The Predicament of Women in Accessing Energy in Developing Countries; A Call for Action

7/29/2019 The Predicament of Women in Accessing Energy in Developing Countries; A Call for Action.

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The Predicament of Women in Accessing Energy in Developing

Countries: A Call for Action.

By Dennis Otiotio

Energy is fundamental to human development, and the wealth of a nation is

determined mostly by the type and dimension of its energy access. Therefore

providing access to clean, affordable, and sustainable energy source for

people in developing countries is one of the critical developmental challenges

facing the international community. It is a critical component necessary for

attaining social economic development, and achieving the Millennium

Development Goals (MDGs).1 It is estimated that about 1.6 billion people live

without reliable source of energy and 2.7 billion people rely on traditional

biomass fuels for cooking and heating.2 Majority of the people without access

to modern energy services live in rural areas of the developing world mainly

in Sub Saharan Africa and South Asia.3 Due to population growth, these

figures are expected to increase and not decrease. For example the IEA

projected that by 2030, 996 million people will rely on biomass for cooking

in Africa compared to 646 million people in 2002.4

1Energy, U.N. The Energy Challenges for Achieving the Millennium DevelopmentGoals. New York, 8 (2005).2Bachalete, Michelle, Access to Clean Energy Critical for Rural Women UnitedNations Entity for gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women, 1 (March 12,2012). Retrieved atwww.unwomen.org/2012/03/access-to-clean-energy-critical-for-rural-women/on 05/02/13.3 Energy, U.N. See n 1, at p 4.4 International Energy Agency. Annual World Energy Outlook. 2012. OECD/IEA,Paris. (Nov. 12, 2012).
http://www.unwomen.org/2012/03/access-to-clean-energy-critical-for-rural-women/http://www.unwomen.org/2012/03/access-to-clean-energy-critical-for-rural-women/http://www.unwomen.org/2012/03/access-to-clean-energy-critical-for-rural-women/http://www.unwomen.org/2012/03/access-to-clean-energy-critical-for-rural-women/http://www.unwomen.org/2012/03/access-to-clean-energy-critical-for-rural-women/http://www.unwomen.org/2012/03/access-to-clean-energy-critical-for-rural-women/


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However access to modern energy is further hindered by gender and

poverty.5 Thus in developing countries women are disproportionately

affected by the lack of access to modern energy sources due to the unequal

power relations that limits their ability to participate and voice their energy

needs in decision making at all level of the energy system. They face both

cultural and institutional barriers in these countries, as women is regarded

as subordinate to men and such view permeates the energy policymaking,

planning and regulatory institutions.

Women heads most of the poorest households and even where men are the

heads, the women and girls are responsible for gathering fuel, cooking and

preparing food. In addition to the time spent on gathering fuel, they also

spend considerable amount of time in manually threshing and grinding

traditional staple foods due to lack of mechanical power.6 This has resulted

into many girls been withdrawn from school to attend to such free domestic

labor with serious consequences to their educational and economic

development.7 Women in most developing countries used to spend as much

as 10 to 12 hours a week on fuel collection,8 but due to deforestation, the

time spent on collecting firewood has increased fourfold. The time women

spend on fuel collection, preparation and use, will have significant

5Milne, Wendy. Women, Energy and Sustainability: Making Links, Taking Action.Canadian Women Studies, 55, 56 (2003).6Bradbrook J. Adrian & Gardam G. Judith, Placing Access to Energy Services withina Human Rights Framework Human Rights Quarterly, Vol 28, No. 2, 389, 394 (May,2006).7 Energy, U.N. See n 1 at 7.8Oppong, C. Population, Environment and Women: Some Issues in Africa.Population and Environment in Africa Conference Proceedings, Gaborone,Botswana, (September 14 19, 1992).


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opportunity cost on the time they spend on other domestic functions and

income generating activities.9 In addition, cooking with firewood, dung-

cakes, and other fuels releases toxic emissions such as carbon monoxide,

suspended particles, benzene and hydrocarbons.10 These emissions are

known to have caused severe health problems on women and children such

as lung disease, eye infections, low birth weights, infant mortality and

pneumonia. Exposure to biomass fuel emissions is said to be one of the

serious occupational hazards for rural women in developing countries. It is

estimated that indoor air pollution (IAP) accounts for 2.2 2.8 million deaths

annually - mostly women and children in developing countries.11 The

implication is that more women die of IAP related causes than malaria,

tuberculosis and HIV/AIDS.

