THE PALGRAVE HANDBOOK OF APPLIED LINGUISTICS

RESEARCH METHODOLOGYEdited by Aek Phakiti, Peter De Costa,

Luke Plonsky and Sue Starfield

The Palgrave Handbook of Applied Linguistics Research Methodology

Aek Phakiti • Peter De Costa Luke Plonsky • Sue Starfield

Editors

The Palgrave Handbook of Applied Linguistics Research

Methodology

ISBN 978-1-137-59899-8 ISBN 978-1-137-59900-1 (eBook)https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-59900-1

Library of Congress Control Number: 2018955931

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2018The author(s) has/have asserted their right(s) to be identified as the author(s) of this work in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or informa-tion storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Cover illustration: © Aek Phakiti

This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Limited.The registered company address is: The Campus, 4 Crinan Street, London, N1 9XW, United Kingdom

EditorsAek PhakitiSydney School of Education and Social WorkUniversity of SydneySydney, NSW, Australia

Luke PlonskyApplied LinguisticsNorthern Arizona UniversityFlagstaff, AZ, USA

Peter De CostaDepartment of Linguistics, Germanic, Slavic, Asian and African LanguagesMichigan State UniversityEast Lansing, MI, USA

Sue StarfieldSchool of EducationUNSW SydneySydney, NSW, Australia

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Applied linguistics is a broad, evolving interdisciplinary field of study, which examines language use with relevance to real-world problems across a range of social contexts using a diverse set of methodologies. This Handbook aims to provide a comprehensive, yet accessible treatment of basic and more advanced research methodologies in applied linguistics as well as to offer a state-of-the- art view of various substantive domains within the field. The Handbook covers a range of research approaches, presents current perspectives, and addresses important considerations in different research methods, such as designing and implementing research instruments and techniques and analyzing different types of applied linguistics data. Innovations, challenges, and trends in applied linguistics research are addressed throughout the Handbook.

This Handbook has brought together a range of authors in various areas of research into one volume. The authors work with a variety of languages in a host of research contexts, ensuring both breadth and depth. As the Handbook editors, we have curated themes and ideas that are aligned with the current research climate as well as areas that help applied linguists better understand social and educational phenomena and the nature of language, language learning, and language use.

Readership

As we anticipate that many readers of this Handbook may be junior scholars seeking guidance on research methods, and taking into account the many options and pathways on offer, we have striven to ensure that the Handbook pro-vides an up-to-date entry point into both approaches that have stood the test

Preface

vi Preface

of time and approaches that may be less well known, but offer interesting possibilities and perspectives. This Handbook is suitable for use by advanced undergraduate and postgraduate students as well as beginning and well- established applied linguists who would like both a broad and in-depth under-standing of contemporary applied linguistics research methods and topics. Specifically, this Handbook can be used in applied linguistics, second language studies, and TESOL graduate programs around the world. Libraries, univer-sity departments, and organizations dealing with applied linguistics issues will also find this Handbook to be an invaluable resource.

Comments or Suggestions

The editors would be grateful to hear comments and suggestions regarding this Handbook. Please contact Aek Phakiti at aek.phakiti@sydney.edu.au, Peter De Costa at peteridecosta@gmail.com, Luke Plonsky at lukeplonsky@gmail.com, or Sue Starfield at s.starfield@unsw.edu.au.

Sydney, NSW, Australia Aek PhakitiEast Lansing, MI, USA Peter De CostaFlagstaff, AZ, USA Luke PlonskySydney, NSW, Australia Sue Starfield

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We wish to express our heartfelt thanks to the contributors of this Handbook who worked hard to produce great chapters and promptly responded to our requests and comments on earlier drafts. You are all truly amazing. We would also like to thank the many researchers, authors, and methodologists who published research articles, book chapters, and books not only in applied lin-guistics but across various disciplines. Their contributions have helped us deepen our understanding of numerous issues and methods relevant to applied linguistics. Next, we are very grateful to Palgrave for their kind support throughout the completion of this Handbook.

We would like to thank our colleagues and friends at Georgetown University, Michigan State University, Northern Arizona University, the University of New South Wales, and the University of Sydney who discussed with us essen-tial ideas and issues to be included in this Handbook and read and commented on several chapter drafts, in particular: Janette Bobis, Jesse Egbert, Mia Jun, Amy Kim, Wendy Li, Alison Mackey, Guy Middleton, Lourdes Ortega, Brian Paltridge, Jack C. Richards, Fran Waugh, and Yiran Xu.

Finally, we would like to thank our partners who supported us throughout the process of putting together this Handbook, including weekend Skype time when our schedules—sometimes across four distinct time zones—would align.

Acknowledgments

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Part I Research Approaches and Methodology 1

1 Applied Linguistics Research: Current Issues, Methods, and Trends 5Aek Phakiti, Peter De Costa, Luke Plonsky, and Sue Starfield

