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The proportion of the element consumed that is utilized for a biochemical or physiologic function (O’Dell, 1997)
A measure of the proportion of the total amount of a nutrient that is utilized for normal body functions (Fairweather-Tart, 1999)
The degree to which an ingested nutrient in a particular source is absorbed in a form that can be utilized in metabolism by the animal (Ammerman et al., 1995)
The fraction of the ingested nutrient that is utilized for normal physiological functions or storage (Jackson, 1997)
Intestinal absorption (major barrier)
Transport to site of action
Cellular uptake
Incorporation into a biochemically active form
Frataxin
Heme
CCS
Superoxide Dismutase
Chaperone Proteins
Incorporation into biological Incorporation into biological processesprocesses
Transport Proteins
Transferrin
Ceruloplasmin
ExtracellularIntracellular
Small Intestine
Cu
Fe
Intrinsic or Physiological Factors that Influence Bioavailability
1) Species and Genetics
2) Age and Sex
3) Metabolic Function – growth, lactation, maintenance
4) Nutritional Status
5) Intestinal or Rumen Microflora
6) Physiological Stress
Extrinsic or Dietary Factors that Influence Bioavailability
1) Solubility of element – CuS, CuMoS4
2) Binding to other dietary components (fiber, silica) in the intestine3) State of Oxidation – Fe+2 vs. Fe+3
4) Competitive Antagonisms of similar ions5) Chelation effects – Can be positive or negative depending on the solubility and dissociation constant of the complex formed.
Tissue Utilization
Dietary Cu
Biliary Cu
Cu Transporters
Total Fecal Cu
Unabsorbed &EndogenousCu
Absorbed Cu
Intestinal absorption changes in a situation of excessive mineral consumption verses normal
Paracellular
Absorption
Dietary Zn, Fe
Normal mineral consumptionExcessive mineral consumption
Zn & FeZn & Fe
Passive DiffusionHigh
Supplemental Zn (mg/kg)
0a 5 40
Gain, g/d 70b 140c 150c
Serum Zn, mg/L 0.18b 0.59c 1.00d
Serum alkaline phosphatase, U/L 45b 137c 175c
aBasal diet analyzed 3.7 mg Zn/kg.b,c,dP < 0.05.
Droke and Spears, 1993
Species Criterion
Pigs Growth, Bone and Plasma Zn, Plasma Alkaline Phosphatase
Chicks Growth, Bone Zn
Ruminants Growth, Plasma Zn, Plasma Alkaline Phosphatase
Adequate Deficient
Plasma diamine oxidase, U/L 127.8 61.5
Ceruloplasmin, mg/dL 33.6 6.6
Plasma copper, mg/L 1.3 0.4
Liver copper, mg/kg 178.1 4.6
Legleiter and Spears, 2007
Species Criterion
Nonruminants Bile Cu? Plasma Diamine Oxidase?
