The Origin of Heresy in Hindu Mythology

Wendy Doniger O'Fbherty T H E 0 R I G I N 0 F H E R E S Y I N H I N D U M Y T H O L O G Y

Heresy is the lifeblood of religions. There are no heresies in a dead re l ig ion-A~~~kSUAR~S

Hinduism has always been noted for its ability to absorb potenti- ally schismatic developments; indeed, one of the prime functions of the caste system has been to assimilate various tribes and sects by giving them a place within the social hierarchy. And although the Rgveda is regarded as a closed canonical collection, in actual fact this canon is not read by the vast majority of Hindus, most of whom (non-Brahmins, women, etc.) are forbidden to read it and almost all of whom are incapable of comprehending the many archaic passages which have baffled scholars. This general in- accessibility of the canon has facilitated an almost endless reinterpretation of doctrine. A particularly striking manifestation of this flexibility of Hindu

tradition may be seen in the manner by which it has assimilated various heresies, a process so wide-ranging that, as Louis Renou remarked, "It is quite difficult in India to be completely heretical."l This flexibility has not even necessitated the element of masquerade, the ability to change without appearing to change, that usually characterizes adaptations within a tradition; the myths of heresy make explicit note of the changes in doctrine. In

1 Louis Renou, Hinduism (New York, 1961),p. 46. I am grateful to Dr. Rodney Needham of the Institute of Social Anthropology, Oxford, for this reference.

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The Origin of Heresy in Hindu Mythology part, this is made possible by the open-ended quality of the religion itself; in part, it is due to the vagueness of the Hindu definition of heresy.

A. THE ROLE OF HERESY IN HINDUISM

1. THE HINDU DEFINITION OF HERESY The Shorter Oxford English Dictionary defines heresy (from the Greek aEp40par, "to choose") as "theological opinion or doctrine held in opposition to the 'catholic' or orthodox doctrine of the Christian Church. Hence, opinion or doctrine in philosophy, politics, science, art, etc. in variance with what is orthodox." The Sanskrit term most closely corresponding in negative tone as well as in denotation to the English "heretic" is pGsanda. The Qabda- Ealpadruma gives several false etymologies for this term : (a) from pi(pam) san(oti), "He gains evil"; (b) from p i ("protection [of the dharma of the Vedas]") khanda(yanti), "They shatter the dharma of the Vedas." The lexicographer adds that these people perform various rites opposed to the Vedas, wear several types of clothing, and bear the marks of all castes ; they are Buddhists, Jains, etc.2 The contradiction of the Vedas remains the basis of heresy in

the Hindu viewpoint. MedhZtithi glosses pisapdin as an outcaste (Saiva?) ascetic (bihyalifigin), one who wears a red robe, goes naked, or wanders about, etc.3 but Kulliika specifies that heretics bear marks (or the lifiga) of vows outside the Vedas (vedabihyavra- talifigad&ripah), like Buddhist monks, Jains, etc., while RZghava merely says that they do not believe in the Vedas.4 VijiiZneivara defines heretics as those who have taken to an order of life opposed to the dictates of the three Vedas,5 and the Tantridhikiranirnaya refers to heretics born of evil wombs, who proclaim doctrines transgressing the Vedas.6 According to the Padma PurGna, heretics are those who perform non-Vedic rites as well as those who do not perform the actions enjoined by the Vedas.7 A Vis?zu Puripa commentary describes the heretic as a man who has fallen from his own dharma and performs unlawful, prohibited acts (vi-

8abdakalpadruma of Raja Sir Radhakant Deb Bahadur (Calcutta, 1886; Delhi, 1961).

MedhEttithi's commentary on the Mdnavadharmm'&tra, Bibliotheca Indica (Calcutta, 1932), 4.30 (numbers refer to chapter and verse).

The Laws of Manu, trans. Georg Biihler, Sacred Books of the East no. 25 (Oxford, 1886), p. 133.