2 Habits of Mind: How Do We Know What We Know? 31Richard F. Young

3 Quantitative Methodology 55Luke K. Fryer, Jenifer Larson-Hall, and Jeffrey Stewart

4 Qualitative Methodology 79Shim Lew, Anna Her Yang, and Linda Harklau

5 Mixed Methodology 103Alison Mackey and Lara Bryfonski

6 Traditional Literature Review and Research Synthesis 123Shaofeng Li and Hong Wang

7 Research Replication 145Rebekha Abbuhl

Contents

x Contents

8 Ethical Applied Linguistics Research 163Scott Sterling and Peter De Costa

9 Writing a Research Proposal 183Sue Starfield

10 Writing a Research Article 199Betty Samraj

Part II Research Instruments, Techniques, and Data Sources 221

11 Interviews and Focus Groups 225Matthew T. Prior

12 Observation and Fieldnotes 249Fiona Copland

13 Online Questionnaires 269Jean-Marc Dewaele

14 Psycholinguistic Methods 287Sarah Grey and Kaitlyn M. Tagarelli

15 SLA Elicitation Tasks 313Susan Gass

16 Introspective Verbal Reports: Think-Alouds and Stimulated Recall 339Melissa A. Bowles

17 Corpus Research Methods for Language Teaching and Learning 359Magali Paquot

18 Digital Discourses Research and Methods 375Christoph A. Hafner

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Part III Data Analysis 391

19 Correlation and Simple Linear Regression in Applied Linguistics 395Reza Norouzian and Luke Plonsky

20 Exploratory Factor Analysis 423Aek Phakiti

21 Confirmatory Factor Analysis and Structural Equation Modeling 459Aek Phakiti

22 Analyzing Group Differences 501Luke Wander Amoroso

23 Statistics for Categorical, Nonparametric, and Distribution- Free Data 523Jesse Egbert and Geoffrey T. LaFlair

24 Reliability Analysis of Instruments and Data Coding 541Kirby C. Grabowski and Saerhim Oh

25 Analyzing Spoken and Written Discourse: A Role for Natural Language Processing Tools 567Scott A. Crossley and Kristopher Kyle

26 Narrative Analysis 595Phil Benson

27 Interaction Analysis 615Elizabeth R. Miller

28 Multimodal Analysis 639Jesse Pirini, Tui Matelau-Doherty, and Sigrid Norris

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Part IV Selected Research Topics and Areas in Applied Linguistics 659

29 Instructed Second Language Acquisition 663Shawn Loewen

30 Bilingualism and Multilingualism 681Tej K. Bhatia

31 Forensic Linguistics 703Samuel Larner

32 World Englishes 719Peter De Costa, Jeffrey Maloney, and Dustin Crowther

33 Heritage, Community, and Indigenous Languages 741Shereen Bhalla and Terrence G. Wiley

34 Translation and Interpreting 761Claudia V. Angelelli

35 Identity 777Ron Darvin

36 Gesture Research 793Gale Stam and Kimberly Buescher

37 Language Policy and Planning 811David Cassels Johnson and Crissa Stephens

38 Second Language Pragmatics 829Soo Jung Youn

39 Language Testing and Assessment 845April Ginther and Kyle McIntosh

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40 Linguistic Landscape 869David Malinowski

41 Researching Academic Literacies 887David Bloome, Gilcinei T. Carvalho, and Sanghee Ryu

Index 903

xv

Rebekha Abbuhl is Associate Professor of Linguistics at California State University Long Beach, where she teaches courses in language acquisition, research methods, and pedagogy. Her research interests include second language writing and the role of feedback in the development of foreign language proficiency.

Luke  Wander  Amoroso is Assistant Professor of Linguistics at Truman State University. His research interests are in the validity and reliability of L2 tests, speak-ing proficiency, and second language acquisition (SLA) research methodology. He tries to keep his features in order and works as a language testing consultant with the United States Department of Justice. He works with ESL and EFL teachers in the United States and China to incorporate insights from SLA interaction research into ESL/EFL teaching methods.

Claudia  V.  Angelelli is Chair of Multilingualism and Communication at Heriot-Watt University, UK, and Professor Emerita of Spanish Linguistics at San Diego State University, US. Her research lies at the intersection of sociolinguistics, applied linguis-tics, and translation and interpreting studies. She has authored Medical Interpreting and Cross-cultural Communication (2004) and Revisiting the Role of the Interpreter (2004) and co-edited Researching Translation and Interpreting (2015) and Testing and Assessment in Translation and Interpreting Studies (2009). Her work has appeared in The Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, The Critical Link, Cuadernos de ALDEEU, International Journal of the Sociology of Language (IJSL), Interpreting, Meta, MonTI, The Translator, Translation and Interpreting Studies (TIS), and numerous edited volumes.

Phil Benson is Professor of Applied Linguistics at Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia. His research interests are in autonomy and out-of-class language learning, study abroad, and multilingualism. He has a strong preference for qualitative research and has published on both qualitative research methods and narrative inquiry. He is especially interested in oral history as an approach to research on the long-term lan-

Notes on Contributors

xvi Notes on Contributors

guage learning experiences of multilingual individuals. He is co-author of Second Language Identity in Narratives of Study Abroad (Palgrave Macmillan, 2012) and Narrative Inquiry in Language Teaching and Learning Research (2013).

Shereen  Bhalla is a research associate and the facilitator of the Language Policy Research Network and serves as Manager of Online Education at the Center for Applied Linguistics (CAL). At CAL, Bhalla conducts research, co-authors papers, and regularly presents at national and international conferences on issues regarding language policy, heritage language learning, and English as an international language. She has experience teaching and working with pre-service and in-service teachers in the areas of culturally responsive teaching, second language acquisition, writing development and oral communication. She received her PhD in Culture, Literacy and Language from the University of Texas at San Antonio.

Tej K. Bhatia is Professor of Linguistics and Director of South Asian languages at Syracuse University, Syracuse, New  York. He has been Director of the Linguistic Studies Program and Acting Director of Cognitive Sciences. He is also a Faculty Fellow at the Forensic & National Security Sciences Institute. He is Editor-in-Chief of Brill Research Perspectives on Multilingualism and Second Language Acquisition. His publications include five handbooks with William C.  Ritchie: Handbook of Bilingualism and Multilingualism (2013), A New Handbook of Second Language Acquisition (2009), The Handbook of Bilingualism (2006), Handbook of Child Language Acquisition (1999), and Handbook of Second Language Acquisition (1996).

David Bloome is College of Education and Human Ecology (EHE) Distinguished Professor of Teaching and Learning at The Ohio State University. David’s research focuses on how people use spoken and written language for learning, teaching, social relationships, constructing knowledge, and shared histories. He is former president of the National Council of Teachers of English and of the National Conference on Research in Language and Literacy; former co-editor of Reading Research Quarterly; and founding editor of Linguistics and Education. David was inducted into the Reading Hall of Fame in 2008 and in 2015 he received the John. J. Gumperz Lifetime Achievement Award.

