THE PULSE OF THE EARTH

X.V. VAK DE GARDE & co's DRliKKERIJ, ZALTHOWI!EL

The Pulse of the Earth BY

]. H. F. UMBGROVE D. Sc. (LEYDEN)

HoN. F. R. S. E.; HoN. MEMB. N. Y. Ac. Sc. MEMB. R. NETHERL. Ac. Sc.

PROFESSOR OF GEOLOGY AT DELFT

HoLLAND

SECOND EDITION

W1th 8 partly coloured plates, 204 textjigures and I2 tables

Springer-Science+Business Media, B.V. 1947

Additional material to this book can be downloaded from http://extras.springer.com.

ISBN 978-94-017-5641-9 ISBN 978-94-017-5902-1 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-5902-1

Copyright I947 by Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht

Origina1JypubJishedbyMartinus Nijhoff, The Hague, Holland in 1947.

Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1947 All rii?hts reserved, including the right to translate or to reproduce

this book or parts thereof in any form.

In memory of A. C. U mbgrove-Gordon my Mother with sincere feelings of gratitude

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

PREFACE .

CHAPTER I. SPACE AND TIME

CONTENTS

Pages

XIII

XXI

lNTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 THE UNIVERSE, THE SOLAR-SYSTEM AND THE EARTH . . . . . 2

Cosmic dimensions. Spiral galaxies. The expanding universe. The origin of the solar-system.

THE BIRTH OF THE MOON . . . . . . . . . 6 The earth and the moon. Lunar volcanism.

THE EARTH'S INTERIOR . . . . . • . 8 Interpretation of seismic data. Two different theories on the internal constitution of the earth.

THE AGE OF THE EARTH AND THE UNIVERSE 12 Geological figures. Astronomical methods and the age of meteoritEis.

THE HISTORY OF THE EARTH'S CRUST ... , . , . 15 Precambrian and later history. Alterations of the earth's aspect. A geo­logical cycle. Erosion. Sedimentation. Geosynclines. Folding. Facies. Unconformity. Magma. Periodicity. Contents of the following chapters.

REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

CHAPTER II. MouNTAIN-CHAINS lNTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

Analysis of the earth's structural history. Mountain-chains of different ages. Epochs of compression. Classification of mountain-belts.

EPOCHS OF COMPRESSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 The enormous extent of Pre-Cambrian areas. The foundering of older zones and a presumed accretion of the continents. Centrifugal migration. Dynamic centra of tectonic activity. Alternating increase and decrease of compression. A deep-seated cause and world-wide movements. Excep­tions. The influence of the basement. Intersecting structures. Absence ot centrifugal displacement.

MouNTAIN-BUILDING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 Epoc"hs of compression and elevation. Rejuvenation. The extent of mountains-belts of various ages.

SUBSIDED BLOCKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . 35 Appalachia and Nova Scotica, Llanoria, Cascadia, Scandia, the submerg-ed area west of the Congo-Basin, Melanesia. Periods of foundering.

REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

CHAPTER III. BASINS AND TROUGHS lNTRODUCTION

Characteristics of basins and troughs. division.

CONTINENTAL BASINS AND TROUGHS

Marginal deeps. Intramontane troughs basins. Discordant basins.

Umbgro\'('

43 Nomenclature and systematic

45 and idiogeosynclines. N uclear

VIII CONTENTS

DEEP-SEA BASINS AND TROUGHS . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Examples in the East-Indies and a comparison with continental types. The abnormal character of the present situation. Periods of rejuvena­tion of the continental and submarine.relief. An open question.

CHRONOLOGICAL RELATIONS TO OTHER PHENOMENA . . • . . . . Relations to periods of mountain-building and decreasing compression. A deep internal terrestrial process of world-wide activify.

REFERENCES . . . . • • • . . . . . . . . . . . . .

CHAPTER IV. CRUST AND SUBSTRATUM lNTRODUCTION . . . • • • . • . • • . . . . • . . . . . . . . . .

The composition of the earth's crust and its substratum. Sial and sima. Contineutal and oceanic sectors. Volcanic and petrographic consequen­ces.

MAGMATIC CLANS • . . . . • . . . . • . , . . . . . . . . , . • . Theory of the origin of igneous rocks belonging to the pacific and mediterranean clans of differentiation from a parental magma-layer of olivirre basalt. Other theories.

TECTONIC AND MAGMATIC CYCLES . • . • . . . . • • • • • . . . . . Crustal folding and the root of a mountain-chain. Belts of isostatic ano­malies in the East and West Indies. The magmatic phenomena associat­ed with a subsiding and subsequently buckling crust.

APERIDOTITE-LAYER IN THE SUBSTRATUM .•...•.•...•.•. The relation of peridotite intrusions to certain epochs of down-buck­ling of a sialic mountain-root.

ZONAL MIGRATION OF GEOSYNCLINES; CONTINENTS AND OCEAN-FLOORS The pattern of continental shields. The origin of continents and ocean­floors. A primordial, world-wide sialic layer. The origin of an interme­diate layer in the earth's crust.

VOLCANISM IN BASINS . • . • • . . . . • . . . . . • The occurrence of basic rocks and the absence of acid rocks.

FRAGMENTATION AND GROWTH OF CONTINENTS . . • . • • Contineutal rejuvenation. Periodical supply of sialic melts from the substratum.

SUMMARY REFERENCES . . . . . • . • . . . . . • .

CHAPTER V. ÜSCILLATIONS OF THE SEA-LEVEL lNTRODUCTION . • • . • . , . . , , • . • REGIONALTRANSGRESSIONSAND REGRESSIONS .

The alternation of fresh and salt-water bodies in the Baltic Region. Other examples of local rhythms.

WORLD-WIDE TRANSGRESSIONSAND REGRESSIONS ... The synchronism and huge extent of the major trans- and regressions. Possible causes and coincidences with other phenomena. The amount of positive and negative shifts of the sea-level. An important problematical question.

REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

CHAPTER VI. THE CONTINENTAL MARGIN INTRODUCTION . . • . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Problems of the continental shelves and the oceanic coasts of the continents. Classification of continental shelves.

