The Professional Practice of Landscape Architecture…€¦ · The Professional Practice of Landscape Architecture The Professional Practice of Landscape Architecture Walter Rogers

The Professional Practice of Landscape Architecture

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A Complete Guide to Starting and Running Your Own Firm

A C

omplete G

uide to Starting and R

unning Your Own Firm

The all-inclusive reference to starting and

operating a landscape architecture fi rm

The Professional Practice of Landscape Architecture, Second Edition is completely revised to keep up with the latest developments driving the day-to-day operation of a successful private-practice landscape architecture offi ce. Whether helping a landscape architecture student identify a career track, providing direction on starting a new offi ce, guiding an owner seeking to jumpstart a stagnant or fl edgling business, or assisting a landscape architect-in-training study for the national Landscape Architecture Registration Exam (LARE), this single-source blueprint is the key to prospering in this dynamic fi eld. This new edition features:

■ Indispensible information for practicing landscape architects, including professional ethics, fi nances, offi ce administration, marketing and promotion, and project management

■ An updated look at government regulatory laws, federal tax administration, sustainable design, and LEED certifi cation

■ Strategies for using the Internet, computer software, and technology to market and manage a fi rm

■ Examples of professional contract templates

■ Case study profi les of landscape architecture fi rms

■ Requirements for professional registration and criteria for taking the national exam

This comprehensive and practical reference combines real-world experience with the highest professional standards to instruct the reader on business concepts. Expertly organized and easy to follow, The Professional Practice of Landscape Architecture, Second Edition continues to be the one source that landscape architects need to direct all facets of their practice.

WALTER ROGERS served as president and CFO of The Acacia Group, a landscape fi rm in Tucson, Arizona, until 2007 when his fi rm was acquired by Olsson Associates, a multidisciplinary engineering and design fi rm. He currently serves as a senior landscape architect in Olsson’s Tucson offi ce. He has thirty-fi ve years’ experience working as a landscape architect and holds an MLA from the University of Massachusetts and an MBA from the University of Phoenix. He served on the landscape architecture faculties of the University of Arizona, the State University of New York at Syracuse, and the Gloucestershire College of Art and Design, Cheltenham, England.

4-COLOR GLOSSY 978-0-470-27836-9

Architecture/Landscape

P1: OTA/XYZ P2: ABCFM JWBT351-Rogers August 6, 2010 16:49 Printer Name: Courier Westford

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The Professional Practice ofLandscape Architecture

A Complete Guide to Starting andRunning Your Own Firm

Second Edition

Walter Rogers

John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

i


This book is printed on acid-free paper. ∞©

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:

Rogers, Walter.The professional practice of landscape architecture : a complete guide to starting and running your own firm /

Walter Rogers. – 2nd ed.p. cm.

Includes index.ISBN 978-0-470-27836-9 (hardback), 9780470134559 (ebk); 9780470902370 (ebk);

9780470902400 (ebk); 9780470902424 (ebk);1. Landscape architecture–Vocational guidance. 2. Landscape architecture. I. Title.SB469.37.R64 2011712.068–dc22

2010019502Printed in the United States of America

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To Maria Lynn Nahmias

Thank you for your encouragement and support.

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iv


Contents

Introduction vii

1 The Profession of Landscape Architecture and Professionalism 1Brief History of the Profession 2Professional Career Tracks 17Professional Licensure 21Professional Development 25Professional Societies 27The Influence of Technology on the Landscape Architecture Profession 43

2 Clients and Projects 53Who Are the Landscape Architect’s Clients? 53What Elements Determine the Landscape Architect’s Clients? 55Landscape Architecture Projects 58Architectural and Engineering Clients 148Public-Sector Clients 150

3 Case Studies 169HNTB Corporation: Large Multidisciplinary A/E Firm 171Large Landscape Architecture Firms 180The Acacia Group, Inc.: Small Landscape Architecture Firm 191ValleyCrest Landscape Development: Large Integrated

Design-Build Firm 203Denver Service Center, National Park Service: Public Practice 212Rain Bird: Corporate Practice 223