Melissa  A.  Bowles is an associate professor in the Department of Spanish and Portuguese and Director of the Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education PhD concentration at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Her main research interests are classroom second and heritage language acquisition and the ways in which instruction differentially affects the two learner groups. She routinely uses verbal reports in her research and has written about them extensively, most nota-bly in The Think-Aloud Controversy in Second Language Research (2010).

Lara  Bryfonski is a doctoral candidate in applied linguistics at Georgetown University. Her research focuses primarily on interaction and corrective feedback in second language acquisition, as well as task-based language teaching and learning. Lara is also a licensed English as a Second Language (ESL) teacher and has taught ESL in a variety of contexts in the U.S. and abroad.

xvii Notes on Contributors

Kimberly Buescher is Assistant Professor of Applied Linguistics at the University of Massachusetts, Boston. Her research interests include L2 learning and teaching, L2 literacy, students and teachers’ use of gesture, French prepositions, and teacher educa-tion preparation. Her dissertation “Developing Second Language Narrative Literacy Using Concept-Based Instruction and a Division-of-Labor Pedagogy” examined the extent to which concept-based instruction and a division-of- labor pedagogy pro-moted the development of intermediate learners’ narrative literacy abilities in French. She has published book chapters on the learning and teaching of French prepositions and the internalization of talk, gesture, and concepts in the L2 classroom.

Gilcinei T.  Carvalho is an associate professor at Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Brazil. He is a member of the Knowledge and Social Inclusion Graduate Program and a researcher at the Center for Literacy Studies, in the School of Education. He explores sociolinguistic approaches in the study of acquisition and the development of written language, including academic literacies. He is co-editor of Jornal Letra A.

Fiona Copland is Professor of TESOL at the University of Stirling, Scotland. She has taught English and trained teachers in a number of different countries. Her research interests include post-observation feedback in pre-service teacher education, teaching English to young learners and ethics in qualitative research. Fiona has written a book on Linguistic Ethnography: Collecting, Analysing and Presenting Data (2015, SAGE) with Angela Creese, as well as edited a collection entitled Linguistic Ethnography: Interdisciplinary Explorations (2015, Palgrave) with Julia Snell and Sara Shaw.

Scott  A.  Crossley is Associate Professor of Applied Linguistics at Georgia State University. Scott’s primary research focus is on natural language processing and the application of computational tools and machine learning algorithms in language learning, writing, and text comprehensibility. His main interest area is the develop-ment and use of natural language processing tools in assessing writing quality and text difficulty. He is also interested in the development of second language learner lexicons and the potential to examine lexical growth and lexical proficiency using computational algorithms.

Dustin  Crowther is a visiting Assistant Professor of English at Oklahoma State University, and holds a PhD in Second Language Studies from Michigan State University. He previously completed his MA in Applied Linguistics at Concordia University in Montréal, Canada. His research interests include second language pro-nunciation, the promotion of mutual intelligibility in multilinguistic and multicul-tural contact, World Englishes, and research methodologies. His research has been published in a wide range of journals, including Studies in Second Language Acquisition, The Modern Language Journal, and TESOL Quarterly.

Ron  Darvin is a Vanier Scholar at the Department of Language and Literacy Education of the University of British Columbia. Together with Bonny Norton, he received the 2016 TESOL Award for Distinguished Research for their article

xviii Notes on Contributors

“Identity and a model of investment in applied linguistics” that appeared in the Annual Review of Applied Linguistics. Ron has also published in TESOL Quarterly, Journal of Language, Identity, and Education, and The Routledge Handbook of Language and Identity.

Peter  De  Costa is an associate professor in the Department of Linguistics and Languages at Michigan State University. His primary areas of research are identity and ideology in second language acquisition. He is the author of The Power of Identity and Ideology in Language Learning (Springer, 2016). He also edited Ethics in Applied Linguistics Research (2016). His work has appeared in AILA Review, Applied Linguistics Review, International Journal of Applied Linguistics, Language Learning, Language Policy, Language Teaching, Linguistics and Education, Research in the Teaching of English, System, TESOL Quarterly, and The Modern Language Journal. He recently guest edited special journal issues on scalar approaches to language learning and teaching (Linguistics and Education, 2016, with Suresh Canagarajah), teacher identity (The Modern Language Journal, 2017, with Bonny Norton), study abroad research methodologies (System, 2017, with Hima Rawal and Irina Zaykovskaya), and World Englishes and second language acquisition (World Englishes, 2018, with Kingsley Bolton). He is the co-editor of TESOL Quarterly.

Jean-Marc  Dewaele is Professor of Applied Linguistics and Multilingualism at Birkbeck, University of London. He is interested in individual differences in foreign language acquisition and use. He won the Equality and Diversity Research Award from the British Association for Counselling and Psychotherapy (2013) and the Robert Gardner Award for Excellence in Second Language and Bilingualism Research (2016) from the International Association of Language and Social Psychology. He authored Emotions in Multiple Languages (second edition published in 2013 by Palgrave).

Jesse Egbert is an assistant professor in the Applied Linguistics program at Northern Arizona University. He specializes in corpus-based research on register variation, particu-larly academic writing and online language, and methodological issues in quantitative linguistic research. His research has been published in journals such as Journal of English Linguistics, International Journal of Corpus Linguistics, Corpus Linguistics and Linguistic Theory, and Applied Linguistics (2018, Routledge). His books include an edited volume titled Triangulating Methodological Approaches in Corpus Linguistic Research (2018, Routledge) and a book titled Register Variation Online (2018, Cambridge).

Luke K. Fryer is an associate professor and head of faculty and research postgradu-ate student teaching and learning programs at the University of Hong Kong. His main area of research is the role of non-cognitive factors like interest within teaching and learning. His work on interest, related motivations, and learning strategies has been published widely in journals such as British Journal of Educational Psychology, Internet and Higher Education, and Computers and Education. His statistical analyses focus on longitudinal structural equation modeling and person-centered analyses.

xix Notes on Contributors

Susan Gass is University Distinguished Professor at Michigan State University. She has published widely in the field of second language acquisition. She serves as co- editor of Studies in Second Language Acquisition. She has lectured in many parts of the world, including South America, North America, Asia, Africa, and Australia. From 2002 to 2008, she was the President of the International Association of Applied Linguistics and prior to that she was the President of the American Association for Applied Linguistics. She is the recipient of numerous awards and serves as the Director of the Second Language Studies Program and the English Language Center, both at Michigan State University.