Women and girls in rural areas of developing countries are subjected to

sexual harassment and other forms of violence in the course of moving out of

their villages to gather firewood, water and food. In Darfur Sudan, women

were being raped by militia who set up camps around the villages to target

women and girls going out to fetch firewood and water.12

It is clear therefore, that women should be the focal point in the global efforts

at providing universal access to modern energy services, as this will facilitate

9 Aina, O.I. and Odebiyi, A.I., Domestic Energy Crisis in Nigeria: Impact on Womenand Family Welfare.African Economic History, No.26, 1, 2 (1998).10World Health Organization, Indoor Air Pollution from Biomass Fuel, Report of aWHO Consultant, Geneva. (1992).11 Smith, K.R. and Mehta, S. The Burden of Disease from Indoor Air Pollution inDeveloping Countries: Comparison of Estimate. Intl. J. Hyg. Environ. Health. Vol.206, 279, 289 (2003).12Dixon, R. Sudan Young Women Rape Victims of Militia Fighters Give Birth,Experience Shame & Social Exclusion. (2004) Times. Kalma Camp, Sudan.


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the achievement of the goal and uplift communities out of poverty and

improve their health. It is widely agreed that poverty cannot be reduced

without taking into consideration the needs of women.13 Therefore as

sustainable energy is essential in tackling poverty, it must be available to

men and women on equal basis.14

Focusing energy access on women will reduce the yearly death of millions of

women and children from indoor pollution from cooking fires. It will also

enable the women to utilize their time for economic activities and the girls to

spend more time in school. Access to energy will greatly ameliorate the

drudgery of biomass fuel collection and foster gender equality and promote

women empowerment. This will positively improve womens literacy,

education and economic activities. Particularly education of women will

accelerate development by lowering birth rate, increase productivity, greater

prosperity and improve environmental management.15

These challenges faced by women in developing countries had attracted

international attention. The earliest recognition of the predicament of

women by the international community was the United Nations General

Assembly resolution in 1972 which, proclaimed 1975 as the International

Womens Year and declared that the year was to be devoted to intensifying

action with a view to promoting equality between men and women, ensuring

13UNIFEM, Gender Justice: Key to Achieving the Millennium Development Goals(2010).14 Haves, Emil. Does Energy Access help Women? Beyond Anecdotes: A Review ofthe Evidence.Ashden Report, 2 (May, 2012). Retrieved atwww.ashden.org. on05/03/13.15Chukueze, O. Comfort, Gender and Renewable energy in rural Nigeria.International NGO Journal, Vol. 4(7), 333, 335 (2009).
http://www.ashden.org/http://www.ashden.org/http://www.ashden.org/http://www.ashden.org/


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the integration of women in the total development effort and increasing the

contribution of women to strengthening of world peace.16 Consequently in

1974 the Economic and Social Council, by a resolution adopted the program

for the International Womens Year.17 And in 1974 the United Nations

General Assembly adopted a resolution that called for a full implementation

of the program.18 This led to the holding of the World Conferences on Women

in Mexico in 1975, Copenhagen in 1980, Nairobi in 1985, and Beijing in 1995.

These conferences drew global attention to a wide range of objectives and

plans on women and energy issues. The most notable amongst them was the

1995 Beijing Declarations and Platform for Action, which if fully

implemented will enhance the social, economic, and political empowerment

of women, improve their health, and their access to sustainable energy and

education, and promote their reproductive rights.

Another major international effort was the adoption of the Convention on

the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) in

1979 by the UN General Assembly.19 The CEDAW is generally referred to as

an international bill of rights for women, and it consist of 30 articles and a

preamble. It defines discrimination against women and set up an agenda for

national action to end such discrimination.

The CEDAW defines discrimination against women as any distinction

exclusion or restriction made on the basis of sex which has the effect or

purpose of impairing or nullifying the recognition, enjoyment or exercise by

16 UN GA Res 3010 (XXVII) (Dec. 18, 1972)17 ECOSOC Res 1849 (LVI) (May 16, 1974)18 UN GA Res 3275 (XXIX) (Dec. 10, 1974)19 GA res. 34/180 34UN GAOR Supp. (no. 46) at 193; 19 ILM 33 (1980)


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women, irrespective of their marital status, on the basis of equality of men

and women, of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the political,

economic, social, cultural, civil or other field.20

CEDAW obligates state parties to take all appropriate measures to eliminate

discrimination against women in rural areas in particular shall ensure to

such women the right to enjoy adequate living conditions, particularly in

relation to housing, sanitation, electricity and water supply. 21 The

Committee on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against

Women, responsible for overseeing the implementation of CEDAW requires

state parties to periodically submit information on household amenities

including energy access and violence against women and measure taken to

deal with it.22 The convention has not been fully implemented by states as

only 22 member states of the United Nations have adopted a national plan in

accordance with the object and purpose of the convention.