4 Professional-Practice Relationships 236Prime-Consulting Relationships 237Multiple Direct Consulting Relationships 237Subconsulting Relationships 238Landscape Architect/Owner Relationship 238Landscape Architect/Allied Professional Relationship 255Landscape Architect/Contractor Relationship 258Landscape Architect/General Public Relationship 261

5 Finance 264Six Considerations for Raising Funds 264Three Phases of Financing a Firm 266Equity Financing 269Debt Financing 273How Lenders Evaluate a Loan Request 280Trade Credit 285Summary—Planning, Action, Adjustment 287

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vi Contents

6 Accounting 292The Landscape Architect as Financial Manager 292Financial Accounting Information 294Financial Management Information 306Financial Accounting Systems 314Recording Financial Information—Elementary Accounting 317Selecting an Accountant 319Accounting Software 319Overview of Accounting: Six Integrated Components 321

7 Business Administration and Record Keeping 324Job Number—The Key to Office Administration 325Time Keeping 327Filing and Records Management 329Landscape Architecture Office Files and Records Management 339Vacations, Holidays, and Sick Leave or Paid Time Off 345Product Information Files, Technical Resources, and Code Information 362Payroll Administration 364Employer’s Tax Administration 365Tax Status of Nonwage Payments to Employees 369

8 Marketing 373The Strategic Plan 374The Marketing Plan 378Marketing Tools and the Promotion Mix 380The Marketing Payoff 395Market Expansion—Entering New Markets 402The Marketing Staff 406

9 Contracts 410Contract Basics 411Contracts with Clients—Professional Services Contract Formats 413The Elements of a Professional Services Contract with a Client 423Employment Agreements 444Negotiating a Contract 446Important Elements and Useful Contract Clauses 459

10 Project Management 471What Is Project Management? 471Planning, Scoping, and Organizing the Project 472Setting Up Tracking Systems 476Tracking a Project and Developing Strategies When a Project Is Over

Budget or Off Schedule 483Selecting and Organizing Staff 489Directing and Motivating Project Staff 492Serving the Client and Developing a Friendly Relationship 493Providing Technical Supervision for the Project Staff 494Taking Part in Performance Reviews of Technical Staff 500Managing Construction Observation Services 503Summary 504

11 Business and Personnel Law 508The Legal Environment of Professional Practice 508Discrimination 531Protecting the General Public, the Environment, and the Consumer 536

Index 543

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Introduction

In 1968 I was in the last semester of my under-graduate studies in landscape architecture at the

University of Massachusetts, soon to graduate witha B.S. degree. One of my courses in that finalsemester at UMass was called Professional Practice.My recollection about the course is that there was noassigned textbook. The required readings were anassembly of sections of books and photocopied ar-ticles about writing a resume and looking for a job.The course was taught by the only faculty memberwho was a practicing landscape architect working ina traditionally oriented office on site planning anddesign projects. I think I got a B in the course, andI did write a resume.

Two years later, after graduating with anM.L.A., I took a position on the faculty of the firstof three universities I would teach at until 1981. Ateach university, a professional-practice course sim-ilar to the one I took in my last semester at UMasswas a part of the curriculum and was taught in thelast semester. A textbook was still not available, andreading materials were still a collection of parts ofbooks and photocopied articles.

After my teaching career, I launched a privatepractice. The office I started, and where I still prac-tice, flourished through the 1980s. The practicegrew to include five partners and twenty-five pro-fessional, technical, and support staff. The size ofthe firm required us to develop administrative andmanagement practices that allowed the firm to runsmoothly and effectively.

The idea for this book grew out of the two cor-nerstones evident in the foregoing brief historyof my professional life in landscape architecture.First, I realized in the early 1990s that a single-source textbook on the development, operation,administration, and management of a professionallandscape architecture practice was still not avail-

able for the professional-practice courses taught inmost college landscape architecture curriculums.Second, over the years of operating my private prac-tice, I had developed a great number of useful toolsand techniques that might be of value if passed onto aspiring landscape architects.