April  Ginther is an associate professor in the Department of English at Purdue University, where she directs two language support programs. She has been an invited speaker and workshop provider at institutions and conferences around the world, presenting on her primary scholarly pursuits: the development and validation of sec-ond language proficiency assessments, the measurement of second language fluency, and the use and interpretation of language proficiency test scores by diverse groups of stakeholders. She recently stepped down as co-editor of Language Testing.

Kirby C. Grabowski is adjunct assistant professor in the Applied Linguistics and TESOL Program at Teachers College, Columbia University, where she teaches courses on second language assessment, performance assessment, generalizability theory, pragmatics assessment, research methods, linguistics, and L2 pedagogy. She is on the Editorial Advisory Board of Language Assessment Quarterly and formerly served on the Executive Board for ILTA as Member-at-Large. She was a Spaan Fellow for the ELI at the University of Michigan, and she received the 2011 Jacqueline Ross TOEFL Dissertation Award for outstanding doctoral dissertation in second/foreign language testing from Educational Testing Service.

Sarah Grey is Assistant Professor of Linguistics and Spanish at Fordham University in New York City, United States of America. She uses psycholinguistic approaches and ERPs to study adult second language acquisition and bilingualism, and her work has appeared in The Modern Language Journal, Studies in Second Language Acquisition, and the Journal of Neurolinguistics. She received her PhD in Applied Spanish Linguistics from Georgetown University and prior to joining Fordham University she worked as a postdoctoral research fellow in Psychology and the Center for Language Science at Pennsylvania State University.

Christoph A. Hafner is an associate professor in the Department of English, City University of Hong Kong. He has published widely in the areas of English for specific purposes, digital literacies, and language learning and technology. He is co-author (with Rodney H. Jones) of Understanding Digital Literacies: A Practical Introduction (Routledge, 2012).

Linda Harklau is a professor in the TESOL and World Language Education and Linguistics Program at the University of Georgia. Her research examines language

xx Notes on Contributors

learning and academic achievement of immigrant youth in high school and col-lege, schooling structure and educational policy, and teacher education. A recipi-ent of the TESOL Distinguished Research Award, she also teaches and publishes on the subject of qualitative methods, particularly longitudinal case study and ethnography.

David  Cassels  Johnson is Associate Professor of Education at the University of Iowa. He holds a PhD (with distinction) in Educational Linguistics from the University of Pennsylvania. His research, teaching, and service focus on how lan-guage policies impact educational opportunities for linguistically diverse students, in both bilingual education and English language education programs. He is the author of Language Policy (2013, Palgrave Macmillan) and co-editor of Research Methods in Language Policy and Planning: A Practical Guide (2015, Wiley-Blackwell, with Francis M. Hult).

Kristopher Kyle is an assistant professor in the Department of Second Language Studies at the University of Hawai’i. His research interests include second language writing and speaking, language assessment, and second language acquisition. He is especially interested in applying natural language processing (NLP) and corpora to the exploration of these areas.

Geoffrey T. LaFlair is an assistant professor in the Department of Second Language Studies at the University of Hawai’i at Mānoa. He conducts research on large- and small- scale language assessments and quantitative research methods in the field of second language studies. His research has been published in Language Testing, Applied Linguistics, and The Modern Language Journal.

Samuel Larner is a lecturer in Linguistics at Manchester Metropolitan University, UK. His PhD thesis, completed in 2012, explored the socio- and psycholinguistic theory of formulaic sequences and their use by authors when writing short personal narratives, with the goal of identifying individual authorial consistency and distinc-tiveness for authorship purposes. He has published several journal articles, book chapters, and a monograph, focussing mainly on methods of forensic authorship attribution. In addition to teaching and researching forensic linguistics, Samuel undertakes consultancy in authorship analysis.

Jenifer  Larson-Hall is an associate professor in the English Department at the University of Kitakyushu in Japan. Her research interests lie mainly in second lan-guage acquisition but she believes statistics substantially affects conclusions that are drawn in the field and has published a variety of articles and books geared toward applied researchers in second language acquisition. Her most recent book is A Guide to Doing Statistics in Second Language Research using SPSS and R (2016, Routledge ). Her 2017 article in The Modern Language Journal, “Moving Beyond the Bar Plot and Line Graph to Create Informative and Attractive Graphics”, argues for the impor-tance of data-accountable graphics.

xxi Notes on Contributors

Shim Lew is a doctoral candidate in the Department of Language and Literacy at the University of Georgia. Her area of research is in teacher education for English learners, particularly developing content-area teachers’ hybrid professional develop-ment as content and language teachers and integrating disciplinary literacy instruc-tion into K-12 STEM classrooms.

Shaofeng  Li is an associate professor in Foreign/Second Language Education at Florida State University where he teaches courses in second language acquisition and language pedagogy and supervises masters and PhD students. His main research interests include task-based language teaching and learning, form- focused instruc-tion, individual learner differences (especially language aptitude and working mem-ory), and research methods.

Shawn  Loewen is an associate professor in Second Language Studies in the Department of Linguistics & Germanic, Slavic, Asian and African Languages at Michigan State University. His research interests include instructed second language acquisition, particularly as it pertains to learner interaction. He is also interested in research methodology and the development of statistical knowledge. He teaches a quantitative analysis class, as well as classes on second language acquisition. In addi-tion to journal articles, he has authored Introduction to Instructed Second Language Acquisition (2015) and co-authored, with Luke Plonsky, An A–Z of Applied Linguistics Research Methods (2016, Palgrave). His co-edited volume (with Masatoshi Sato) The Routledge Handbook of Instructed Second Language Acquisition appeared in 2017.