THE SURFACE OF THE SHELF ................. . Hypsometrie relation between sea-level and shelf-surface. Older theories on the origin of the shelf. The problern of the shelf-edge at the isobath of 200 meters.

THE INFLUENCE OF CHANGING SEA-LEVEL . . . . . . . . Amount of eustatic changes. Their possible influence on the grading of the surface of the shelf.

SUBSIDENCE OF THE SHELF-AREA

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106

CONTENTS IX

Pages Formations on the outer shelf-surface originally deposited in the littoral zone. Deeper surfaces of the shelf.

THE MARGINAL FLEXURE OF THE CONTINENTS • • . . . . . . • . . • . 109 Phenomena showing a widespread rejuvenation of the oceanic borders of the continents. The theory of the marginal flexure.

MARINE TERRACES • . . • . • . The most recent movements along the marginal flexure. Possible dating of the different shelf-surfaces.

THE GEOPHYSICAL SIDE OF THE PROBLEM . . • . • . . Gravity at the continental margin. The hypothesis of periodical con­vection currents in the marginal part of the continents. Correlation with other periodical phenomena.

114

117

SUBMARINE VALLEYS . . . . . . . . • • . . . . • . • . • . • . . 120 General statement. Classification. Cases to be excluded. The notched shelf-edge. Hypotheses involving a Subaerial origin. Hypotheses invol-ving submarine agencies. Gorges extending over the surface of the shelf. Submarine canyons showing a dendritic river-like pattern.

SuMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS . REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

CHAPTER VII. lSLAND-ARCS

lNTRODUCTION . • • . • . . . . . . . . . . . . • • . • . • . . . Geographkai distribution. Phenomena associated with island-arcs. Their Counterpart on the continents.

THE PROBLEM . • • . . . • . . • . • . • . . • . • • . • . Restrictions. Short outline of problematic questions to be examined.

PHYSIOGRAPHie FEATURES • • • . • • • • . • • . • • • • • . Genetic classifications. Angle of arc-curvature. The notion of deep­reaching thrustplanes. A simple working hypothesis based on physio­graphic evidence.

EARTHQUAKE ZONES C 1 a s s i f i c a t i o n.

Normal-, intermediate-, and deep foci. T h e M e c h•a n i s m.

Distribution of dilatations and compressions. Similarity of the me­chanism giving origin to normal tectonic earth shocks and deep-focus earthquakes.

Geographiedistribution of deep-focus earthquakes. Exceptional position of the western and southeastern Pacific.

D e e p-r e a c h i n g s h e a r-z o n e s. The action of deep-reaching shear-zones and the theory of convection currents.

TERRESTRJAL MAGNET15M . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Agreement with the theory of thermal convection currents. Possible relation between districts of deep-focus earthquakes and anomalies of the vertical component of terrestrial magnetism.

VOLCANISM AND PLUTONJSM ............ .

T h e a n d e s i t e I i n e. The boundary between sialic and basaltic sea-floor in the Pacific.

P e t r o g r a p h i c p r o v i n c e s. Distribution of igneous rocks belonging to the pacific and mediterranean provinces. Their mode of origin.

I g n e o u s r o c k s i n g e a n t i c l i n a I b e I t s. Plutonism and volcanism in the inner arc. Their mutual relations to epochs of compression. Longitudinal faults and rift-valleys. Volcano­tectonic depressions.

I g n e o u s r o c k s in g e o s y n c 1 in a 1 t r o u g h s. Their relation to epochs of compression.

139 141

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165

X CONTENTS

P r o b 1 e m s t o b e s o l v e d. Pages

A summing up of eight problematic points regarding the origin and site of plutonic and volcanic phenomena.

DEEP-SEA BASINS AND .TROUGHS , • . . • • • • . , . . . . • • , . . 170 Types of troughs associated with island-arcs. Discussion of a theorv on their origin. "

lSOSTATIC ANOMALIES . • • . . . • . . . . • . . . . . . , . . • . 172 T h e b o u n d a r y o f t h e P a c i f i c B a s i n.

Oceanic fields of positive anomalies and the theory of convection currents. Relation to physiographic and seismic phenomena and to the petrographic character of the sea-floor.

S i n g 1 e A r c s. Gravimetrie profiles across the islands Guam and Yap. Geological interpretation.

D o u b l e A r c s. Isostatic anomalies in the East- and West Indies. Relations to the topography of the sea-floor. Factors controlling the formation of a single or a double island-arc.

SYNTHESIS ••••..••....................

G e n e r a l s t a t e m e n t. · S i t e o f t h e o u t e r a r c.

Crustal waves due to increasing compression. Crustal down-buckle in the zone of strong seismic activity.

T i m e o f o r i g in an d e p o c h s o f r e j u v e n a t i o n. Time öf örigin of the crustal root and epochs of rejuvenation. Origin of a belt of Serpentines and other ultrabasic rocks. Respectable antiquity of the zone.

Origin of the double arc. Crustal waves accompanying the zone of strongly negative anomalies. Origin of deep-sea furrows. due to isostatic rise of the negative zone. Origin of the double arc. Central depression on the outer arc. The volcanic inner arc and the geosynclinal troughs on their continentward side. Different types of deep-sea basins. Raised reef-limestones.

D e e p-s e a f u r r o w s. Remarkable situation of the island Sumba. Relation of its site to the belt of negative anomalies and the submarine topography.

T h e v o 1 c a n i c i n-n e r a r c. Restrietion of volcanism to the concave side of anisland festoon. Perio­dical manifestation of volcanism on the inner arc. Absence of volcanism on the' outer arc. Interpretation of Upper Tertiary volcanic rocks on is­lands of the outer arc and on Sumba. The double row of volcanoes in the northern Moluccas. The distribution of active and extinct volcanoes in the Southern Moluccas.

B a s i n s a n d T r o u g h s b e h i n d t h e i n n e r a r c. Idiogeosynclines. The site of igneous rocks of the mediterranean clan. Deep-sea basins.

Positive an o m a 1 i es o f I so s t a s y. Possible cause of their origin. Relation to the belt of negative anomalies and to periodical epochs of compression in the earth's crust.