When I was in college, I had a burning desire toknow what it would be like working in a landscapearchitecture office, but I didn’t find out until I gotmy first job in a landscape architecture firm. Eventhen, I was aware of only a fraction of the intricaciesof what went into the daily operations of the firm.This book tells the story of the wide range of strategicconsiderations involved in developing, operating,and managing a private practice. I intended thisbook to be a compendium of the professional prac-tice of landscape architecture, and I have written itwith the following groups in mind:

■ Faculty teaching professional-practice andstudio courses that simulate the office en-vironment.

■ Students taking professional-practice andstudio courses.

■ Aspiring graduates who want to know aboutthe many facets of owning, developing, ad-ministering, and managing a private practice.

■ Students and graduates who are searching forthe landscape architecture career path mostsuited to their aims and personalities.

■ Graduates who wish to start a private practiceand can benefit from the methods and tech-niques I have developed and used effectivelyfor almost two decades of private practice.

■ Long-time practitioners who may benefitfrom the methods and techniques I have de-veloped and used.

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viii The Professional Practice of Landscape Architecture

■ Allied professionals who may benefit fromthe methods and techniques I have developedand used. (There are many similarities inpracticing architecture, engineering, plan-ning, and other environmental design pro-fessions.)

The first edition of The Professional Practice of Land-

scape Architecture was published in 1997. In 2007, I wasasked to write a second edition. Besides updatingthe material that made up the first edition, two sig-nificant changes occurred between the last decadeof the twentieth century and the first decade of thetwenty-first century. The first has been technologi-cal advancement and the integration of the practiceof landscape architecture with software programsused in professional practice. The second is theInternet—the World Wide Web. So, I have devoteda section in Chapter 1 to technology, software andthe Web, and I have updated all of the chaptersbased on the influence of the Internet and howdigital technology has shaped the profession sincethe mid-1990s.

I hope you will find wisdom, honesty, integrity,and helpful methods and techniques in these pages.I hope you will enjoy reading this book as much asI enjoyed writing it.

Here’s a brief summary of what you’ll find ineach chapter.

Chapter 1: The Professionof Landscape Architectureand Professionalism

A definition of the profession of landscape archi-tecture and a brief historical overview are the core ofthe first chapter. Eight eras of professional practiceare discussed: the early park-planning era, estatedesign, city planning, the urban growth era, Cali-fornia and growth in the West, the environmentalera, international practice, and the technology era.

Chapter 1 also describes the following profes-sional career tracks:

■ Private practice—design■ Private practice—design-build

■ Public practice■ Academic practice■ Corporate practice■ Specialty practice

For the aspiring landscape architect, select-ing a career track is an important decision thatshould receive a great deal of personal reflectionand research of the various opportunities available.Matching one’s professional career goals with fi-nancial opportunities, professional growth poten-tial, and personal aims is one of the important de-cisions made at the start of one’s professional careerand often at other points throughout one’s profes-sional life. Professional development opportunitiesare discussed as a long-term, lifelong pursuit. Pro-fessional development opportunities are one of theconsiderations in selecting a career path and an ini-tial employer, and in making subsequent employ-ment decisions throughout a professional’s career.Chapter 1 also discusses the concept of profession-alism.

Chapter 1 provides an overview of professionalregistration, the Landscape Architecture Registra-tion Exam (LARE), and professional societies. Thechapter concludes with the topic of professionalethics and values. The Code of Professional Ethicsand the Code of Environmental Ethics of the Amer-ican Society of Landscape Architects are includedat the end of the chapter.

In addition, Chapter 1 includes an overview oftechnology and how it has shaped landscape archi-tecture in the last decade of the twentieth centuryand the first decade of the twenty-first century.

Chapter 2: Clients andProjects

Chapter 2 discusses the landscape architect’sclients. The first part of the chapter focuses onthe two broad categories of clients, public and pri-vate, and describes the postures, opportunities, andconditions related to developing a client mix.