Alison Mackey is Professor of Linguistics at Georgetown University. She is inter-ested in interaction- driven second language (L2) learning, L2 research methodology and the applications of interaction through task-based language teaching, as well as second language dialects and identities. She is the editor of the Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, published by Cambridge University Press, an official journal of the American Association for Applied Linguistics.

David Malinowski is a language technology and research specialist with the Center for Language Study at Yale University. With a background in language and literacy education, multimodal communication, and technology-enhanced learning, he con-ducts research and supports pedagogical innovation on such technology- related top-ics as internet-mediated intercultural language learning (telecollaboration) and course-sharing with videoconferencing. At the same time, he maintains a significant interest in linguistic landscape, seeking to find productive intersections between urban sociolinguistics and place-based language learning. David holds a masters in TESOL from San Francisco State University and a PhD in Education from UC Berkeley.

Jeffrey Maloney is Assistant Professor of English at Northeastern State University. He holds a PhD in Second Language Studies from Michigan State University and an MA in Applied Linguistics from Ohio University. His research interests include lan-

xxii Notes on Contributors

guage teacher training with technology, computer-assisted language learning, and language teacher and learner identity.

Tui Matelau-Doherty is a PhD candidate at Auckland University of Technology in New Zealand. Her research uses Multimodal (Inter)action Analysis to explore the relationship between creative practice and ethnic identity. Her masters research examined the ethnic identity co-constructed within tertiary education environments by Māori female students. The findings of this research were published in Interactions, Texts and Images: A Reader in Multimodality (2014, De Gruyter). In addition, poems she wrote as part of her data collection were published in the journal Multimodal Communication.

Kyle McIntosh is an assistant professor in the Department of English and Writing at The University of Tampa, where he works primarily in the academic writing and TESOL certificate programs. His research focuses on English for Academic Purposes, intercultural rhetoric, and writing assessment. With Carolina Pelaez-Morales and Tony Silva, he co-edited the volume Graduate Studies in Second Language Writing (2015).

Elizabeth  R.  Miller is Associate Professor of Applied Linguistics in the English Department at the University of North Carolina at Charlotte. Her research involves adult immigrant learners of English in the U.S. and focuses on issues related to lan-guage ideologies and learners’ agency and identity. Her work has appeared in a num-ber of journals, and two of her recent publications include The Language of Adult Immigrants: Agency in the Making (2014) and the co-edited volume Theorizing and Analyzing Agency in Second Language Learning: Interdisciplinary Approaches (2015).

Reza Norouzian is a PhD candidate in the English as a Second Language program at Texas A&M University. In addition to his doctoral studies, Reza has also obtained a Graduate Certificate in Advanced Research Methods from Texas A&M University. Reza’s research interests include instructed second language acquisition and advanced research methods. Reza has published in a number of journals including Second Language Research and Issues in Applied Linguistics. Reza is a contributor to StackExchange (data science, statistics, and programming forum).

Sigrid Norris is Professor of Multimodal (Inter)action and Director of the AUT Multimodal Research Centre at Auckland University of Technology in New Zealand. Born in Feudingen Germany, she received her BA in Russian Language and Literature from George Washington University, and later received an MS and was conferred her PhD in Linguistics by Georgetown University in the United States. She is the founder of the theoretical/methodological framework Multimodal (Inter)action Analysis, has edited and authored numerous academic books, journal articles and book chapters, written two poetry books, and is the editor of the international journal Multimodal Communication.

Saerhim Oh is Senior Test Development Manager at Assessment Technology and Engineering at Pearson. Her research interests include linguistic tools in second lan-

xxiii Notes on Contributors

guage writing assessment, feedback in second language writing, speech recognition in second language speaking assessment, and English Language Learner assessment. She received her doctorate degree in Applied Linguistics from Teachers College, Columbia University. She was the 2017 Robert Lado Memorial Award recipient in recognition of the best graduate student paper presentation at the annual meeting of Language Testing Research Colloquium (LTRC).

Magali Paquot is a permanent Fonds de la Recherche Scientifique (F.R.S.-FNRS) research associate at the Centre for English Corpus Linguistics, Université catholique de Louvain. She is co-editor-in-chief of the International Journal of Learner Corpus Research and a founding member of the Learner Corpus Research Association. Her research interests include corpus linguistics, learner corpus research, vocabulary, phraseology, second language acquisition, linguistic complexity, crosslinguistic influ-ence, English for Academic Purposes, pedagogical lexicography and electronic lexicography.

Aek Phakiti is an associate professor in TESOL at the University of Sydney. His research focuses on language testing and assessment, second language acquisition, and research methods in language learning. He is the author of Strategic Competence and EFL Reading Test Performance (2007), Experimental Research Methods in Language Learning (2014), Language Testing and Assessment: From Theory to Practice (Bloomsbury, forthcoming), and, with Carsten Roever, of Quantitative Methods for Second Language Research: A Problem-Solving Approach (2018). With Brian Paltridge, he edited the Continuum Companion to Research Methods in Applied Linguistics (2010) and Research Methods in Applied Linguistics: A Practical Resource (2015). He is Associate Editor of Language Assessment Quarterly. He was Vice President of ALTAANZ (Association for Language Testing and Assessment of Australia and New Zealand, 2015–2017).

Jesse  Pirini is a lecturer in the School of Management at the Victoria Business School, Victoria University of Wellington. Jesse received his PhD at the Auckland University of Technology, studying knowledge communication, agency and intersub-jectivity in high school tutoring. Jesse develops multimodal theory and methodology. He works with a wide range of data sources, including family interaction, high school tutoring, augmented reality and video conferencing. Along with academic journal articles and chapters, Jesse is also the author of a practical workbook for training tutors and he supports community-based peer tutoring programmes.

