THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE:FROM EXPANDING POWER TO

THE SICK MAN OF EUROPE

by Oksana Drozdova

Lecture VI

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Janissaries and the power structure

Selim’s ‘New Order’, seen by him as a first step towards the creation of a modern, disciplined army, failed because it struck at the core of the Ottomans’ perception of their own identity.

A new parallel army threatened to undermine the privileged position the janissaries held in society.

A change in the administrative and cultural landscape that further emphasized the irrelevance of such ancient institution as the janissaries.

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Mahmud II (1808-1839)

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Challenges faced by Mahmud II

Ottoman incompetence in the Russo-Ottoman war (1806-1812) and the events surrounding his succession demonstrated two things to Sultan Mahmud:

The incontrovertible fact that the janissaries where as unsuited to the task of defending the Ottoman frontiers as they were dangerous when idle to Istanbul.

The power of the provincial notables exceeded all reasonable bounds.

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Military Reform & an Auspicious Incident (15 June 1826)In May 1826 Sultan Mahmud issued an edict for the formation of the new military corps, initially numbering in excess of 7,500 men, to be recruited by drawing 150 men from each of 51 janissary companies in Istanbul.

These reforms were not intended to form a parallel army, but to reform the janissary corp from within, by means of restructuring, and providing them with drill and other military skills.

A violent revolt broke out which led to the abolition of janissaries.

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Greece1821 marks the start of the movement for Greek independence from the Ottoman Empire.

Independence is now annually celebrated on March 25, in commemoration of the day in 1821 when Germanos, metropolitan of Old Patras, raised the cross in defiance of the Ottoman authorities.

In response to these actions Patriarch George V was hanged — on Easter Sunday, 22 April 1821 — at the gate of the Patriarchate in Istanbul.

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Otto of Bavaria (1832-1862) The First King of Kingdom of Greece

Kingdom of Greece

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‘The Auspicious Re-Ordering’In 1831, Rumelia, Anatolia and the Aegean Islands were subjected to their first modern census, designed to count and categorize Ottoman subjects with the view to ascertaining their military and tax obligations.

In 1837, Mahmud established three ministries: the ministry of the interior, headed by the grand vizier; the foreign ministry; and the ministry of justice.

A hierarchical structure was introduced for civil servants. The old system of annual appointments was dropped, and salaries replaced the customary and much-abused system of fees.

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Abdülmecid I (1839-1861)

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Tanzimat The Tanzimât reform era was characterized by various attempts to modernize the Ottoman Empire and to secure its territorial integrity against nationalist movements from within and aggressive powers from outside of the state.

Abolished tax farming.

Sought to establish legal and social equality for all Ottoman citizens.

The reforms eliminated the millet system11

Reorganization of the finance system and introduction of the first Ottoman paper banknotes (1840).

Reorganization of the Civil and Criminal Code (1840).

Adoption of an Ottoman national anthem and Ottoman national flag (1844).

First nationwide Ottoman census in 1844 (only male citizens were counted).

First national identity cards (1844).

Abolition of slave trade (1847).

Full legal equality for citizens of all religions (1856).

Non-Muslims were allowed to become soldiers (1856).

Nationality Law created a common Ottoman citizenship irrespective of religious or ethnic divisions (1869).

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Ottoman Naval Flag (1793-1844) The late Ottoman Navy flag (1793-1844)

The first official Ottoman national flag (1844-1923) 13

Interests of the Great PowersRussia’s policies expanded on the concessions to intercede on behalf of the Orthodox millet and to conduct commerce within the Ottoman Empire.

Great Britain was Russia's most consistent rival for Balkan influence and its interests led to intermittent support for Ottoman rule. Britain needed to secure the shipping lanes to India.

France’s economic interests tended to outweigh political goals. Marseilles, France's busiest port, relied heavily on trade with the Ottoman-ruled Eastern Mediterranean.

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Austria was adjacent to the Balkans. Vienna had no desire to see a weak Ottoman neighbour replaced by a potentially strong Russia, or by pliant Russian clients in Serbia or Bulgaria.

Italy regarded the Western Balkans, especially Albania, as her natural zone of influence, and Italian leaders watched for opportunities to take the area away from the Turks.

Germany. After defeating Austria in 1866, Bismarck was able to make Austria-Hungary the cornerstone of his alliance system. To retain Habsburg loyalty, however, Germany had to support Austrian needs in Balkan affairs.

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Abdülaziz I (1861-1876) Murad V (1876-1876)16

Abdülhamid II (1876-1909)

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The Balkan WarsA popular uprising in Bulgaria (1876) was violently suppressed which provoked a response from Russia.

Bulgaria, Bosnia and Herzegovina were to be autonomous, Romania (Moldavia and Wallachia), Serbia and Montenegro were to receive independence. Macedonia, was to be included into Bulgaria.

The First Balkan War (1912-1913) — comprised actions of the Balkan League (Serbia, Greece, Montenegro and Bulgaria) against the Ottoman Empire.

The Second Balkan War (1913) — Bulgaria, dissatisfied with its share of the spoils of the First Balkan War, attacked its former allies, Serbia and Greece.

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Political Movements 1876-1878 — the First Constitutional Period — witnessed the emergence of the first Ottoman parliament which did not include any party system.

1894 — variety of underground factions adopted umbrella name ‘Committee of Union and Progress’ (CUP), popularly known as ‘Young Turks’.

1906 — CUP merges with Ottoman Freedom Society (OFS) — gave it a new orientation and sense of urgency in seeking the removal of Abdülhamid and the restoration of constitutional government.

1908 — Young Turk Revolution that propelled elections and restoration of parliament. The Second Constitution Period (1908-1920) — sultan Abdülhamid remained on the throne, but as a constitutional monarch.

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«31 March Incident» 31 March 1909

A coup carried out by disaffected clergy and troops who presented five demands:

the dismissal of the Grand Vezir.

the Minister of War and the President of the Parliament.

the removal of certain CUP members.

the full implementation of Islamic law

the dismissal of officers who were graduates of military academies and the reinstatement of those who had come up through the ranks.

Young Turks reacted quickly and the Sultan was deposed20

Mehmed V (1909-1918)

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Dissolution of the Empire11 November 1914 — The Ottoman entry into World War I along the Central Powers.

30 October 1918 — The Middle Eastern theatre of World War I ended.

13 November 1918 — The Occupation of Constantinople by British, French and Italian forces.

The partitioning of the Ottoman Empire began with the Treaty of London.

The Treaty of Sèvres on 10 August 1920 finalized the partitioning of the Empire.

April 1920 — Mustafa Kemal starts Turkish War of Independence.

29 October 1923 — Proclamation of the Republic of Turkey

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Mehmed VI (1918-1922) The last Sultan of the

Ottoman Empire

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Mustafa Kemal Atatürk (1923-1938)

First President of Turkey

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İsmet İnönü (1938-1950) Second President of Turkey

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