Mitiik+-are of VijfiEtneBvara, commentary on Yajfiavalkya Smrti (Bombay, 1909), 1.130.

6 ~antrEdhikdranirna~aof Bhattoji Diksita (Benares, 1888), p. 25. 7 Padma Purdna, handS r ama Sanskrit Series no. 131 (Poona, 1894), 6.263.3-5.

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History of Religions karmastha, nisiddhakyt).g VijiiLneivara defines heretics as those Nagnas, Saugatas, etc., who deny the authority of the Vedas.9

2. THE TWO LEVELS OF HERESY The importance of caste (which is what is particularly meant by the need to obey one's own dharma) has led to a distinction within the general ranks of heretics. The "orthodox" heresies are those sects, such as the KLpLlika, Kaula, and PL4upata sects of Saivism and the PLficarLtra and SLhajiyL sects of Vaisnavism, which pay lip service, at least, to the Vedas and thus remain technically within the Hindu fold. The Jains, Sikhs, and Bud- dhists, however, deny the Vedas and are complete outcastes. Some texts include both groups in their definition of heretics: those who act against the Vedas, as well as those who carry skulls, are smeared with ashes, and wear matted locks (i.e., the Saiva sects).lO The Kzirma Purwa offers this list of heretics: Buddhists, Nirgranthas, PLficarLtras, KLpLlikas, and PL4u-patas.11 When Manu mentions heretics,lZ MedhLtithi interprets this as a reference to KLpLlikas and those wearing red garments (probably Buddhists). NLrada glosses it as "Buddhists, and so forth."l3 Most texts, however, make a clear distinction between the two

levels of heresy. The sectarian heresies are sometimes said to propound doctrines which emanate "more or less directly, from the doctrines of the original creed,"l4 in spite of the fact that certain aspects of their rituals are clearly antagonistic to Vedic religion. The acceptance of these heresies is rationalized by some Hindus who consider that, although the KLpLlikas, for instance, live contrary to the Vedas, they were formerly Brahmins.15 The "orthodox" heresies themselves, of course, are eager to maintain this dichotomy ; a KLpLlika in a Sanskrit play refers to the Jains' useless and false philosophies and evil shrines, and he wishes to cleanse his mouth (with wine, anathema to an orthodox Hindu) for having mentioned them.16

8 Commentary on Visnu Purcina, 3.18.95 f f . ;cited in gabdakalpadruma. 9 VijfibeBvara on Yajfiavalkya, 2.192. 10 Padma PurcZna, 6.263.3. 11 KQrma Purcina (Benares, 1967), 2.21.32-33. l2 MCinavadhamaBcTStra, 5.90. 13 Medhiitithi and Ngrada on Manu, 5.90; cited in Biihler, p. 184. 14 Horace Hayman Wilson, Sketches of the Religious Sects of the Hindus, Essays

and Lectures on the Religions of the Hindus, vol. 1 (London, 1861-62), p. 265. l5 Jan Gonda, Der jiingere Hinduismus, Die Religionen Indien, vol. 2 (Stutt-

gart, 1963), p. 219. l6 Mahendravarman, Mattavil&aprahasana, Trivandrum Sanskrit Series no.

50 (Trivandrum, 1917), act 1, prose between verses 8 and 9. 273

The Origin of Heresy in Hindu Mythology A further distinction is made even within the "orthodox"

heresy itself between Brahmin and non-Brahmin KZpZlikas.17 PLBupatas are similarly divided into "Tantric" (heterodox) and "Vedic" (orthodox).lg The latter consider the presence of the former a t funeral ceremonies polluting and hate even to mention them.19 Orthodox PLBupatas are forbidden to talk to Siidras.20 This division appears in the L$afilcaravijatja, in which the great gaiva philosopher Saiikara confutes heresy on both levels-the "orthodox" heresies (VZmLciiras and KLpZlikas) as well as Jains, Buddhists, and Carvakas.21 The Brahmin KZpLlikas are heretics but can be enlightened. To the ~ ~ d r a KBpZlika, however, who says that there are only two castes (men and women), Saiikara merely replies, "Go where you wish. We have come to chastise Brahmins who adhere to evil doctrines, but what are your stan- dards, you who have fallen from caste ?"22 This caste dichotomy within the heretic sects serves to explain