Luke  Plonsky is Associate Professor of Applied Linguistics at Northern Arizona University, where he teaches courses in research methods and second language acquisition. Recent and forthcoming publications in these and other areas can be found in journals such as Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, Applied Linguistics, Language Learning, The Modern Language Journal, and Studies in Second Language Acquisition, as well as in edited volumes published by Cambridge University Press, Wiley Blackwell, De Gruyter, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Studies in Second Language Acquisition, Managing Editor of Foreign Language Annals, and Co-Director of IRIS (iris-database.org).

xxiv Notes on Contributors

Matthew T. Prior is Associate Professor of Applied Linguistics/Linguistics/TESOL in the Department of English at Arizona State University, where he teaches courses in qualitative methods, discourse analysis, sociolinguistics, TESOL, and second lan-guage acquisition. His interests include narrative, discursive- constructionist approaches to identity, and social-psychological dimensions of multilingualism. He is author of Emotion and Discourse in L2 Narrative Research (2016) and co-editor of the volume Emotion in Multilingual Interaction (2016).

Sanghee Ryu is a research professor in the research center of Korean Language and Literature Education at Korea University, South Korea. Ryu’s research focuses on the use of discourse analysis and formative-design experiments to explore and improve the teaching and learning of argumentative writing with an emphasis on underlying definitions of rationality. Ryu has taught pre-service teacher education courses on teaching reading and teaching writing at The Ohio State University. She teaches grad-uate courses on research methodology at Korea University.

Betty Samraj is Professor of Linguistics at San Diego State University. Her main research interests are in academic writing in different disciplines (including interdis-ciplinary fields) and genre analysis. She has conducted analyses of several different genres such as research article introductions, abstracts, masters theses, graduate stu-dent research papers, manuscript reviews, personal statements and, most recently, suicide notes. She teaches teacher preparation courses such as English for Specific Purposes and Teaching ESL Reading and Writing in a masters program in applied linguistics.

Gale  Stam is Professor of Psychology at National Louis University in Chicago, Illinois. Her research interests include language, culture, and cognition; gesture; and L1 and L2 acquisition. She has published articles on changes in thinking for speak-ing, the importance of looking at gesture in L2 acquisition, gesture and lexical retrieval in an L2 setting, and language teachers’ gestures. She serves on the editorial board of the journals Gesture and Language and Sociocultural Theory and has co-edited two volumes: Gesture: Second Language Acquisition and Classroom Research (2008) and Integrating Gestures: The Interdisciplinary Nature of Gesture (2011).

Sue Starfield is a professor in the School of Education at UNSW Sydney. With Brian Paltridge, she is co-author of Thesis and Dissertation Writing in a Second Language: A Handbook for Supervisors (2007) and of Getting published in academic journals: Negotiating the publication process (2016) and co-editor of the Handbook of English for Specific Purposes (2013). She co-authored Ethnographic Perspectives on Academic Writing with Brian Paltridge and Christine Tardy (2016). With Brian Paltridge, she is co-editor of two new book series: Routledge Introductions to English for Specific Purposes and Routledge Research in English for Specific Purposes. Her research interests include tertiary academic literacies, advanced academic writing, postgradu-ate pedagogy, ethnographic methodologies, identity in academic writing, and access and equity in higher education.

xxv Notes on Contributors

Crissa Stephens is a doctoral candidate at the University of Iowa. Her work uses a critical sociocultural lens to examine how language policies interact with social iden-tity development and opportunity in education. Her teaching and activism in the US and abroad help to inspire her approach, and her recent publications utilize ethno-graphic and discourse-analytic methods to explore language policy and educational equity in local contexts.

Scott Sterling is Assistant Professor of TESOL and Linguistics in the Department of Languages, Literatures, and Linguistics at Indiana State University. His recent work investigates the level of training, current beliefs and practices that the field of applied linguistics has towards research ethics. His main area of focus is meta-research, particularly research ethics, and he has published work related to these topics in vari-ous journals and edited volumes in linguistics. He completed his PhD at Michigan State University in 2015 with a dissertation that focused on the complexity and com-prehensibility of consent forms used in ESL research.

Jeffrey Stewart is Director of Educational Measurement and a lecturer at Kyushu Sangyo University in Japan. He has published articles in numerous journals such as TESOL Quarterly and Language Assessment Quarterly regarding vocabulary acquisi-tion and testing using a number of advanced statistical modeling tools, most specifi-cally item response theory.

Kaitlyn M. Tagarelli works as a postdoctoral fellow in Psychology and Neuroscience at Dalhousie University in Halifax, Canada. She received her PhD in Applied Linguistics from Georgetown University and her research uses behavioral, Event-related Potential (ERP), and Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) tech-niques to examine the neural and cognitive mechanisms involved in language learning and processing. Dr. Tagarelli is particularly interested in the brain structures and memory systems underlying language learning, and how individual differences and learning conditions interact with learning processes and outcomes. Her work has appeared in edited volumes and Studies in Second Language Acquisition.

Hong Wang is a subject librarian and information specialist at the University of Auckland. She has a masters degree in library and information science, a bachelor’s degree in foreign language education, and an associate degree in computer science. She has extensive experience in lecturing on information literacy, and she has also taught ESL and Chinese in various instructional settings in China and the U.S.

Terrence G. Wiley is Professor Emeritus at Arizona State University and immediate-past President of the Center for Applied Linguistics, specializing in language educa-tion and policy. His recent works include Handbook of Heritage, Community, and Native American Languages: Research, Policy, and Practice (co-editor, 2014) and Review of Research in Education, 2014, 38(1). Wiley co-founded the Journal of Language, Identity and Education and the International Multilingual Research Journal. He is organizer of the International Language Policy Research Network of Association

xxvi Notes on Contributors

Internationale de la Linguistique Appliquée and recipient of the American Association for Applied Linguistics Distinguished Scholarship and Service Award (2014).

Anna Her Yang is a doctoral student in the Department of Language and Literacy Education at the University of Georgia. She is also the project coordinator of a five-year National Professional Development grant. Her research interest primarily focuses on the pedagogical experiences of mainstreamed ESOL (content-area) teachers of English learners.

