewrittenatleasttwoplayswiththesametitle.

• ButallthatfadesawaywhenCarol,thenicest,mostefficientserverontheplanet,handsyouMontereyBay’sfamousmenu[,]featuring26kindsoffish,preparedjustaboutanywayyouwant.(MackenzieCarpenter,“MontereyBayCruise,”PittsburghPost-Gazette,30Jan.2004,p.W21)

The restaurant has only one famousmenu, so the participial phrase describing the contents of themenumustbetreatedasnonrestrictive.

D. Nonrestrictive vs. Restrictive Adjectival Dependent ClausesAn adjectival dependent clause is a dependent clause that functions like a single-word adjec-

tive and directly follows the noun or pronoun it is describing. Adjectival dependent clauses

usually begin with the relative pronouns that, which, who, whom, and whose. occasionally,

though, an adjectival dependent clause begins with where, when, or why.

examine the punctuation in the following paragraph.

• Myfriendwhoworksatabookstoregavemeabookthatwasdeliveredtothestoreyesterday.Thebook,whichisananthologyofpoemsandshortstoriesaboutheartbreak,isfivehundredpageslong.Thebook’seditor,wholivesinLosAngeles,gottheideafortheanthologyaftersufferingadevastatingbreakupwithhislongtimegirlfriend,wholefthimforanotherman.Thebookisdedicatedtothewomanwhomtheeditornowintendstomarry.

the first sentence of the paragraph includes two restrictive adjectival dependent clauses. the

first (who works at a bookstore) specifies which friend gave the writer the book, and the second

(that was delivered to the store yesterday) specifies which book was given to the writer. in other

words, the first adjectival clause distinguishes one friend from the writer’s other friends, and

the second adjectival clause distinguishes one book from many other books. the information

in the adjectival clauses is essential to the meaning of the sentence, so the restrictive clauses

have not been set off punctuationally.

the adjectival dependent clause in the second sentence is not distinguishing one book

from another. the subject of the second sentence (the book) clearly refers to the book intro-

duced in the previous sentence. the information in the adjectival clause, in other words, is not

crucial to the meaning of the sentence. the clause is nonrestrictive and has therefore been set

off with commas.

the third sentence in the paragraph includes two nonrestrictive adjectival dependent

clauses. the clause who lives in Los Angeles offers merely supplementary information about

the subject of the sentence (the book’s editor), and who left him for another man offers merely

supplementary information about his longtime girlfriend. the adjectival clauses have thus been

set off punctuationally.

in the final sentence, whom the editor now intends to marry is a restrictive adjectival clause:

it specifies which woman the book is dedicated to. the adjectival clause is therefore not pre-

ceded by a comma.

the sentence that follows was mispunctuated when they appeared in newspapers and

other sources.

• ThebabiesrangeinsizefromAlexis,thesmallest,weighing6pounds,uptoKenneth,thelargest[,]whoweighs9pounds,5ounces.(“LifeatHomewithSevenBabiesIsBusy,NotChaotic,”forAssociatedPress,inPittsburghPost-Gazette,16Mar.1998,p.A20)

make sure that a nonrestrictive adjectival dependent clause is set off punctuationally at both

ends.

• WilliamIveyLong,whoisapparentlytheonlypersonallowedtodesigncostumesinNewYorkthisseason(hisworkhasappeared in“LittleShopofHorrors,”“TheBoy fromOz,”and“NeverGonnaDance”—allwithinthelastthreemonths)[,]hasdoneaveryrestrained,smartgroupforthisplay.(HowardKissel,“Nothin’sComin’Up‘Rose’s,’”New York Daily News,19Dec.2003,p.67)

E. Nonrestrictive vs. Restrictive Adverbial Dependent Clauses at the End of a SentenceAn adverbial dependent clause at the end of a sentence is not preceded by a comma if the

clause sets any limitations on the meaning of the independent clause. such a dependent clause

is restrictive: it provides information essential to the sense of the sentence as a whole.

