The Original Gerrymander

Cracking and Packing-

Redrawing the balanced electoral districts in this example creates a Redrawing the balanced electoral districts in this example creates a guaranteed 3-to-1 advantage in representation for the blue voters as guaranteed 3-to-1 advantage in representation for the blue voters as 14 red voters are 14 red voters are packedpacked into the light green district and the into the light green district and the remaining 18 are remaining 18 are crackedcracked across the 3 remaining blue districts. across the 3 remaining blue districts.

Courts• Does malapportionment violate the Equal Protection Clause of the 14th

Amendment?

• Baker v. Carr (1963): First malapportionment case taken by Court• Memphis, TN had not redistricted since 1901 but population grew in urban

areas drastically; • resident Joe Baker sued TN Sec. of State Carr for unequal representation

under the law•

• Wesberry v. Sanders (1964): – the Court applied “_____________________” specifically to Congressional

Districts; districts must be as equal in size (population) as possible• “as nearly as is practicable, one man's vote in a congressional election is to

be worth as much as another's.”

• Shaw v. Reno (1993) – GERRYMANDERING– Race can be a factor, but cannot be the sole factor for gerrymandering– BUT Easley v. Cromartie (2001) political party gerrymandering is legal

Who is in Congress?Typical member

Controversial – can this unrepresentative group represent diverse groups?The House has become less male and less white

Between 1950 and 2005: Women Senators rose from 2 to 14 Women representatives rose from 10 to 68 Black representatives rose from 2 to 40 Black Senators from 0 to 1 Today, 23 Hispanic Reps, 2 Hispanic Senators Today, 5 Asian Reps, 2 Asian Senators

Membership in Congress became a career, unlike pastIncumbents still have a great electoral advantageDemocratic party largely controlled Congress from 1933-1998But in 1994, voters opposed incumbents due to budget deficits, various policies, legislative-executive bickering, and scandal

Blacks, Hispanics, and Women in Congress, 1971-2006

111th Congress: January 3, 2009-January 11, 2011

House of Reps breakdown:258 Democrats (blue)177 Republicans (red)

Senate Breakdown:58 Democrats40 Republicans, 2 Independent

The Incumbency Advantage Incumbency tradition is high in both Senate (generally above 50%)

and House (generally above 80%, incumbent rate more stable than Senate)

___________________is higher for incumbents Incumbents have greater___________________

due to _____________(use govt $), travel to the district, news coverage

Members secure policies and programs for voters Easier to raise ___________________________because

lobbyists seek their favors Redistricting that incumbents do (gerrymandering and

malapportionment) ____________________second term reelection strength Constituents can see what incumbents are doing in their

community Exception to incumbency advantage: scandal or unpopular president Consequences?

Continuity (less radical change), more experienced, established relationships with interest groups, policy specialization discourages challengers, lack of responsiveness, fewer minorities

Incumbent House Members Running for Reelection, 1964-2006

19641966

19681970

19721974

19761978

19801982

19841986

19881990

19921994

19961998

20002002

20042006

0

100

200

300

400

0

Number defeated Number reelected

Reelection Rates of House

and Senate Incumbents 1946-2006

1946

1948

1950

1952

1954

1956

1958

1960

1962

1964

1966

1968

1970

1972

1974

1976

1978

1980

1982

1984

1986

1988

1990

1992

1994

1996

1998

2000

2002

2004

2006

50

60

70

80

90

100

Percent reelected

House Senate

In 1974, huge drop in House and Senate Republican seats due to Watergate scandal; huge drop of Democratic incumbents due to Ronald Reagan’s popularity and Jimmy Carter’s failure

Determinants of voting patterns

• Representative as Delegate vs. trustee– Delegate: act on what constituents want (agent of the voters, even if they disagree)– Trustee: members act on their own personal beliefs of what is best for society

• Representational view (Constituent influence):

– Interest group influence, constant visits at home with constituents, e-mails, phone calls, town hall meetings

• Organizational/ party view (___________________): where constituency interests are not vitally at stake, members primarily respond to cues from colleagues– Party leadership pressure, vote along party lines (more than 75% of

the time)• Attitudinal view (_______________) the member’s ideology determines

her/his vote• Congressional approval ratings very low (____%) overall distrust of

Congress as a whole; higher approval of individual members– Anomaly: incumbents– reelected

Confidence in American Institutions, 2007

Source: CNN/USA Today/ Gallup poll, June 11-44, 2007.

"I am going to read you a list of institutions in American society. Please tell me how much confidence you, yourself, have in each one--a great deal, quite a lot, some, or very little?"

The militarySmall business

The policeThe church

BanksSupreme CourtPublic schools

Medical systemThe presidencyTelevision news

NewspapersCriminal justice

Organized laborBig business

HMOsCongress

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

Percent responding "great deal" or "quite a lot"

Confidence in government institutions is comparatively low.

Congressional Approval, 1974-2006

19

74

19

75

19

76

19

78

19

86

19

90

19

92

19

94

19

95

19

96

19

97

19

98

19

99

20

00

20

01

20

02

20

03

20

04

20

05

20

06

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

Pe

rce

nt re

sp

on

din

g "

ap

pro

ve

"

“Do you approve or disapprove of the way Congress is handling its job?”