Soo  Jung Youn is Assistant Professor of English at Northern Arizona University, USA. Her academic interests include L2 pragmatic assessment, task-based language teaching, quantitative research methods, and conversation analysis. In particular, her research focuses on assessing L2 learners’ ability to accomplish various pragmatic actions in interaction by investigating a wide range of interactional features indicative of a varying degree of pragmatic competence using mixed methods. Her studies have recently been published in Language Testing, System, and Applied Linguistics Review.

Richard F. Young is Emeritus Professor of English at the University of Wisconsin-Madison and Chutian Professor in the School of Foreign Languages at Central China Normal University. His research focuses on the relationship between language and social context and has resulted in four books: Discursive Practice in Language Learning and Teaching  (2009), Language and Interaction  (2008), Talking and Testing, and Variation in Interlanguage Morphology (1998), as well as over 70 articles.

xxvii

Fig. 1.1 The five key stages of empirical research 13Fig. 2.1 “Practicing speaking” in Spanish (Hall, 2004, p. 76) 34Fig. 2.2 Representing embodied cognition (Goodwin, 2003, Fig. 2.9,

p. 35) 39Fig. 3.1 Beeswarm plot of interest in interacting with Chatbot (Data 1)

and human partner (Data 2) 61Fig. 3.2 Diagram of longitudinal Chatbot experiment design 65Fig. 3.3 Combination interaction/boxplots of the longitudinal Chatbot

data 66Fig. 3.4 A parallel plot showing interest in human versus Chatbot

interlocutors over three testing times 68Fig. 3.5 Hypothesized model of interest in task and course 71Fig. 3.6 Final model of interest in task and course 71Fig. 9.1 The four questions framework 185Fig. 9.2 Visual prompt for a literature review 188Fig. 9.3 How is my study contributing? 191Fig. 12.1 Draft 1 of fieldnotes 254Fig. 12.2 Coded fieldnotes 259Fig. 12.3 Screenshot of Transana programme used to collate fieldnotes and

recordings (Hall, personal data, 2015) 264Fig. 14.1 Sample visual world. Note: In this example, “cat” is the target,

“caterpillar” is an onset competitor, “bat” is a rhyme competitor, and “hedgehog” is an unrelated distractor. Images are from the Multipic database (Duñabeitia et al., 2017) 291

Fig. 14.2 Sample data from mouse-tracking language experiment. Note: The black line represents a competitor trajectory; the gray line represents a target trajectory. Images are from the Multipic database (Duñabeitia et al., 2017) 292

List of Figures

xxviii List of Tables

Fig. 14.3 Sample ERP waves and scalp topography maps of the standard ERP correlate of semantic processing (N400). Note: Each tick mark on y-axis represents 100 ms; x-axis represents voltage in microvolts, ±3μV; negative is plotted up. The black line repre-sents brain activity to correct items, such as plane in example 2a. The blue line represents brain activity to a semantic anomaly, such as cactus in example 2b. The topographic scalp maps show the distribution of activity in the anomaly minus correct conditions with a calibration scale of ±4μV. From data reported in Grey and Van Hell (2017) 296

Fig. 14.4 Examples of (a) semantic priming using lexical decision, (b) masked semantic priming, and (c) syntactic priming using a picture description task. Note: Drawing credit: Kyle Brimacombe 298

Fig. 14.5 Artificial linguistic systems in language learning paradigms (based on Morgan-Short et al., 2010; Saffran et al., 1996; Tagarelli, 2014). Note: Drawing credit: Kyle Brimacombe 302

Fig. 17.1 Grammar and Beyond 4, “Avoid Common Mistakes” box (p. 75) 365Fig. 17.2 “Be careful note” on the overuse of modal auxiliaries (MEDAL2,

p. 17) 367Fig. 19.1 Scatterplots of four samples of students’ scores 401Fig. 19.2 Scatterplots indicating small, medium, and large r in L2 research 402Fig. 19.3 Crosshatched area representing an r2 of 0.25 (25%) 403Fig. 19.4 Representation of Pearson’s r as a non-directional measure 404Fig. 19.5 Representation of regression as a directional measure 404Fig. 19.6 Scatterplot for predicting OLA from LR(years) 406Fig. 19.7 Menu for selecting simple regression analysis in SPSS 407Fig. 19.8 Selections for running regression analysis in SPSS 407Fig. 19.9 Statistics for running regression in SPSS 408Fig. 19.10 ANOVA partitioning of total sum of squares (SOS) in OLA

(R2 = 50.1%) 410Fig. 19.11 Scatterplot with for LR(years) predicting OLA with the regression

line 413Fig. 19.12 Factor shown as the commonly shared area among standardized

variables 417Fig. 20.1 EFA versus PCA 425Fig. 20.2 12 essential steps in EFA 429Fig. 20.3 Screenshot of the strategy use in lectures data 429Fig. 20.4 Descriptive statistics options in SPSS 430Fig. 20.5 EFA in SPSS 432Fig. 20.6 Factor analysis menu 433Fig. 20.7 SPSS Descriptives dialog box 433Fig. 20.8 SPSS extraction dialog box 435Fig. 20.9 SPSS extraction dialog box 436

xxix List of Figures

Fig. 20.10 Scree plot (PCA) 438Fig. 20.11 Creating a parallel analysis syntax 439Fig. 20.12 Customising a parallel analysis syntax in SPSS 440Fig. 20.13 Extracting factors using the principal axes factoring method with

the fixed factor number = 5 441Fig. 20.14 Scree plot (PAF) 443Fig. 20.15 Rotation dialog box (direct Oblimin method) 444Fig. 20.16 Rotation dialog box (Varimax method) 445Fig. 20.17 Options dialog box 445Fig. 20.18 Creating a factor score 452Fig. 20.19 Factor scores in the SPSS data sheet 452Fig. 20.20 Creating a composite score for comprehending strategies 453Fig. 21.1 A third-order factor CFA model 462Fig. 21.2 CFA model of reading performance (Standardised solution;

N = 651) 463Fig. 21.3 CFA model of reading performance (Unstandardised solution;