certain apparently contradictory statements which may be under- stood in the light of the particular status and affiliation of the author of the text. Thus, the strictly orthodox sects refer to the KLpLlikas and PLBupatas as heretics pure and simple.23 AparZrka, in rebutting the Mahiibhtirata passage in which Siva states that he himself established the PZBupatas, cites a verse instructing the orthodox Hindu to gaze a t the sun after seeing a KLpBika, PLBupata, or Saiva and to bathe after touching such a person.24 Orthodox PLBupata texts, such as the RCrma PurZna, describe a t great length the merits of the PZBupata vow while they state elsewhere that PLBupatas (by which one must understand Tantric PZBupatas) are wicked heretics. Thus, 6iva himself states in this text :25

Formerly I created the PBhupatavow, auspicious, subtle, and containing the essence of the Vedas, for the sake of enlightenment. The adept should remain chaste, study the Vedas, smear his body with ashes, go naked or

17 Gonda, p. 219. 1s Rajendra Chandra Hazra, Studies in the Puranic Records on Hindu Rites and

Customs (Dacca, 1948), pp. 67-68 ;Sudhakar Chattopadhyaya, The Evolution of Theistic Sects in India (Calcutta, 1962), pp. 69-76.

19 Ktirma Purcina, 2.16.15. 20 Pciiupatastitra with the Panch&rthabh&shya of Kaundinya, Trivandrum

Sanskrit Series no. 143 (Trivandrum, 1040), 1.13-17. 21 fia~karavijayaof Anandagiri, Bibliotheca Indica (Calcutta, 1868), chap. 23. 22 Ibid., chap. 24. 23 KathharitsEgara of Somadeva (Bombay, 1930) 26(3.5).204, -.218, -.249-50. 24 Apargka's commentary on Yajfiavalkya ~rn$i, 'hand&~rama Sanskrit Series

no. 46 (Poona, 1903-4), p. 18. 25 Long citations from Sanskrit texts are often summarized in this paper rather

than translated in full ;I have so indicated in the appropriate footnotes. 274

History of Religions

wear a loincloth, control his mind perfectly, and practice the Paupata yoga. . ..But there are other texts which, though narrated by me, cause delusion in this world and are contrary to the statements of the Vedas, such as the VBma [left-hand or perverse] PLtbupatas, the Soma, the Liikula [another PBAupata sect], and the Bhairava [KBpBlika]. These doctrines are not to be practiced, for they are outside the Vedas.26

Siva emphasizes that his PBBupata sect is based upon the Vedas, just as he remarks, in the MahGbhGrata, that the PBBupata vow which he revealed occasioiially agrees with orthodox var?zG&rama religion, though it is basically contrary to it.27

3. HERESY BASED UPON THE VEDAS I n almost every case, the subtle distinction between the two levels of heresy hinges upon the sect's actual or professed relation- ship to the Vedas. The sect whose name is almost synonymous with heresy in India, the CBrvZkas or Materialists, is guilty of no offensive behavior, for it is simply a philosophical movement ;but the philosophy condemns the Vedas as "a pious fraud."28 MB-dhava summed up the CBrvaka doctrine thus : "The Veda is tainted by the three faults of untruth, self-contradiction, and tautology ; the imposters who call themselves Vedic scholars are mutually destructive ;and the three Vedas themselves are simply the means of livelihood for those devoid of wit andvirility."29 Such an explicit denial of the Vedas and Brahmins caused this philosophy to be ranked with Buddhism and Jainism as prime heresy. But there is danger of contradiction and confusion when the