T h e i n v e r t e d a r c o f C e I e b e s. Absence of a voicanic "inner" arc. Plutonism and volcanism at the convex side of the negative zone. Tentative interpretation of the major structural features of Celebes.

177

EvoLUTION • • • . • • • • . • • • • • . • • • • • . • • • • • • • 200 The question of evolutionary stages represented by different types of island-arcs. Island-arcs and mountain-belts on the continent.

UNSOLVED PROBLEMS ••••..••••••••••• , ••• , • 205 Absence of island-arcs along the southwestern and eastern borders of the Pacific. Japan and the Philippine archipelago.

SUMMARY

REFERENCES • . . . . • • • . . • . . . . • • 208 214

CONTENTS

CHAPTER VIII. THE FLOOROF THE ÜCEANS

lNTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The antipodal arrangement of continental blocks and oceanic depres­sions. The tetrahedral theory. Different hypotheses an the origin of the oceanic rece.ptacles.

THE MAJOR CHARACTERISTICS OF THE BOTTOM-RELIEF ........ . A division into four areas and a camparisau with geological and geophy­sical data. Antarctic basins. North-Polar basin.

THE ATLANTIC ÜCEA:roi AND THE WESTERN PART OF THE lNDIA:!'i ÜCEAN Characteristics of the n!lief and their geological significance. Symme­trical features. Rejuvenation of the relief. Sunken blocks. Conclusions.

THE P ACIFIC ÜCEAN . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . Characteristics of the relief and their geological significance. Sunken blocks.

THE DISTRIBUTION 'oF ISOBATHIC AREAS . . . . . . . . . The occurrence of three favored levels an the earth's surface.

THE PROBLEM . . , . . . . . . . . The six wain points of the problem.

CONTINENTAL DRIFT ..... , , .. DrifÜng apart of continerital blocks. The origin of the floor of the Atlan­tic by stretching of a sialic block. Biological evidence.

SUBMJ):RGED CONTINENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The relation of foundering blocks to the oceanic water-economy. The

.. , foundering of a continental block and its thinning. THE HYPOTHESIS OF PERMANENCE . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Permanence cum grano salis. Changeahle factors. Isthmian links. TRANS-ÜCEANIC MOUNTAIN-CHAINS .............. .

The abrupt ending of folded belts an either side of the Atlantic. A new theory an their possible Connections across the oceanic area.

THE ORIGIN OF CONTINENTS AND OCEANIC RECEPTACLES ........ . Recapitulation of problematic points. Theories an a primeval earth surface of basalt. The origin of continents and aceans and the resonance theory of the moon. The folding and drifting of a world-encircling sialic layer during early Pre-Cambrian time and the origin of primordial continents and sial~free ocean-floors. A possible process of early Pre-Caml;>rian stretching of a sial-layer. The possible influence. of primeval convection-currents.

SuMMARY REFERENCES

CHAPTER IX. ICE-AGES

XI Pages

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251 254

lNTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257 THE PERIODICITY OF CLIMATES . . . . . . . . . . . 260

Major periodicity of 250 million years. The duration of a glaciation. Visions of the future. Interverring periods of temperate climate. Periods of a minor differentiation of the climate.

THE EARTH'S NORMAL CLIMATE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261 The uniformity of the landflora. The migration of land animals. Fau­nistic provinces in the sea. The desert belts.

THE ABNORMAL CHARACTER OF PRESENT CONDITIONS . . . . . . , . . . 266 Climatic zones. The differentiation of the flora and fauna. Present condi-tions and the interpretation of the past. ·

THE PROBLEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 The four aspects of the problem.

THE RELATION BETWEEN PERIODICITY AND PHYSICO-GEOGRAPHICAL FAC-TORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267

The major epochs of mountain-building. The amount of carbon-dioxyde

XII CONTENTS

Pages in the atmosphere. The distribution of land and sea. The influence of vol-canic dust. The minor epochs of mountain-building.

THE DEEPER CAUSES OF PERIODICITY • • • • • • • • • . • . • . . . . 269 Correlated phenomena and subcrustal processes. Thermal cycles.

THE RAPID GROWTH AND SUBSEQUENT RETREAT OF AN ICE-CAP • • • • • • 270 The cooling-power of an ice-cap. The retreat of the last Scandinavian ice-cap. The effect of thinning of the ice-sheet and of the elevation of the land. The influence of a lowering of the sea-level.

INTERGLACIAL PERIODS • • • . • . • • • • • • . • • . . • . . . . 272 The influence of three cosmic variables. Tentative curves of solar radia-tion.

THE GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION OF AN ICE-CAP • • • • . • • . . . . • • 274 A theoretical diagram of the atmospheric circulation. Actual deviations from the scheme. The sites of Pleistocene ice-caps. Isotherms and isoflors of the Eocene compared to the present site of the continents. Botanical evidence from earlier periods. The Upper Paleozoic glaciation. Objections against the hypothesis of continental drift and the supposed shifting of the poles. Sunken land­bridges. A "not impossible" reconstruction of geographic conditions during the Upper Paleozoic glaciation.

THE RESTRICTED INFLUENCE OF COSMIC FACTORS • . •

The "solar-cyclonic" hypothesis. The rotation of the galactic system SuMMARY •..••••..•. REFERENCES • • • • • • . . . .

CHAPTER X. THE RHYTHM OF LIFE INTRODUCTION • • • • • •

The influence of changing environmental factors on the evolution of the fauna.

THE PERIODIC DIFFERENTIATION OF THE FLORA . . • • . . . . • .

Periodical differentiation of the flora and its coincidence with the major periods of mountain-building and glaciation.

REFERENCES • • • • • • • • . • • . • . • • . • . • . • • • . • •

CHAPTER XI. LINEAR PATTERNS INTRODUCTION • • • . • • • • • • . . . • . • . . . • . . • • •

Joints, fractures and other repeatative linear patterns. Lineaments. Morphological features.

PLANETARY SYSTEMS • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • . . • • • • .

Geölogical and seismological evidence. Two bisecting sets of lineaments of world-wide importance. Time of origin of the planetary lineament­sets. Rejuvenation.