An adverbial dependent clause at the end of a sentence is preceded by a comma, however,

if the contents of the clause provide information that is only supplementary to the meaning of

the independent clause. this sort of dependent clause is nonrestrictive: it must be punctuation-

ally detached from the independent clause, because it is not presenting essential information.

the following sentence is not stating categorically that david will be fired.

• Davidwillbefiredunlesshisperformanceimproves.

instead, the adverbial dependent clause unless his performance improves is restrictive: it specifies

the circumstances under which david will be fired. the adverbial dependent clause has there-

fore not been preceded by a comma.

similarly, in the following sentence, the adverbial dependent clause if any merchandise is

defective is restrictive: it stipulates the special condition that will entitle customers to a refund.

• Ourcustomersarealwaysentitledtoarefundifanymerchandiseisfoundtobedefective.

the adverbial dependent clause in the following sentence, however, are nonrestrictive: it pro-

vides merely supplementary information and should have been preceded by commas.

• Oneofthedumbesttime-traveladventuresofalltimeisadaptedfromMichaelCrichton’sbestselleraboutagroupofarcheologystudentsmiraculouslytransportedtothe14thcentury[,]wheretheyhavetorescuetheirprofessorinthemidstofawarbetweentheFrenchandEnglish.(JackMathews,capsulefilmreviewofTimeline,New York Daily News,19Dec.2003,p.70)

sentence-ending adverbial dependent clauses that begin with even though, although, and though

are almost always nonrestrictive. such clauses are known as concessive clauses. A comma

should precede the concessive clause in the following sentence.

• ANashvillenativewhonowlivesinSouthlake,Texas,Samuelssayshe’salwayshadanaturalcuriosityaboutthe Internet[,] although his computer science undergraduate degree from Abilene Christian Universityfocusedonbusiness,nottechnicalapplications.(CarolMemmott,“AStarter,aSurfer,andanEx-SecretaryReformTravel,”USA Today,17Mar.1998,p.7E)

occasionally, however, the contents of a concessive clause are felt to be essential to a sentence.

such a clause is not preceded by a comma.

• Thecompanycontinued tomarket theproducteven though serious concernshadbeen raisedabout itssafety.

sentence-ending adverbial dependent clauses that begin with while are almost always nonre-

strictive when while is used as a synonym for and.

• Membersofthefirstgroupvoicedapprovalofthenewversionofthesoftware,whilemembersofthesecondgroupwerelesspleased.

sentence-ending adverbial dependent clauses that begin with if and even if are not always

restrictive.

• There’ssomechickensaladintherefrigerator,ifyou’rehungry.Whetheryouarehungryornot, thechickensalad is still in the refrigerator—so thecontentsof theadverbialdependentclausearenotessentialtothemeaningofthesentence.

sentence-ending adverbial dependent clauses beginning with because (and also with since and

as when those two subordinating conjunctions are used as synonyms for because) can be espe-

cially troublesome. the most precise discussion of such clauses appears in Wilson Follett’s

Modern American Usage, a magisterial guide edited and completed by Jacques Barzun. We are

indebted to Follett for our explanations that follow.

if the independent clause is stated in positive terms, the adverbial dependent clause

beginning with because can be either nonrestrictive or restrictive.

• Wehiredher,becauseshehasadegreeinmarketing. • Wehiredherbecauseshehasadegreeinmarketing.

in both sentences, the main point is that the woman was hired. But the sentences differ subtly

in intent. the first sentence stresses the fact that she has been hired; the reason for her having

been hired is considered to be nonessential, and thus the adverbial dependent clause is preced-

ed by a comma. the second sentence stresses the reason why the woman was hired. Here the

contents of the adverbial dependent clause are crucial to the writer’s intentions, so the depen-

dent clause is not set off with a comma; it is treated as a restrictive clause.

it is up to the writer to decide whether the contents of a clause beginning with because are

vital to the meaning of a sentence. most often, such clauses are regarded as restrictive.

in each of the sentences below, the independent clause relates a circumstance or a state

of being, and the adverbial dependent clause specifies the cause of the circumstance or state

of being. the adverbial dependent clause in each sentence has been treated as a nonrestrictive

element because the writer wants to place the emphasis on the circumstance or state of being

itself, not on its cause.