N = 651) 464Fig. 21.4 A hypothesised SEM model of the influences of trait cognitive

and metacognitive processing on reading performance (N = 651) 466Fig. 21.5 Eight essential steps in CFA or SEM 470Fig. 21.6 Open a data file in EQS 478Fig. 21.7 EQS spreadsheet 479Fig. 21.8 EQS diagram drawing tool 480Fig. 21.9 EQS diagram drawing canvas 481Fig. 21.10 Factor structure specification 481Fig. 21.11 A hypothesised CFA of comprehending strategies 482Fig. 21.12 EQS model specifications 483Fig. 21.13 EQS model specifications 484Fig. 21.14 Analysis in EQS 485Fig. 21.15 Distribution of standardised residuals 486Fig. 21.16 Parameter estimates options 490Fig. 21.17 First-order CFA for comprehending strategy use (unedited

version) 491Fig. 21.18 Revised first-order CFA model for comprehending strategy use 492Fig. 21.19 Distribution of standardised residuals (revised model) 493Fig. 21.20 Revised CFA model of comprehending strategy use 494Fig. 22.1 Histogram of vocabulary test scores for Teaching Method 2 507Fig. 23.1 Bar plot displaying normed frequency of said in news and other

CORE registers 527Fig. 23.2 Resampled mean differences based on the data from Donaldson

(2011) 533Fig. 25.1 TAALES GUI 579Fig. 25.2 TAALES .csv file for analysis 580

xxx List of Figures

Fig. 25.3 WEKA explorer 581Fig. 25.4 File selection in WEKA 581Fig. 25.5 Histogram for normally distributed TAALES index 582Fig. 25.6 Histogram for non-normally distributed TAALES data 583Fig. 25.7 Selection of model in WEKA 585Fig. 25.8 Selection of cross-validation type in WEKA 585Fig. 25.9 Initial linear regression model reported in WEKA with suppres-

sion effects 586Fig. 25.10 Final linear regression model 587Fig. 33.1 Heritage language dissertations between 2011 and 2016 by

country 748Fig. 33.2 Language(s) studied by articles in the Heritage Language Journal

and dissertations. Note: Some of the articles published in the Heritage Language Journal and dissertations publised in the ProQuest Database contain the examination of one more heritage language 751

xxxi

Table 5.1 Common types of mixed methods designs 107Table 6.1 A comparison between traditional reviews and research

syntheses 140Table 9.1 Thesis proposals: structure and purpose (based on Paltridge &

Starfield, 2007, p. 61) 194Table 10.1 Moves in empirical research article introductions 203Table 10.2 Dimensions to consider when constructing a research article 214Table 10.3 Discovering norms for use of metadiscoursal features 215Table 14.1 Common language-related ERP effects 295Table 19.1 Two variables showing a perfectly positive Pearson’s r 397Table 19.2 Two variables showing a perfectly negative Pearson’s r 398Table 19.3 Imperfect r due to differences in ordering 399Table 19.4 Imperfect r due to differences in scores’ shapes 399Table 19.5 Imperfect r due to differences in scores’ shapes and ordering 399Table 19.6 Data for predicting OLA from LR (N = 10) 405Table 19.7 SPSS output of model summary from simple regression

analysis 408Table 19.8 ANOVA output table for simple regression analysis in SPSS 409Table 19.9 Output for regression coefficients in SPSS 412Table 19.10 Result of prediction of OLA from LRyears for our ten partici-

pants 412Table 19.11 Coefficients table with modified scale for predictor variable 413Table 20.1 Descriptive statistics of items one to five 431Table 20.2 Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of the questionnaire 431Table 20.3 KMO and Bartlett’s test based on 37 items 434Table 20.4 Communalities (initial and extracted) 437Table 20.5 Total variance explained 438

List of Tables

xxxii List of Tables

Table 20.6 A comparison of eigenvalues from the dataset with those from the parallel analysis 440

Table 20.7 KMO and Bartlett’s test based on 25 items 441Table 20.8 Initial and extraction values based on the PAF method 442Table 20.9 Total variance explained (five-factor extraction) 442Table 20.10 Factor correlation matrix 444Table 20.11 Rotated factor matrix based on the Varimax method (based on

25 items) 447Table 20.12 Rotated factor matrix based on the Varimax method (based on

24 items) 448Table 20.13 Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of each factor (based on 24 items) 448Table 20.14 Rotated factor matrix based on the Varimax method (based on

23 items; final model) 449Table 20.15 Rotated factor matrix based on the Varimax method (based on

23 items; final model) 450Table 20.16 Correlations between factor scores and composite scores

(N = 275, ** = p < 0.01) 453Table 21.1 Common symbols used in CFA and SEM 461Table 21.2 Summary of the key goodness-of-fit criteria for CFA and SEM

(based on, e.g., Brown, 2015; Byrne, 2006; Kline, 2016; Schumacker & Lomax, 2016) 473

Table 21.3 Model fit indices 487Table 21.4 Test statistics 489Table 21.5 The results of the revised first-order CFA model of compre-

hending strategy use 493Table 21.6 EFA and CFA factor loadings for the comprehending factor 495Table 22.1 Teaching method and vocabulary test score data 504Table 22.2 Descriptive statistics for hypothetical ANOVA data 506Table 22.3 Standard deviations for each group of vocabulary test scores 508Table 22.4 ANOVA output for mean differences in vocabulary test score 510Table 22.5 Tukey HSD post hoc comparisons of mean differences in

vocabulary test score 511Table 23.1 Frequency of said in online news and other CORE registers 526Table 23.2 Contingency table of frequencies for said in the CORE 527Table 23.3 Summary of key information for the analyses included in this

chapter 537Table 25.1 Correlation between SST scores and variables entered into

regression 584Table 33.1 Type of data collected in HL-CL dissertations and articles 749Table 33.2 Methodological trends in dissertations and articles 750Table 38.1 Summary of data collection methods in L2 pragmatics research

as discussed by Kasper and Rose (2002) 836