THE PROBLEM 0 0 0 0 • 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 • 0 • 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Primeval origin of the planetary pattern. Two aspects to be considered (1) The cause of the prevailing directions of the lineament-sets, (2) the re­peated rejuvenation of the old plan.

ÜRIGIN OF THE LINEAMENTS • . . • . . • . . .

0 1 d e r T h e o r i e s. The system Moon-Earth. Other "pre-geological" theories. Contraction. The consolidation of the earth's crust. The influence of anisotropies in the distribution of continents. Meridional lineaments and ocean-floors.

W a n d e r i n g o f t h e P o 1 e s. Two modes of polar shift. Several geological hypotheses. A recent theory ascribing the origin of the planetary lineament-systems to a large displacement of the poles in early Pre-Cambrian times. Reasons to abandon this theory of a polar displacement as well as its predecessors.

PERIODICAL REJUVENATION • • . • • • • • • • • • • • • . • . . . .

D o m e-s h a p e d e 1 e v a t i o n s a n d r i f t-z o n e s. T h e N o r t h S e a B a s i n.

Rejuvenation and periodicity in the North Sea Basin as shown by (1) the

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CONTENTS

rate of Sedimentation, (2) the paleogeographic development, and structural history of the basin, especially of its linear structures.

G e n e r a 1 c o n c 1 u s i o n s. ~~~y • . . • • . . . . . . . . . REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . .

CHAPTER XII. THE PULSE OF THE EARTH

XIII

Pages (3) the

319 319

INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321 CHRONOLOGICAL RELATION OF PERIODIC EVENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . , 321

A concise synopsis and diagrammatic analysis of the periodic phenomena and their respective relations.

A FUNDAMENTAL PROBLEM . . . . . . . . . . . . 324 The problematic nature of the subcrustal processes.

REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325

APPENDIX. DESCRIPTIONS OF PLATES 1-8, AND TABLES I AND II PLATE 1. CALEDONIAN EPOCHS OF COMPRESSION PLATE 2. V ARISCIAN EPOCHS OF COMPRESSION PLATE 3. MESOZOIC EPOCHS OF COMPRESSION PLATE 4. CENOZOIC EPOCHS OF COMPRESSION PLATE 5. CHRONOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF THE CONTINENTS PLATE 6 AND TABLE I. BASINS OF THE SECOND GROUP PLATE 7. DISTRIBUTION OF ROCK CLANS PLATE 8. GEOLOGY AND GRAVITY FIELD IN THE EAST INDIES TABLE I. SEE UNDER PLATE 6 TABLE II. SYNOPSIS OF THE PULSE OF THE EARTH

INDEX ................... .

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

326 328 332 335 341 342 350 350 350 350 353

If no source is mentioned the illustrations are new or from recent papers by the author.

TEXTFIGURES

Figures. 1. The dimensions of the planets as compared to the disc of the Sun, and the

Sun as compared to Antares. 2. Our galactic system (after Easton) and the Andromeda nebula.

From W. SHEPERD, De Triomftocht der Wetenschap (1941). 3. Diagram of the changes in the form of the Sun during the passage of a star.

Redrawn from H. JEFFREYS, The Earth (1939). 4. Changes in the form of the earth during resonance and the origin of the Moon.

Basedon H. jEFFREYS, The Earth (19;29). 5. Theophilus - a lunar crater - as compared to the dimensions of some ter­

restrial volcanoes. Adapted from B. G. EscHER (op. cit. 1940).

6. Propagation of seismic waves through the Earth. 7. The internal structure of the earth.

Basedon J. B. MACELWANE, Physics of the Earth VII (1939). 8. Two different theories on the constitution of the earth's interior.

Adapted after KUHN and RITTMANN (Geolog. Rundschau 32, 1941, p. 230, fig. 6).

XIV LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Figures 9. The 'radioactive series.

From CLARK GooDMAN (op. cit. 1942, p. 279. fig. 2). 10. Graphie representation of the age of the earth. 11. The town of Le Puy in Southern France. 12. The active Gedeh-Panggerango volcano and the much eroded volcanic ruin

near Plered, Java. 13. The erosive action of the sea, near Camaret: 14. Transgression of Cambrian quartzites on Pre-Cambrian Torriden sandstone. 15. Diagrammatic representation of a geological ,cycle. 16. Schematic blockdiagr-a:m of different facies types.

Based on W. H. TwENHOFEL and R. R. SHROCK, I nvertebrate Paleonto­logy (1935).

17. Glencoul overthrust, north-west Scotland. 18. Old Red resting unconformably on Silurian graywackes. Siccar point,

Scotland. 19. The Highland boundary fault near Aberfoyk 20. Geological diagram of Scotland, showing the localities of Fig. 14, 17, 18, 19

and 22. Based on M. GIGNoux, Geologie Stratigraphique, and on the geological

map of Scotland. 21. The folded unconformity near Fepin in the Ardennes. 22. Diagrammatic section across the Pentland Hills near Edinburgh.

After W. H. LAURIE, from J. J. WILLS, The Physiographical Evolution of Britain ( 1929).

23. Structural evolution of Rocky Mountains, Sietra Nevada and Coast Ranges. Adapted from R STILLE (op. cit. 1936).

24. Cretaceous strata of the Säntis-"nappe" which was overthrust on Tertiary "molasse", Northern Swiss Alps.

25. Reconstruction of a Devonian delta of the Appalachian geosyncline. After J. BARRELL, from L. V. PIRSSON and CH. ScHUCHERT, A Textbook

of Geology (vol. II), but slightly modified. 26. Section across the Atlantic coastal plain of North America.

Redrawn after B. L. MILLER (op. cit. 1937). 27. Melanesia and the Pacific Basin.

From H. LADD (op. cit. 1934). 28. Schematic review of four types of..basins. 29. Diagrammatic block of the marginal trough of the European Variscides.

Basedon CH. BARROIS, in M. GIGNoux, Geologie Stratigraphique, (2d Ed. 1936).