• Hewasmoredemoralizedthanhiscolleagues,becausehehadinvestedmuchmoretimeintheproject. • Shewasbynatureafierceindividualist,becauseshehadgrownupasoneofthreechildreninasingle-parent

household.

each of sentences could, of course, be presented without the comma; but, as noted, the empha-

sis of the sentence would undergo a subtle change. only the writer can determine whether a

comma is necessary to express the intended shade of meaning.

When the independent clause that precedes the because clause is stated in negative terms,

two possibilities arise. if the adverbial dependent clause is stating the reason why something

has not happened or why something is not true, the clause is nonrestrictive and is preceded

by a comma. But if the adverbial dependent clause is ruling out a reason why something has

happened or why something is true, the clause is restrictive, and a comma must not precede

the dependent clause.

compare the following sentences.

• Wedidnothireher,becauseshehadadegreeinmarketing. • Wedidnothireherbecauseshehadadegreeinmarketing.

the independent clause of the first sentence is stating that the woman was not hired. that is

the important point of the sentence. the dependent clause is merely providing the reason why

she was not hired. the reason is not essential to the meaning of the sentence, and thus the

adverbial dependent clause is punctuated as a nonrestrictive element. the important point of

the second sentence is that the woman was hired—but for a reason other than that she had a

degree in marketing. the adverbial dependent clause is vital to the sense of the sentence; with-

out the dependent clause, the sentence would be declaring that the woman had in fact not

been hired. the dependent clause is therefore not set off punctuationally.

examine the following two-sentence excerpt.

• Iwouldn’trecommendeatingattheGrottobecausethemenuisentirelyheart-healthyandvegetarian.Gotherebecausethedessertsareoutofthisworld.

ThefirstsentencemakesitclearthateatingattheGrottoisbeingrecommendedforareasonotherthanthefactthatthemenuconsistsentirelyofheart-healthyandvegetarianitems.Theadverbialdependentclauseisthereforerestrictive.(Ifthewriterhadinsertedacommabeforebecause,thedependentclausewouldbenonrestrictive,andthesentencewouldhaveaprofoundlydifferentmeaning:thesentencewouldbeadvisingthereadernottoeatattheGrotto.)Thesecondsentenceexplainswhythewriterisrecommendingtherestaurant.Inthesecondsentence,theadverbialdependentclauseisalsorestric-tive.

F. False RestrictivesWriters—journalists, especially—who attempt to compress much information into the small-

est possible space often unintentionally force a nonessential or nonrestrictive detail into play-

ing a restrictive role. that is, a supplementary, disposable detail is forced to function as if it

were distinguishing one person or thing from another. the sentence Aaron’s biologist father and

neuroscientist mother have instilled in the boy a deep curiosity about the world implies that Aaron has

at least two fathers (one of whom is a biologist) and at least two mothers (one of whom is a

neuroscientist). logic can be imparted to the sentence by revising it as Aaron’s father, a biologist,

and his mother, a neuroscientist, have instilled in the boy a deep curiosity about the world.

the following sentence unwittingly implies that a television-news network was launched

more than once.

Faulty:Fox’sratings,alreadyclimbingsincethestation’s1996launch,reallybegantorocketupwardafterSeptember11,2001,andblastedintoorbitwiththesecondIraqwar.(BrianC.Anderson,“LiberalMedia,ontheRun,”PittsburghPost-Gazette,7Dec.2003,p.E1)

Thewriterappearstobedistinguishingthenetwork’s1996launchfromitslaunchinsomeotheryear.1996isafalserestrictive.ThesentencecouldberevisedasFox’s ratings, already climbing since the sta-tion’s launch, in 1996, really began to rocket upward....

the meaning of each of the following sentences is distorted by a false restrictive.

Faulty:GeorgeHarrisonwrotealotofgreatsongsandhadalotoftalentedfriends,andtheyconvergedforatributetothelateBeatleatLondon’sRoyalAlbertHallexactlyoneyearafterhis2001death.(AustinScaggs,reviewofThe Concert for George,Rolling Stone,11Dec.2003,p.219)

Harrisondiedonlyonce.Theendingofthesentencemightberevisedasafter his death, in 2001.