Ruminants Plasma and liver Cu, Plasma Ceruloplasmin
Plasma Diamine Oxidase
Feedstuff Ca P Na K Mg Mn Fe Cu Zn Se
Fescue hay 0.41 0.30 0.02 1.96 0.16 97.00 132.00 22.00 35.00
Alfalfa hay 1.40 0.28 0.05 2.43 0.28 30.30 198.00 7.30 18.80 0.41
Corn silage 0.25 0.22 0.01 1.14 0.18 23.50 131.00 4.18 17.70 0.53
Soybean meal 0.25 0.60 0.04 1.97 0.27 27.50 120.00 28.00 60.00 0.1
Corn gluten feed 0.07 0.95 0.26 1.40 0.40 22.10 226.00 6.98 73.30 1.8
Soybean hulls 0.53 0.18 0.03 129.00 0.22 10.00 409.00 17.80 48.00 0.14
Corn 0.30 0.32 0.01 0.44 0.12 7.89 54.50 2.51 24.20 0.6
Barley 0.05 0.35 0.01 0.57 0.12 18.30 59.50 5.30 13.00 1.16
Mineral composition of feedstuffs
Hale and Olson, MU Epub
Minerals Forms in Plants
Zinc Anionic complexes; fiber associated; phytate complexes
Copper Neutral or anionic complexes; fiber associated; phytate
Selenium Selenomethionine; selenite; selenate
Iron Ferritin; porphyrins; anionic complexes; ferric hydroxide
Manganese Largely unknown
Iodine Iodide ion
Molybdenum Molybdate ion
Mineral Supplement Empirical formula Mineral concentration (percent)
Relative bioavailability (RV)
Mineral availability (percent of content)
Calcium Calcium carbonate CaCO3 38 100.00 38.00Bone meal variable 24 110.00 26.40Calcium chloride (dihydrate)
CaCl2(H2O) 31 125.00 38.75
Dicalcium phosphate Ca2(PO4) 20 110.00 22.00Limestone 36 90.00 32.40Monocalcium phosphate
Ca(PO4) 17 130.00 22.10
Cobalt Cobaltous sulfate CoSO4(H2O)7 21 100.00 21.00Cobaltic oxide Co3O4 73 20.00 14.60Cobaltous carbonate CoCO3 47 110.00 51.70Cobaltous oxide CoO 70 55.00 38.50
Copper Cupric sulfate CuSO4(H2O)5 25 100.00 25.00Copper EDTA variable variable 95.00 variableCopper lysine variable variable 100.00 variableCupric chloride (tribasic)
Cu2(OH)3 Cl 58 115.00 66.70
Cupric oxide CuO 75 15.00 11.25Cupric sulfide CuS 66 25.00 16.50Cuprous acetate CuC2O2H3 51 100.00 51.00
Iodine Potassium iodide KI 69 100.00 69.00Sodium iodide NaI 84 100.00 84.00Calcium iodate Ca(IO)3 64 95.00 60.80Diiodosalicyclic acid C7H4I2O3 65 15.00 9.75Ethylenediamine dihydriodine
C2H8N2(HI)2 80 105.00 84.00
Pentacalcium orthoperiodate
Ca5(IO6)2 39 100.00 39.00
Iron Ferrous sulfate heptahydrate
FeSO4(H2O)7 20 100.00 20.00
Ferric citrate variable variable 110.00 variableFerric EDTA variable variable 95.00 variableFerric phytate variable variable 45.00 variableFerrous carbonate FeCO3 38 10.00 3.80
Cupric sulfate CuSO4(H2O)5
25 100.00 25.00
Copper EDTA variable variable 95.00 variableCopper lysine variable variable 100.00 variableCupric chloride (tribasic)
Cu2(OH)3 Cl 58 115.00 66.70
Cupric oxide CuO 75 15.00 11.25Cupric sulfide CuS 66 25.00 16.50Cuprous acetate CuC2O2H3 51 100.00 51.00
Supplement Empirical formulaMineral concentration (percent)
Relative bioavailability (RV)
Mineral availability (percent of content)
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
0 50 100 150
Daily Individual Cu Intake, mg/d
Lo
g L
iver
Cu
, mg
/kg
Cu sulfate
Cu glycinate
Linear (Cu sulfate)
Linear (Cu glycinate)
499/332 = 150% RVB
P < 0.01
Mineral Supplement Empirical formula
Mineral concentration (percent)
Relative bioavailability (RV)
Mineral availability (percent of content)
Magnesium Magnesium sulfate
MgSO4 20 100.00 20.00
Magnesium acetate
MgC2O2H4 29 110.00 31.90