30. Intramontane troughs in the Variscides of Europe. Based on A. BoRN and H. STILLE.

3!. Intramontane Old Red basins of Great Britain. Redrawn from L. V. PIRSSON and CH. ScHuCHERT, A Textbook of Geology.

32. Idiogeosyndines in the western part of the East Iildies. 33. Section across the geosynclinal basin of easteri:J. Borneo.

Redrawn after H. }ETZLER. Das Oljeld Sanga-Sanga in Koetei (Zeitschr. f. praktische Geologie 1926).

34. The Ferghana- and Tarim basins and the surroundirig mountain-chains. Based on A. BoRN and K. LEUCHS.

35. The basin of Parisand its surroundings. Basedon "Garte Geologique de la France, I: I,ooo,ooo".

36. Upper Tertiary anticlines in the island Buton (East Indies). Based on the geological map of Buton by_ W. HETZEL.

37. Raised reef-terraces of the island Kissar, southern Moluccas. From PH. H. KuENEN (The Snellius Expedition V, part 2, fig. 70).

38. Isometrie blockdiagram of the submarine relief near the island Bogoslof, Aleutians.

39. Types of submarine basins and troughs in the East Indies. Redrawn from PH. H. KuENEN (Snellius Expedition, vol. V, part 1,

1935).

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS XV

Figures 40, Distribution of the abyssal coccolith-ooze in the Caspian basin during Maas­

trichtian times. Redrawn from S. voN BuBNOFF, Geologie von Europa (Vol. 1).

41. Diagram of a continental cross-section. Basedon R. A. DALY, B. GUTENBERG, J. J. MACELWANE and A. RITT­

MANN. 42. Schematic sections across the earth's crust.

Based on R. A. DAL Y ( op. cit. 1938). 43 Mineralogical composition of volcanic rocks betonging to different igneous

provinces. After RITTMANN (Vulkane und ihre Tätigkeit p. 91, fig. 195).

44. Schematic representation of the rising migmatite front in the volcanic inner arc of the East Indies.

From R. W. VAN HEMMELEN (De Ingenieur in Nederl. Indie V, 1938, p. Il, 12, fig. 3).

45. Schematic block-diagram of the Somma-Vesuvius volcano. 46. Schematic represehtation of the history of the Laziale volca:no, S. E. of Rome,

Italy. 47. Symmetrical and asymmetrical types of moutain-roots. 48. Relations between magmatic phenomena and epochs of folding.

Redrawn with slight modifications from H. STILLE (op. cit. 1940). 49. The relation between tectonic and magmatic cycles. 50. Situation of a world-encircling peridotite layer.

From H. H. HEss (op. cit. 1938, p. 334, fig. 1). 51. Four subsequent tectonic and magmatic cycles in a contineutat area. 52. The possible origin of an intermediate continentallayer. 53. Pleistocene history of the Baltic region.

After SAURAMO. Redrawn from R. A. DALY (op. cit. 1934). 54. Tertiary transgressions and regressions in the basin of Paris.

Redrawn from H. STILLE (op. cit. 1924). 55. Transgressions and regressions in the Upper Cretaceous of Limburg, in the

Netherlands. Redrawn after UMBGRÖVE, (Leidsche Geologische Mededeelingen, Vol. I,

1926). 56. Transgressive seas Of the Upper Cretaceous.

Composed after VoN BuBNOFF, FouRMARIER, GIGNoux, KossMAT and SAPPER.

57. Two curves showing the relative movement of the sea~level in Triassie times. Redrawn from H. STILLE (op. cit. -1924).

58. Profile across the shelf of southern France. After KossiNA (Handb. der Geophysik, 2, p. 935).

59. Shelf of the North Sea showi-ng drowned rivers debouching near Doggerbank After C. REm (from DALY, op. cit. 1934, p. 184, fig. 96).

60. Drowned rivers in the Java Sea and South China Sea. 61. Formation of a gradationplane along the coast of St. Helena. 62. Seismic investigation on the continental shelf to the west of the English

Channel. From F. C. BuLLARD and T. F. GASKEI.L (op. cit. 1941, fig. 3 and 13).

63. Probable complications in the formation of the shelf of St. Helena. 64. Distribution of sediments on the contihental shelf of the Mid-Atlantic States.

After SHEPARD and CoHEE (op. cit. 1936, Pl. 4). 65. Deeper surfaces on the outer slopes of the shelf.

(After BoURCART). 66. Schematic representation of the movements along the continental flexure. 67. Sketch section of Atlantic crustal plain and continental shelf.

From VEATCH and SMITH (op. cit. 1939, p. 34, fig. 11). 68. Schematic blockdiagram of the Atlantic shelf of the United Sta:tes from east

of Cape Henry to east of Atlantic City. 69. The continental flexure along the coast of Morocco.

(After BouRCART).

XVI LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Figures 70. Geological section across eastern Australia and the shelf of the Great Barrier

reef. After JENSEN (from J. A. STEERS. The Geogr. Journal 74, 1929, p. 235,

fig. 1). 71. Gravity observations across the shelf SE of the Canary Islands.

After VENING MEINESZ (op. cit. 1941). 72. Submarine valleys at the shelf-edge off the coasts of Virginia and Maryland.

From P. R. SMITH (U.S. Coast and Geol. Surv. Bull. 10, 1936). 73. Longitudinal profiles of some canyons of the eastern United States.

From VEATCH and SMITH (op. cit. 1939, p. 18, fig. 6). 74. Head of the Congo canyon.

After SHEPARD (Geogr. Rev. 23, 1933). 75. Longitudinalprofile of Congo Canyon.

From VEATCH and SMITH (op. cit. 1935, p. 21, fig. 9). 76. Cross-section of Hudson canyon.

From SMITH (op. cit. 1935, p. 20, fig. 8). 77. Dendritic pattern of the Monterey- and Lucia-canyons off the coast of Ca­

lifornia. After SHEPARD (op. cit. 1936).

78. Submarine morphology SW of the Missisippi delta. After P. SMITH (op. cit. 1936).

79. A "graben" type of submarine valley off the coast of Japan. From F. P. SHEPARD (Journ. of Geol. 1931, p. 347, fig. 3).