Faulty:Still,Life and Death isahauntingprofileofWuornosduringthemonthsbeforeherOctober2002execution.(NicoleKeeter,reviewofAileen: Life and Death of a Serial Killer,Time Out New York,8-15Jan.2004,p.89)

Wuornoswasputtodeathonlyonce.Theendingofthesentencemightberevisedasduring the months before her execution, in October 2002.

34. alternatives to the a, b, and c Pattern for a seriesWriters need not confine themselves to the a, b, and c pattern for presenting a series, which is

discussed in rule 3. there are three alternative patterns.

A. a, b, cthis pattern can be used to secure two effects.

1. use this pattern when the subesquent items in the series are restatements of, revisions of, or

variations on the first element.

• Theeditorthoughtthatthechapterhadmanygaps,omissions,lacunae.

2. use this pattern to imply that the series could be extended further—that the list is not neces-

sarily complete (the abbreviation etc. is implied).

• Shecollectedoldpostcards,handbills,placards,restaurantmenus,businessstationery.

B. a and b and cthis pattern throws extra emphasis on each item in the series.

• Shehasbrainsandbeautyandbrilliance.

C. a, and b, and cthis pattern throws even greater emphasis on each member of the series— and slows down

the sentence.

• Hewasempty-headed,andhesitant,andunexcitable.

35. Defensible splits of Compound Predicatesdo not insert a comma before a coordinating conjunction separating the two halves of a com-

pound predicate—unless you have a very good justification for doing so.

the following sentence should lose the commas splitting the compound predicates.

Faulty:Thosewhoarefortunateenoughtobeemployedoftenhavetoworklonghours,orstringtogethertwoandthreejobstomakeendsmeet.

(BobHerbert,“TheOtherAmerica,”New York Times,23Jan.2004,p.A25)

there are, however, five defensible reasons for using a comma to split a compound predicate.

1. to prevent confusion or misreading.

Faulty:Recentdiscussionsofthisimportantsocialtrendfailtofaceuptoakeysourceoftheproblemandprescribethewrongsolution.(JamesJ.HeckmanandAmyL.Wax,“HomeAlone,”Wall Street Journal,23Jan.2004,p.A14)

Withoutacommabeforeand,thesentencecanbeconstruedassayingthatthediscussionsalsofailtoprescribethewrongsolution.

2. to achieve an emphatic contrast or drama or gravity.

• Hewasgravelyill,oratleastclaimedtobe.

3. to clarify the structure of a sentence in which the first verb phrase already includes a coor-

dinating conjunction in a pair or series.

• Lonnieisshort,squabby,andcoarse,andwearsHawaiianshirtsunderwide-lapelledcorduroysuitjackets.

4. to emphasize the passing of time (in other words, the action in the second half of the predi-

cate takes place considerably later than the action in the first half).

• Sheevictedhimfromhisapartment,andfellheadoverheelsforhim.

5. to emphasize that the two parts of the predicate are not of equal importance.

• Shewashardofhearing,andhadamassedafortuneworthseveralmilliondollars.

eRRoNeous Commas

36. single Commas separating subjects from Predicates Never insert a lone comma between a subject and a predicate. (Remember, however, that a

nonrestrictive, interruptive element—a single word, a phrase, or a dependent clause—often

appears between the subject and the predicate of a sentence. such elements are set off punc-

tuationally at both ends.)

Faulty:Thetrendofwatchesdoublingasjewelry,isespeciallynoticeableinthemovementfromtheplainsilverandgoldwatchestothosewithembellishmentsandjewels,likethosefavoredbyrapartists.(KristiL.Gustafson,“WatchesMakeaTimelyFashionStatement,”forAlbany Times Union,inSeattle Post-Intelligencer,20Jan.2004,p.C6)

Deletethecommaafterjewelry.