Increased international attention on women and energy issues is

demonstrated by the way in which women or gender issues are given

consideration in the various energy policies, program and projects at

national, regional and international levels, including UNDP Sustainable

Energy and Environment Divisions, World Bank Energy Sector

Management Assistant Programs, FAO Rural Wood Energy Development

20 Id. article 1.21 Id. article 14(2)(h).22Tully, Stephen. The Human Rights to Access Electricity. Electricity Journal Vol.9,No.3, 30-39 (2006).


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Programme, the African Development Bank, and the emergence of gender

desk in national energy agencies. 23

The 55th Session of the Commission on Status of women (CSW) of 2011

observed that women and girls are disproportionately burdened by a lack of

access to modern energy sources and that reduced access to resources,

including energy, is a major obstacle to womens full participation in a green

economy. Since the World summit on Sustainable development of 2002, the

international community has become more aware that energy is a critical

impact for development.24 According to the UN Secretary General Ban Ki

Moon, universal access to energy is fundamental to the attainment of all the

Millennium Development Goals. But the international community cannot

make substantial progress on the MDGs without investing in women and

girls by making them accessible to sustainable energy. Women and girl are

one of the greatest untapped resources of the world and investment in

women and girls is a potent catalyst for international development.

Due to the growing focus on access to clean, affordable, sustainable energy as

a major development issue, the United Nations Secretary General designated

2012 as the International Year of Sustainable Energy for All with the aim of

achieving three objectives of achieving universal access to modern energy

services, doubling the rate of improvement in energy efficiency, and doubling

the share of renewable energy in the global mix.

23Wamukonya, Njeri. A Critical Look at Gender and Energy Mainstreaming inAfrica. A Paper distributed at the Gender Perspectives in Sustainable

Development side events organized by UNDESA/ DAW and WEDO at Prep Com III(April, 2002).24 Chukuezi, O. Comfort. See n 15 at p 335.


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Scholars, analysts, experts and international have written reports, books,

articles and commentaries on the predicament of women and girls in

accessing sustainable energy especially in rural areas in developing

countries. These authors have drawn global attention to the burden of

women and girls in accessing sustainable energy and how it has contributed

to physical, social, cultural and economic underdevelopment of countries in

the third world.

Several international, regional, national and local NGOs have been

established to collaborate with other donor agencies to help provide

appropriate sustainable energy technologies (ASETs) to rural women so as to

save their lives, improve their livelihood, empower the women and reduce

climate change emissions. An example of such collaboration is the Global

Alliance for Clean Stoves, led by the UN foundation. Other NGOs include, Bill

and Melinda Gates Foundation, Mary Robinson Foundation, and International

Network on Women and sustainable Energy.

There is general perception on the benefits of energy access for women but

surprisingly there is no hard evidence. A 2011 World Bank background

paper on energy and gender highlighted the need for more evidence based

studies, emphasizing that there is a great predominance of grey literature

dealing with energy gender relationships.25 Therefore it is necessary to

critically examine the predicament of women in accessing energy to meet

their daily household needs, and proffer solutions on how to muster the

25Kohlin et al, Energy, Gender and Development: What are the Linkages? Where isthe Evidence? The World Bank Policy Research Working Paper5800 (2001) 45.Available atwww.iadb.org/intalcdi/PE/2011?08633.pdf
http://www.iadb.org/intalcdi/PE/2011?08633.pdfhttp://www.iadb.org/intalcdi/PE/2011?08633.pdfhttp://www.iadb.org/intalcdi/PE/2011?08633.pdfhttp://www.iadb.org/intalcdi/PE/2011?08633.pdf


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international community to collaborate in providing ASETs to meet the

energy needs of rural women and girls. There is great benefit in making

ASETs available to rural women and children and the international

community stands to gain in the long run. Access to energy for women will be

more effective when accompanied with access to other key services such as

education and micro financing.

It is imperative for all stakeholders in the energy sector to collaborate in

drawing international attention to the hardship women and girls face in rural

communities in accessing energy to meet their daily household needs, the

gender bias inherent in the global energy system governance, and the

barriers to realize womens right to access energy services. Sincere and

concerted efforts should be made by national governments of developing

countries in providing accessing to sustainable energy to their citizenry,

especially those in the rural communities. Regional and international

organization should place more emphasis on universal access to energy and

take proactive measures in assisting developing countries to achieve this

objective.

It has been observed that replacing outdated cook stoves and open fires with

ASETs would save the lives of 800,000 children who die yearly from

exposure to indoor smoke.26 According to the International Energy Agency,

universal access to sustainable energy services can be achieved for about $50

billion per year, but with the the use of ASETs, universal energy can be

achieved for far less amount.

26 World Health Orgaization, Fuel for Life: Household Energy and Health. (2006)

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The Predicament of Women in Accessing Energy in Developing Countries; A Call for Action