80. The South Norwegian submarine trough showing a deep depression. From F. P. SHEPARD (op. cit. 1931).

81. Transverse profiles showing the contrast between a submarine valley of the "river" type and a glacial trough.

From F. P. SHEPARD (Journ. of Geology 1931). 82. Three submarine canyons along the notched shelf-edge of Georges Bank.

From H. C. STETSON (Bull. Geol. Soc. of America 47, 1936). 83. Position of the three submarine canyons illustrated by fig. 82.

From H. C. STETSON (op. cit. 1936). 84. Hypothetical stages in the evolution of a submarine canyon.

(From Du Ton). 85. Kuenen's experiments showing density currents running down the slope of

a shelf-model. After KuENEN (op. cit. 1938).

86. The submarine valley off the Indus delta. From F. P. SHEPARD (op. cit. 1933).

87. Submarine valley of the Hudson. From KUENEN (op. cit. 1938).

88. Submarine canyons of the Tage and Sado, off the Portuguese Coast. (After BouRcART).

89. Nazare canyon. AfterFREIREDE ANDRADE (op. cit. 1937).

90. The "gouffre du Cap Breton" off the Atlantic Coast of Southern France. (After BOURCART).

91. Section of the Montery submarine canyon compared with the Grand Canyon.

After SHEPARD (op. cit. 1936). 92. Island-festoon in front of the coast of British Columbia.

(After U.S. chart of the North Pacific basin). 93. Reconstruction of the Alpine geosyncline in the Mesozoic.

From E. ARGAND (Eclogae Geolog. Helvetiae 14, 1916, p. 180). 94. Outcrop, angle and dip of a major thrustplane through the earth's crust.

From P. L. LAKE (Georg. Journ. 78, 1931). 95. Island-arcs of the western Pacific.

After P. L. LAKE (Geogr. Journ. 78, 1931). 96. Diagrammatic section across the Indo-Gangetic synclinorium.

From WADIA (Geology of India, p. 284, fig. 33).

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS XVII Figures

97. Direction of initial motion of earthquake shocks originating along a NW-SE fault in Wurttemberg.

After Miller (from S. W. VISSER, 1937, p. 332, fig. 13). 98. Diagram to illustrate the distribution on the surface of initial compression

and dilatation of earthquake shocks deriving from a deep-focus earthquake. After HoNDA (from S. W. VISSER, 1937, p. 333, fig. 14).

99 .. Direction of initial motion of shocks deriving from a deep-focus earthquake. After HoNDA (from S. W. VIsSER 54, 1937, p. 334, fig. 15).

100. Epicentres of earthquakes in Hindu-Kush. . From S. W. VISSER (Ger I. Beitr. zur Geophys. 1936, p. 265, fig. 7).

101. Distribution of intermediate and deep earthquake-foci in the surrounding of the Pacific.

From GUTENBERG and RICHTER (Physics oj the Earth 7, 1939). 102. Seismic isobaths in the Japanese area.

From S. W. VIsSER (Gerl. Beitr. zur Geophysik, 1936 p. 257, fig. 1). 103. Epicentres of earthquakes in the Japanese area.

From GUTENBERG and RICHTER (Bull Geol. Soc. Am. 1938, p. 275, fig. 3) 104. Volcanic zones of Japan and vicinity.

From K. WADATI (The Geophysical Magazine 8, 1935, p. 322, fig. 5). 105. Seismic activity in the vicinity of the Aleutian arc.

From S. W. VIsSER (op. cit. 1936, p. 263, fig. 5). 106. Deep-focus earthquakes along the south-western border of the Pacific Basin.

From GUTENBERG and RICHTER (ibidem 1938, p. 279, fig. 6). 107. Seismic isobaths in South America.

From S. W. VISSER (op. cit. 1936). 108. Anomalies of vertical component of terrestrial magnetism.

From S. W. VISSER (op. cit. 1937, p. 361). 109. Distribution of rock clans in the East Indies.

From H. W. V. WILLEMS. 110. Distribution of active volcanoes in the East Indies. 111. Diagrammatic representation of epochs of plutonism and volcanism in the

Karangkobar region, Java. From R. W. VAN HEMMELEN (De Ing. Ned. Indie 1937, p. IV, fig. 1).

112. Island-arcs bordering the eastern and southeastern coast of Asia. Adapted from LAWSON (Bull. Geolog. Soc. America, vol. 43, 1932, p. 355,

fig. 1). 113. Gravimetrie profile across Guam and the Nero deep and Yap and the Yap

deep. After VENING MEINESZ ( 1934, pl. I).

114. Schematic blockdiagram of anisland arc of the Mariana type. 115. Relation between submarine topography and negative anomalies of isostasy

in the East Indies. After VENING MEINESZ (1934, PI. 11).

116. Isostatic anomalies in the West and East Indies. Fro.m L. M. R. RUTTEN (Tijdschr. Kon. Nederl. Aardr. Genootschap, vol.

LVII, 1940). 117. Distribution of tectonic earthquake foci in the East Indies.

(From S. W. VISSER). 118. DeE:p-focus earthquakes in the East Indies.

From GUTENBERG and RICHTER (1938, p. 276, fig. 4). 119. Preliminary representation of the belt of strongly negative anomalies in the

East Indies. (After VENING MEINESZ).

120. Areas of Miocene folding in the East Indies. 121. Review of Tertiary Stratigraphy in the East Indies. 122. Schematic representation of pre-Tertiary history of the East Indies. 123. Five schematic sections showing tentatively the. development of a double

island arc. 124. Upper Tertiary depressions on the Kei- and Tanimber Islands. (After FR.

WEBER).

XVIII LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Figures. 125. Elevated reef limestones and terraces in the southern Moluccas.

Compiled from data appearing in publications by BROUWER, EHRAT, HEERING, DE JONG, KUENEN, MoLENGRAAFF, ÜYENS, VERBEEK, WANNER and ZWIERZYCKY.

126. Schematic representation of different types of marginal deeps. 127. Tentative interpretation of the subcrustal crowding of sima at the concave

side of island-arcs and the origin of plutcinism and volcanism in the inner arc.