A large part of the chapter discusses 12 cate-gories of projects typically carried out for privateclients. Used by the American Society of Landscape


Introduction ix

Architects in its annual awards program, these cat-egories constitute a broad definition of the privatepractice of landscape architecture. This chapter de-scribes a cross section of award-winning landscapearchitecture projects in the following categories:

1. Projects that feature sustainable concepts,“green” solutions, and LEED certification

2. International projects3. Community development and multifamily

housing4. Streetscape, transit projects, and road beau-

tification5. Parks and outdoor recreation facilities6. Commercial, industrial, and corporate de-

velopment7. Urban and regional planning8. Institutional projects9. Single-family residential and garden design

projects10. Conservation, and land and water reclama-

tion projects11. Historic preservation and landscape restora-

tion projects12. Landscape art and earth sculpture

Not-for-profit corporations and public-sectorclients and projects are also discussed. A cross sec-tion of public agencies, and the client and projectopportunities associated with public agencies arediscussed in the last part of the chapter.

Chapter 3: Case Studies

This chapter presents a snapshot view of six types oflandscape architecture employers:

1. Private practice: large multidisciplinary A/Efirm

2. Private practice: large landscape architec-ture firms

3. Private practice: small landscape architec-ture firm

4. Private practice: design-build firm5. Public practice6. Corporate practice

There is no better way to evaluate career optionsthan to compare and contrast the opportunitiesavailable among employers that represent differentcareer tracks. Each of the case studies, except for theoverviews of the large landscape architecture firms,provides the following information:

■ History and overview of the employer■ Mission statement■ Landscape architecture opportunities with

the employer, emphasizing entry-level op-portunities

■ Employee benefits■ Entry-level job description■ Representative examples of the employer’s

work and projects

Awareness of career tracks and opportunities isthe first step in making appropriate career choices.Studying the practices, employment opportunities,growth opportunities, and long-term potential forjob satisfaction and professional development is thekey to making successful career choices.

Chapter 4:Professional-PracticeRelationships

Landscape architects have four main professionalrelationships:

1. Landscape architect/owner2. Landscape architect/allied professional3. Landscape architect/contractor4. Landscape architect/general public

Chapter 4 describes these professional rela-tionships, which can be both contractual and non-contractual. The chapter focuses on the non-contractual relationships. Three primary types ofrelationships are covered: the prime consultant,multiple direct consultants, and subconsultants.

Two key elements are discussed for each of thefour types of relationships: (1) the expectations ofthe landscape architect and (2) the expectations ofthe person or persons with whom the landscape ar-chitect has established a professional relationship,


x The Professional Practice of Landscape Architecture

as well as the responsibilities of each party to therelationship.

Chapter 5: Finance

Where do landscape architects find the money tostart an office and keep it going? What financ-ing options are available, and how is the financingobtained? How are funds raised? How do lendersevaluate the landscape architect’s request for fi-nancing?

Chapter 5 answers these questions by discussingthe three main forms of financing:

1. Equity2. Debt3. Trade credit

This chapter discusses when to use debt financ-ing versus equity financing and the pros and consof each. Sources of funds for each type of financ-ing are covered, as well as the concept of leveragingequity through debt.

Three phases of financing a firm are discussed:

1. Start-up financing2. Maintenance financing3. Continuation financing

You will also read about the differences betweenborrowing for capital purchases and leasing, theelements of a loan proposal, and the concept anduse of trade credit as a valuable form of obtainingfinancing for operating a private practice.

Chapter 6: Accounting

Accounting is not only for accountants. Every land-scape architect who runs a private practice needsa rudimentary understanding of accounting andmore specifically of financial management by usingaccounting information and reports. The land-scape architect needs two types of information tobe an effective financial manager: financial ac-

counting information and financial managementinformation. This chapter discusses both types ofinformation and gives examples of each in prac-tical applications related to the private practice oflandscape architecture. Descriptions of an incomestatement, a balance sheet, an aged accounts receiv-able report, an aged accounts payable report, and acash report, as well as examples of each, are foundin this chapter.

Developing a pro forma financial statement (aprojection of future income and financial condi-tion based on present conditions) is covered. Otherkey financial reports of a nonaccounting natureare discussed, principally the work in progress re-port and workload projection. Ratio calculationsare covered in depth because of their importancein evaluating the financial health of a firm. Trendratios, liquidity ratios, such as the current ratio andthe receivables turnover ratio, are covered. Equityor long-term solvency ratios and equity-to-debtratios are also covered.