Magnesium basic carbonate
MgCO3 31 100.00 31.00
Magnesium oxide
MgO 55 100.00 55.00
Manganese Manganese sulfate
MnSO4(H2O) 30 100.00 30.00
Manganese carbonate
MnCO3 46 30.00 13.80
Manganese dioxide
MnO2 63 35.00 22.05
Manganese methionine
variable variable 125.00 variable
Manganese monoxide
MnO 60 60.00 36.00
Phosphorus Sodium phosphate
NaPO4 variable
Bone meal variable 21 100.00 21.00Defluorinated phosphate
variable 12 80.00 9.60
Dicalcium phosphate
CaHPO4 18 85.00 15.30
Selenium Sodium selenite Na2SeO3 45 100.00 45.00Cobalt selenite variable variable 105.00 0.00Selenomethionine
variable variable 245.00 0.00
Selenoyeast variable variable 290.00 0.00Sodium Sodium chlorideNaCl 40 100.00 40.00
Sodium bicarbonate
Na(CO3)2 27 95.00 25.65
Zinc Zinc sulfate ZnSO4(H2O) 36 100.00 36.00Zinc carbonate ZnCO3 56 60.00 33.60Zinc oxide ZnO 72 100.00 72.00
Minerals must be soluble at site of absorption
Information on trace mineral bioavailability from feeds is based on GIT solubility
Copper Zinc
0a 72 h 0a 72 h
------------ % of total -------------
Alfalfa 88.9 92.9 25.8 79.4
Rhizoma peanut 50.6 89.6 18.1 80.5
Dwarf elephantgrass 84.4 94.3 7.3 75.5
Bermudagrass 69.9 75.8 43.1 62.1
Bahiagrass 63.1 81.7 33.8 53.0
Limpograss 70.0 69.5 26.6 67.2
aAmount disappearing following washing with water.Emanuele and Staples, 1990
Availability of minerals in feedstuffs◦ Chemical forms◦ Fiber
Dietary antagonisms◦ Effect on feedstuff mineral vs. supplemented mineral
Increasing absorption and/or reducing excretion if intake of a mineral is low or marginal relative to the requirement
Reducing absorption and/or increasing excretion if intake of a mineral is above the requirement
Dietary zinc (mg/kg)
39.5 16.6
Net 65Zn absorptionb 34.8c 53.4d
Milk zinc 65Znb 6.3c 14.4d
mg Zn/d 60 52
Net 65Zn retentionb 28.5c 39.0d
aCows were fed diets for 6 weeks. 65Zn was given orally on week 5 and followed for 14 days.b% of 65Zn dose.c,d (P < 0.01).
Neathery et al., 1973
Dietary zinc (mg/kg)
Tissue 39.5 16.6
---------- mg/kg DM ----------
Liver 119 109
Heart 80 75
Lung 81 88
Ovaries 74 71
Muscle 102 109
Rib, cartilage 54a 44b
a,b(P < 0.01)
Neathery et al., 1973
Selenite-selenium absorption in ruminants is much lower than in nonruminants
Selenomethionine is the predominant form of selenium that occurs naturally in feedstuffs
Treatment
Control Selenite Selenomethionine RBV
Plasma glutathione peroxidase, U/mg protein
Day 0 1.95 1.81 1.87
Day 28 2.38 5.03 6.05 138
Day 56 3.34 6.67 7.16 115
aControl diet analyzed 0.04 ppm of Se. Selenium wassupplemented at 0.05 ppm from d 0 to 28 and 0.10 ppm from d 29 to 56.
Treatment
Control Selenite Selenomethionine RBV
Glutathione peroxidasea
Heart 280 494 509 107
Kidney 119 304 304 100
Liver 15 59 86 161
Muscle 22 37 50 186
Tissue seleniumb
Heart 0.50 0.86 1.00 139
Kidney 3.41 6.47 5.23 59
Liver 0.35 0.80 1.28 206
Muscle 0.12 0.26 0.31 133
aU/mg protein.bµg/g dry tissue.
Research regarding ruminant bioavailability of minerals from feeds is extremely limited
A portion of certain trace minerals in forages appears to be associated with the fiber fraction
Based on in situ studies, a high proportion of trace minerals are released from forages in the rumen
Mineral sources differ in bioavailability which may impact supplementation needs