128. Distribution of Upper Tertiary volcanic rocks in the southern Moluccas. 129. Active and extinct volcanoes in the southern Moluccas.

(After H. A. BRouwER). 130. Schematic blockdiagram of a double island-arc of the East Indian type. 131. Structural zones of Celebes. 132. Three tentative maps of paleogeographic conditions in the East Irrdies in

Late Mesozoic, Eocene and Miocene times. 133. Major fault lines of the Pacific related to the sites of large thrust-planes with

deep-focus earthquakes along the Pacific border. From ScHWINNER (Zeitschr. für Geophysik, 17, 1941, p 110, fig. 2).

134. Antipodal distribution of major geographic units. From J. W. GREGORY. (The Geogr. Journ. 13, 1899).

135. The submarine relief of the Atlantic and Indian Oceans around Antarctica. From H. CLoos (op. cit. 1937).

136. Basins and ridges on the African continent and in the adjacent deep-sea. From E. KRENKEL, Geologie Afrikas (vol. I).

137. Bathymetric chart of the Atlantic Ocean. Adapted from TH. STOCKSand G. Wüst (op. cit. 1935).

138. Symmetry of the northern and southern Atlantic. Redrawn from H. STILLE, op. cit. 1939.

139. Bathymetric chart of the Indian Ocean. From J. H. WISEMAN and R. B. SEYMOURSEWELL (op. cit. 1937).

140. The systems of the Carlsberg ridges and the Great Rift-Valley. From J. D. WISEMAN and R. B. SEYMOUR SEWELL (op. cit. 1937) ..

141. The earthquake belts of the Indian Ocean and its surroundings. After HEcK, from J. D. H. WISEMAN and R. B. SEYMOUR SEWELL (op.

cit. 1937). 142. Lineararrangement of island groups in the Pacific.

FromL. J. CHUBB (op. cit. 1934). 143. Distribution of the genus Cornus.

From CH. LoNGWELL (op. cit. 1945). 144. A comparison between the geological structures of Scotland and those of

northern Spitsbergen. Partly redrawn after HoLTEDAHL, from H. FREBOLD. Geologie von Spits­

bergen. 145. Transoceanic continents in the Lower Cretaceous.

Redrawn from E. HAUG, Traiti .de Geologie. 146. The total amount of oceanic waters in geological time.

From PH. H. KuENEN (op. cit. 1937). 147. Schematic diagram illustrating the hypotheses of a relatively stable and of a

rising floor of the Pacific Ocean. 148. The distribution of Primates according to the hypothesis of permanence.

From W. D. MATTHEW, Climate and Evolution (1915). 149. A transatlantic isthmian link.

From B. WILLIS (op. cit. 1932). 150. A hypothetical reconstruction of non-transatlantic mountain-chains.

From H. STILLE (op. cit. 1934). 151. Schematic representation of the origin of sialic continents on a primeval

earth-surface of alkali-basalt, according to the hypothesis of Rittmann. 152. Interna! constitution of the Moon and the Earth.

From MoHOROVIcic (From Handb. d. Geoph. 3, 1925, p. 476, fig. 171)

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS XIX

FIGURES 153. The hypotheticat formation of a primordial continent and a sial-free ocean-

floor. . 154. Schematic representation of the origin of continents and oceanic receptacles

in the early Pre-Cambrian by a process of buckling and drifting of an originally sialic layer enveloping the whole earth.

155. Distribution of primeval convection-currents in the surface layers of the earth. ·

From VENING MEINESZ (Vers!. Nederl. Akad. Wetensch. 53, 1944, p. 157). 156. Schematic representation of three groups of hypotheses on the formation

of continents and ocean floors. 157. Ice-sheets and glaciers of the present time. 158. Ice-sheets and glaciers during maximum glaciation in the Pleistocene.

Mainly after ANTEVS and ÜBRUTCHEW. 159. Upper Paleozoic.tillites.

Basedon CoLEMAN, DAVID, Du Ton, GERTH, etc. 160. Pre-Cambrian tillites.

Basedon A. P. CoLEMAN (op cit. 1926). 161. Mesozoic and Eocene tillites.

Based on.A. P. CoLEMAN ( op. cit. 1926). 162. Lower Paleozoic tillites.

Basedon A. P. CoLEMAN (op. cit. 1926). 163. Routes of migration of the giant Dinosaurs.

From H. F. Os BORN (op. cit. 1930). 164. The distribution of U pper Cretaceous Rudists.

Adapted from E. DAQUE. Grundlagenund Methodender Palaeogeographie. 165. Desett deposits of Mesozoic times and desert belts of the present time.

Re lrawn and adaptei aiter C. E. BROOKS (op. cit. 1926). 166. Cooling power of an ice-cap.

From C. E. P. BRooKs (op. cit. 1926). 167. Retreat of Fennoscandian ice-cap since the beginning of "post-glacial" times.

Redrawn from R. A. DALY (op. cit. 1934). 168. Graph of theretreat of the Fennoscandian ice-cap. 169. Diagram of atmospheric circulation.

Adapted from W. H. HoBBS (op. cit. 1926). 170 and 171. Changes of mean temperature and mean pressure with increase of

the relative sunspot nurober to 200. Redrawn from C. E. P. BROOKS (op. cit. 1926).

172. Eocene "isoflors" in the Northern Hemisphere. From R. W. CHANEY (op. cit. 1940).

173. The distribution of modern vegetation and J anuary isotherms in the N or­thern Hemisphere.

From R. W. CHANEY (op. cit. 1940). 174. Geographie conditions during the Upper Paleozoic ice-ages.

Based on CH. ScHUCHERT, B. WILLis and C. E. P. BRooKs. 175 and 176. Two possible explanations of glaciation and ice-ages. 177. The cosmopolitan flora of the Lower Carboniferous.

Redrawn from A. C. SEWARD (op. cit. 1931). 178. U pper Paleozoic flora types.

Redtawn from A. C. SEWARD (op. cit. 1931) with added data from pu­blications by W. J .JoNGMANS on the flora of Asia and the East Indies.