A section of this chapter deals with financialaccounting systems and explains the difference be-tween cash-basis accounting and accrual-basis ac-counting. Elementary accounting practices are cov-ered, including setting up a chart of accounts for alandscape architecture firm.

Last, this chapter discusses the benefits and de-sirability of a computerized, integrated accountingand financial management system.

Chapter 7: BusinessAdministration and RecordKeeping

The administration of the landscape architectureoffice; keeping track of the firm’s projects; devel-oping and maintaining filing systems; keeping fi-nancial, tax, and personnel records; and organiz-ing business records are critical administrative tasksfor successful operation of a landscape architectureoffice.

The key to effective office administration is us-ing a job number to manage all of the firm’s project-related information. This chapter discusses how todevelop and use a job numbering system, including


Introduction xi

category-of-work codes that allow the firm to studytrends in the firm’s procurement of work and to re-trieve information for marketing purposes. Usinga master roster of work in progress and work in jobdevelopment phases is discussed, along with usingtime cards or computerized time-tracking systems.Using type-of-work codes and task codes for effec-tive time card entry is another important adminis-trative technique covered.

This chapter also includes a section on filingsystems, methods, and records management, in-cluding the time requirements for keeping recordsand categories of the importance of information.

A section of the chapter discusses the develop-ment and use of forms in the landscape architectureoffice as a means to effective management of repet-itive administrative tasks.

Establishing and maintaining files for both ac-tive and dead project files is another importantelement of office administration that results in ef-fective retrieval of the daily information used inproject work. A range of types of files necessary inthe landscape architecture office is discussed, as wellas record keeping for vacations, holidays, and sickleave.

A lengthy section of the chapter is devoted to theadministration and record-keeping requirementsfor insurance needs. Descriptions of the typicalinsurance coverage needed by a private firm arecovered in depth, including property and liabil-ity insurance, worker’s compensation insurance,disability insurance, professional liability insur-ance, life insurance, key-person insurance, andhealth insurance. Retirement benefits, pensions,and programs are also discussed.

Chapter 7 explains the types of product liter-ature files important to the landscape architectureoffice and how to organize a technical reference li-brary. Office payroll administration, as well as taxadministration, is also covered.

Chapter 8: Marketing

Marketing is the social and business process used bylandscape architects to obtain clients and projects.

Chapter 8 discusses the need for and meth-ods of developing a strategic plan for the landscape

architecture firm, including a mission statement.The strategic plan in turn sets the parameters for amarketing plan designed to analyze market oppor-tunities, identify and select target markets, developmarket strategies, and plan and implement market-ing efforts. The written components of a marketingplan are spelled out.

A lengthy section of this chapter discusses mar-keting tools and the promotion mix. The tools dis-cussed include:

■ Word of mouth■ Firm brochures■ Project cut sheets■ Standard Forms 330■ Website■ Direct mail marketing■ Direct call marketing■ Cold calls■ Cold emails■ Social Internet networks■ Video■ Tickle files■ Newspaper, magazine, radio, and TV cover-

age■ Journal articles■ Public speaking■ Community service■ Sponsoring community events■ Trade shows and conferences■ Print, TV, and radio advertising■ Digital photo files and archives■ Display boards■ The physical environment of the office■ Answering the telephone

Chapter 8 discusses the proposal and interviewprocess, focusing on the response to a statement ofinterest, statement of qualifications, and requestsfor proposals.

A section of the chapter talks about market op-portunities and entering new markets. A key part ofthis section provides techniques to assess the eco-nomic potential of new market areas.

The last section of the chapter discusses theneed for the marketing staff and includes a job de-scription for a marketing production coordinator.


xii The Professional Practice of Landscape Architecture

Chapter 9: Contracts

Chapter 9 discusses one of the most impor-tant skills needed by the practicing landscapearchitect—writing a contract for professional ser-vices. This chapter also discusses various other con-tracts the landscape architect must be familiar withand be able to understand and execute.