Americans are far more

favorable towards their own member

of Congress

Party Leadership in Congress Overview

• After legislative election (every 2 years), the party with the most representatives is the “majority” party – Significance: majority party holds the most sign. Leadership positions and the

majority of seats in committees• Political parties are very important in the basic organization of leadership

and member’s voting in the House and Senate• Overview of leadership positions:• Speaker of the House (House of Reps) – Nancy Pelosi• Majority leader (House and Senate) • Minority leader (House and Senate)• Party whips (House and Senate)• President pro-tempore (Senate)• President of the Senate (Senate)-p.300 for roles of leadership

- Currently the 111th Congress January 2009- January 2011 Democrats

Party Structure in the HouseParty Structure in the House House HouseSpeaker of the HouseSpeaker of the House is most impt leader of majority party and presides over House is most impt leader of majority party and presides over House

(once all powerful until revolt in 1910) – voted for by majority party, senior (once all powerful until revolt in 1910) – voted for by majority party, senior member w/ leadership expmember w/ leadership exp

• Majority leader and minority leaderMajority leader and minority leader: floor leaders, schedules bills, rounds up : floor leaders, schedules bills, rounds up votes for party favors, stepping stone to Speaker position, spokesperson for votes for party favors, stepping stone to Speaker position, spokesperson for minority partyminority party

• Party whipsParty whips keep leaders informed (go betweens for leaders and members), keep leaders informed (go betweens for leaders and members), round up votes of party members, pressure members to support leadership, round up votes of party members, pressure members to support leadership, inform members of important billsinform members of important bills

• Committee assignments and legislative schedule are set by each partyCommittee assignments and legislative schedule are set by each party

Senate Party Leadership

• President of the Senate is the Vice President of U.S. (rarely present, only votes in ties) – symbolic office

• President pro tempore presides; this is the member with most seniority in majority party (a largely honorific office, no real powers)

• Real leaders are the *majority leader and the minority leader, elected by their respective party members – first Senator heard on the floor, determines Senate agenda, influences committee assignments

• Party whips: keep leaders informed, round up votes, count noses• Each party has a policy committee: schedules Senate business, prioritizes bills

• Committee assignments are handled by a group of Senators, each for their own party

Committees REAL work of Congress

Bills are worked out or killed in committees Investigate problems and oversee the executive branch

Four types of committees:

1) Standing Committees (* ) Most important, basically permanent, handle bills in diff. policy areas, only type of comm.

to propose legislation by reporting a bill to full House (Senate-16, House-19) *Most important: Ways and Means (taxes), Senate judiciary, Rules Committee

2) Select Committees (* ) Formed for specific purposes, temporary (but may become standing committees),

sometimes produce legislation Ex. Investigated Watergate scandal

3) Joint Committees (* ) Select comm. consisting of members from both House and Senate, conduct business between houses, help focus public attention on major issues, oversee institutions , investigations

4) Conference Committees (* ) Consist of members from houses, hammer out differences between House and Senate versions of similar bills, make a compromise bill to be sent back to each house for approval

1995-1996 (104th Congress, Republicans) reformed # of committees (reduced from 252-198), term limits on committee chairmen (6 yrs)

Each member of House serves on 1-2 standing committees (unless limited to one of exclusive); Senators may serve on two major committees (average – 7 subcommittees) and one minor committee

Committee Membership Chairman and majority of each standing committee

comes from majority party with a minority of minority party members (try to be proportionate to Congressional party split)

Assignments are based on personal and political qualities of the member, region, reelection help Members from safe districts ( ) can be on an important

committee that helps the nation and public welfare, while marginal districts (

) need committees that suit the need of

constituents (ex. Kansas rep on Agricultural committee)

Method of committee membership: Each party has a Committee on Committees Speaker of the House selects Select and Conference

Committee members (powerful!)

Committee Chairmen (House)

Powerful –

1910 -- House Revolt transferred power to chairmen and away from Speaker of the House

1910-1970 -- Chairmen chosen by ___________________

Member with the longest continuous service of majority party on committee is placed automatically as chair

1970 reform – secret ballots of majority members elected chairmen, may only chair 1 committee, committee meetings usually public, increased staff size for all

Before 1970s, work was done primarily by chairmen behind closed doors

Reforms gave more rights to members, especially with little seniority Took away extreme power of chairmen, but still very powerful In practice, most chairmen are still senior members

1995 Republican Reforms – 6 year term limits for House chairmen

Functions of Committees Proposed bills are assigned to specific committees, the comm.

Controls the life or death of the bill

11,000 bills are introduced in each 2 year session, committees weed the bad bills out

Pigeonholed –

majority of bills are forgotten forever and never make it out of committee

Those approved move to subcommittees who hold hearings over bill – supporters and critics of the bill appear at hearings and are questioned by subcomm.

Bill is then marked up ( ) and returned to full committee where more alterations may be made

Sent to Rules Committee (House – decides on rules for the bill, may be amended by members, amount of debate) or straight to floor (Senate)

A Bill’s Destiny:Option 1:Killed by committee or chair (not considered)

Option 2:Pigeonholed (temporarily put aside for future consideration)

Option 3: Sent to subcommittee for further consideration