179. Lineaments as a repeatative pattern in a drainage network in northern France.

After DAUBR.EE, from Hobbs 1911, fig. 31, Op. 15. 180. Pattern of rivers in the area about Rockland, Michigan.

From HüBBS 1911, fig. 24, p. 149. 181. Drainage map of apart of the district Nipissing.

From HoBBS, 1911, fig. 25, p. 150. 182. Schematic block diagram of the Guinea-line of volcanoes continuing from

the African continent into the Atlantic.

XX LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Figures 183. Seismo-tectonic Iineaments in the surroundings of the Mediterranean.

After SIEBERG (from SONDER, p. 204, fig. 3). 184. The oblique course of the main geographicallines.

After Prinz (from J. W. GREGORY, op. cit. 1899). 185. Schematic representation of a column of sial floating in a simatic substratum. 186. Schematic representation of continental and oceanic columns of sial, (A)

according to the usual conception; (B) according to the assumption of Milankovitch.

187. Shearing-net based on the assumption of a displacement of the North Pole from near Calcutta over 70° along the meridian of 90° E.L.

From VENING MEINESZ (op. cit. 1943). 188. To the left principal directions of the four lineament-groups of N. W. Europe

shown in fig. 194. 189. Dome-shaped elevation, with rift-valleys and volcanism.

Partly redrawn from H. CLoos (op. cit. 1937). 190. A dome-shaped elevation with faults, graben and volcanism.

From H. CLoos (op. cit. 1937). 191. The formation of rifts according to the theories of Taber.

From S. TABER (Journ. of Geology, 35, 1927). 192. Paleogeographic reconstruction of the Rhine Shield in Mesozoic times.

From CLoos (after VoN BUBNOFF). 193. Paleogeographic reconstruction of the Plateau Central, France, during

Mesozoic times. From CLoos (after VoN BuBNOFF).

194. The North Sea Basin and its surroundings. 195-198. Paleogeographic maps of the Netherlands for Lower, Mid, and Upper

Pliocene, showing a gradual retreat of the coastline. (After P. TEscH).

199-200. Paleogeographic maps of the N etherlands for Gunz-glacial tim es and the Gunz-Mindel interglacial.

(After P. TESCH). 20 l. Schematic block-diagram of crossing river-terraces caused by a tilting

movement. (From K. ÜESTREICH).

202. Graphs showing the chronological relation of the various periodic phenomena. 203. The "Westralian geosyncline" of Teichert and its supposed connection with

the Banda geosyncline in the East Indies. From C. TEICHERT (op. cit. 1940, p. 107, fig. 1).

204. Determinations of geological ages.

PLATES AND TABLES AT THE END OF THE BOOK

Plate 1. Caledonian epochs of compression. Plate 2. Variscian epochs of compression. Plate 3. Mesozoic epochs of compression. Plate 4. Cenozoic epochs of compression. Plate 5. Chronological analysis of the continents. Plate 6. Basins of the second group. Plate 7. Distribution of rock clans. Plate 8. Geology and gravity field in the Netherlands East Indies. Table I. Review of basins and troughs. Table II. Diagrammatic synopsis of "the pulse of the earth".

PREFACE

Problems of current interest relating to the earth' s physical history will be discussed in this volume. _

Each chapter constitutes a subject in itself, but the sequence I have chosen will, I hope, show and explain the deeper correlation of several terrestrial pro­cesses which, at first sight, appear tobe heterogeneous.

The geologist follows the changing face of the earth, the oscillations of the sea-level, the pulsation of folding and mountain-building, the periodicity of the ice-ages, the rhythmical cadence of Life. Just as the physician will draw his conclusions from outward symptoms when examining his patient, so the geologist tries to discover the deeper significance of the sequence of observed phenomena by feeling the pulse of the earth.

The many additions and revisions which have had to be made in this second edition include three new chapters, several new sections in other chapters, I09 new textfigures, I2 tables and 2 plates.

A few fundamental geological terms have been explained in Chapter I. Geologists and older students will, I trust, forgive me for handling facts that no langer represent terra incognita to them, realizing that younger undergraduates, binlogists and other readers will welcome a concise synopsis concerning matters which, in the following chapters, are presupposed to be generally known. On the other hand the Appendix, consisting of a somewhat dry and monotonaus comlJila­twn and dis.cussion of data, is only intended for geologists who desire to examine fztrther the fundamental points laid down in plates I-8 and Chapters II and III.

Most of the topics are adapted from lectures delivered in Cambridge, Delft, The Hague and Leyden in the course of the years I9J9-I945·

fl would necessitate too long a list if I were to mention all the names of those who, in one way or another, have generously given assistance or contributed information, to all of whom I hereby wish to express my gratitude. I owe special thanks to my colleagues and friends Prof. Arth11r Holmes of Edinb11rgh, Dr. E. C. Bullard, and Dr. Harold Jetfreys of Cambridge, Prof. B. G. Escher, Prof. H. ]. Lam and Prof.]. H. Oort of Leyden, Prof. Ph. H. K11enen of Gro­ningen, Prof. F. A. Vening Meinesz and the late Prof. J. A. A. Mekel of Delft for their ill11minating disc11ssions or critical reading of parts of the mamtscript.

Mr. J. A. van Ho11ten, B. A., translated the D11tch manHscript of the first edition into English with great devotion and patient perseverance. I greatly regret that he co11ld not undertake the translation of the new chapters. I had to write them in English myself, but I am very glad to say that some of my friends

XXII PREFACE

in England made linguistic corrections in the manuscript, while Professor Holmes even kindly undertook the onerous task of reading the page proofs. Of course, I remain personally responsible for any mistakes or mt:sprintings that may finally have been overlooked.

I may also mention my indebtedness to Mr. C. van Werkhoven, who executed plates r-8 with such admirable skill and overcame numerous difficulties with great ability. It was he too who put the finishing touches to several figures in the text. Most of the latter, however, I owe to Dr. R. de Wit and Mr. G. A. de Neve, for whose valuable assistance I express my sincere appreciation.

And last but not least, I wish to extend my thanks to Mr. W. Nijhotf, who has published this book with the meticulous · care which so unfailingly charac7 terizes his work.

Wassenaar, May I2th I946.