The chapter starts with a discussion of con-tract terminology and the elements of an en-forceable contract. The next section providesin-depth information on formats for profes-sional services contracts and includes a discus-sion of professional association standard con-tracts, landscape-architect-developed contracts,and client-developed contracts. The proposalprocess—the act of forming a contract—is also dis-cussed. The elements of a professional servicescontract are outlined, and the concept of agency,whereby the landscape architect serves as the client’sbinding representative, is discussed as an importantcontractual element.

Sections of Chapter 9 discuss contracts withallied professionals and contracts with credit agen-cies and lending institutions, including loan agree-ments. What to look for and expect in loan agree-ment contracts is covered in depth.

A section covers employee agreements, an-other contract form important for successful em-ployer/employee relationships. A sample employeeagreement is included.

A lengthy section discusses the art and skill ofnegotiating contracts, focusing primarily on pro-fessional services contracts. The fundamentals ofnegotiating postures and negotiating techniquesused by both parties in the negotiating process arediscussed.

The last section of this chapter includes impor-tant elements and useful clauses of a professionalservices contract. The elements include:

■ Dispute resolution■ Billing and terms of payment■ Client’s obligations■ Compliance with codes and standards■ Excluded services or additional services■ Ownership of documents■ Indemnities

■ Insurance■ Limit of liability■ Opinion of probable construction costs■ Termination

Samples of contract terminology are providedfor many of the elements discussed.

Chapter 10: ProjectManagement

Project management is one of the keys to success-ful operation of a landscape architecture firm, andthe project manager approach to delivery of profes-sional services is the most popular way to organizea landscape architecture office for completing pro-fessional services contracts.

The key elements of project management arediscussed in chapter 10: They include:

1. Planning, organizing, and scoping the ele-ments of a project

2. Setting up tracking systems to monitor andcontrol the flow of work

3. Tracking a project and developing strategieswhen a project is over budget

4. Managing the work flow to maximize profitfor the firm on every project

5. Selecting and organizing staff for successfulcompletion of a project

6. Directing and motivating staff7. Serving the client and developing a relation-

ship that results in a satisfied client8. Providing technical supervision for the

project staff9. Inspiring the professional staff and promot-

ing professional development opportunities10. Coordinating with the firm’s top manage-

ment and clients11. Attaining high quality in the planning and

design output of the office12. Marketing the firm by doing a good job with

existing clients13. Managing the planning or design effort to

meet construction cost expectations14. Taking part in performance reviews of tech-

nical staff and peers


Introduction xiii

15. Assisting in writing and preparing proposals16. Closing out projects17. Managing construction observation

Throughout this chapter a wide range of toolsand checklists is provided as related to successfulproject management.

Chapter 11: Business andPersonnel Law

The focus of Chapter 11 is the legal environmentof professional practice. The chapter starts with anoverview of the origins of law. One section deals withlicensure law and state registration. The historicalprecedent of licensure laws, legal considerations,and the functioning of state boards of technicalregistration are covered.

A section discusses government regulatory law,agencies, and how agencies affect the practice oflandscape architecture. Another section deals withtort law and negligence, which many professionals

agree may have the greatest legal consequences forprivate practice. Negligence is defined and the ele-ments of law that must be proved to result in an actof negligence are discussed in detail.

Another section of Chapter 11 discusses la-bor relations and the key laws affecting em-ployer/employee relations. The concept of employ-ment at will, minimum wage regulations, workerscompensation laws, OSHA and job safety, firing anemployee, the Employee Retirement Income Se-curity Act, and the Americans with Disabilities Actare discussed as related to landscape architecturepractice.

A section discusses discrimination and laws in-volved with discrimination in the workplace. TheCivil Rights Act of 1964 and subsequent amend-ments are discussed. Affirmative action and agediscrimination are also discussed.

The last section of Chapter 11 discusses thelandscape architect’s obligation to protect the gen-eral public, the environment, and the consumerof landscape architecture services. An overview ofenvironmental legislation that is important to thepractice of landscape architecture is summarized.

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The Professional Practice of Landscape Architecture…€¦ · The Professional Practice of Landscape Architecture The Professional Practice of Landscape Architecture Walter Rogers