37. Commas with Quotations serving as structural Components of sentences do not use a comma to set off a nondialogic quotation that is functioning as a structural com-

ponent of the sentence into which it has been integrated. that is, do not use a comma to set

off a quotation functioning as the subject of a clause; as the predicate of a clause; as the com-

plement of a linking verb (unless the quotation takes the form of an interrogative sentence);

as a restrictive appositive; as the direct object of a transitive verb that is not functioning as a

verb of attribution; as the objective complement of a transitive verb; as the retained objective

complement of a transitive verb; as the object of a gerund or the object of a participle (unless

the quotation is fairly long); or as the object of a preposition.

Faulty:“Beforewegetstarted,youshouldknowthatIhadavasectomy,”areHarvey’sfirstwordstoher.(PeterM.Nichols,“NewDVDs:MakingaRelaxed,Low-KeyFilminMadcapTokyo,”New York Times,3Feb.2004,p.B8)

Correct:Ajobcandidateshouldbepreparedtoanswerthequestion“Wheredoyouseeyourselffiveyearsfromnow?”

Donotuseacommatosetoffaquotationfunctioningasarestrictiveappositive(seerule33A).

do not use a comma to set off a quotation serving as the direct object of a transitive verb that

is not functioning as a verb of attribution. in the next example, the quotation functions as

the direct object of offer and thus should not be preceded by a comma. (When the comma is

removed, the initial letter of the first word of the quotation will need to be lowercased.)

Faulty:Stilluntitled,thepublisherpromisesthebookwilloffer,“Anultimateclose-uplookattheevolutionofMiramaxFilmsintooneofthegreatHollywoodsuccessstories.”(MichaelCader,“Weinstein’sMemoirs,”New York Sun,14-16May2004,p.13)

Thesentenceisalsoweakenedbyamisplacedmodifier(thephrasestill untitledshouldbemodifyingbook,notpublisher),andthesentencewouldbenefitfromtheinsertionoftheindefiniterelativepro-nounthatbetweenpromisesandthe.

A quotation serving as an objective complement should not be set off with a comma.

Faulty:VariouscandidatesfortheDemocraticnominationforpresidentcalledPresidentBush,“Amiser-ablefailure,”“aliar,”orcomparedhimtotheTaliban.

DeletethecommaafterBush,andlowercasethefirstwordofthefirstquotation.(Thesentencealsosuffersfromfaultyparallelism;seethefirstprinciplediscussedinChapter7.)

A quotation functioning as a retained objective complement should not be set off with a

comma. the difference between an objective complement and a retained objective comple-

ment can be understood by examining the positioning of the noun failure in the sentences

He considered the movie a failure and The movie was considered a failure. in the second sentence,

which is a passive-voice reworking of the first sentence, the objective complement now follows

the verb instead of following the object. the noun or noun equivalent that follows the passive-

voice verb construction in such a sentence is called a retained objective complement.

Faulty:WhenDisneyrecentlyrolledoutaninternalsystemforhandlingpayroll,accountingandothertasksitwasnamed,“ProjectTomorrowland.”(BruceOrwallandEmilyNelson,“HiddenWallShieldsDisney’sKingdom:80YearsofCulture,”Wall Street Journal,13Feb.2004,p.A8)

Deletethecommaafternamed.Project Tomorrowlandistheretainedobjectivecomplement.

Finally, do not use a comma to set off a quotation functioning as the object of a preposition.

Faulty:Concerned citizens wrote to newspapers with comments like, “If this is the start, where will itend?”(NeilMacFarquhar,“AKissIsNotJustaKisstoanAngryArabTVAudience,”New York Times,5Mar.2004,p.A3)

Deletethecommafollowinglike.

38. Commas Following Participles such as entitleddo not use a comma to separate a participle such as entitled or called from the title of a work,

which may be italicized or presented between quotation marks.

Faulty:Mr.Bushmusthavemissedthatclassic“TwilightZone”episodewherethealiensarrivewithabookentitled,“ToServeMan.”(MaureenDowd,“AreTheyLosingIt?,”New York Timesonline,27June2004,paragraph17)

Deletethecommafollowingentitled.