touchstone of the Vedas is applied to other potential heresies. Certain Tantric sects which say that they agree with the Vedas, though actually propounding anti-Vedic, or a t least non-Vedic, doctrines, may be accepted on the basis of their own statements of orthodoxy. On the other hand, doctrines which, like Buddhism, maintain that they are not derived from Vedas, though they agree in fact with many essentials of orthodox Hinduism, are rejected. This situation is made possible by the Hindu belief that religion consists more in adherence to ritual than in correct belief; one might commit almost any act or believe almost any doctrine, as long as one professed allegiance to the Vedas and the caste system. The complications arising from this point of view are

26 Karma PurEpa, 2.37.142-48. 27 MahZbMrata (Poona, 1933-), vol. 12, appendix I, no. 28, 1.405. 28 D. R. Bhandarkar, Some Aspects of Ancient Hindu Polity (Benares, 1929), 4. Z9 Sawadardanasajigraha of Mdhava, Bibliotheca Indica (Calcutta, 1868), p. 3;

cf. Prabodhacandrodaya of msnamsra (Bombay, 1898), act 2, verse 26, and Arthas'cZstra of Kautilya (Bombay, 1960), 1.2.6.

276

The Origin of Heresy in Hindu Mythology apparent in Kumiirila's discussion of certain heretics' claims to follow doctrines based upon the Vedas or upon a "lost" branch of the Vedas : The Sliiikhyayoga, PBficarBtra, PBiupata, Buddhist, and Jain teachings have a very little bit in common with the Vedas and orthodox lawbooks [lruti and smyti], such as the doctrines of noninjury, speaking truth, control of the senses, charity, and pity; [but these doctrines occur only occasionally and incidentally], just as herbs and mantras occasionally succeed in curing and expelling poison; and [they occur in small proportion] like [much] water fragrant with [a little] perfume. Their major portion consists in other teachings, outcaste texts mixed with barbarian practices; and since they contradict the Vedas and are skeptical [haituka], they are not to be accepted. Even if these sects were based upon a lost branch of the Vedas, they are

to be rejected, for they do not themselves accept the fact that the Vedas are the basis [of their teachings], just as an evil son who hates his parents is ashamed to admit his descent from them. With the exception of a few doctrines like self-control and charity, the

teachings of the Buddhists, etc., are altogether contradictory to the teachings of the Vedas and were composed by the Buddha and others like him whose behavior is contradictory to the Vedas; they were then taught to people beyond the pale of the Vedas, people who do not follow the rules of the four varnas, and it is thus inconceivable that they could be based upon the Vedas. These are heretics who perform unlawful acts and produce skeptical

arguments.30

Here Kumiirila rejects, among other arguments, the "lost Vedas" theory of the origin of heterodoxy. The MattavilGsa similarly satirizes the theory as it appears in the mouth of a corrupt Buddhist monk : Why did [the Buddha] not think of sanctioning the possession of women and the drinking of surE? Since he knew everything, it must be that the small- minded and spiteful Elders [du&abuddhasthaviraih], envying us young men, erased the sanction of women and sur6 in the books of the pitaka. Where now can I find an uncorrupted original text [avina+tamiilapE~ham] ?31 Thus, the strictly orthodox view, which was well established by the time of Kumiirila, rejects both levels of heresy in spite of their partial affinity with Vedic doctrine.

4. THE HYPOCRITICAL ASCETIC Popular Hinduism, as it appears in the Purlnic texts, does not maintain a strict or even a consistent attitude toward the various Indian heresies. Confusions of doctrine are further complicated by a tendency to equate the heretic with another religious figure well

80 Tantriivarttikaof Bhatta Kumiirila, commentaryon 6abaraaviimin's ~a im in i ~ a Mim(Z~dS.iitracommentary, Benares Sanskrit Series (Benares, 1903), pp. 11617 ; commenting on 1.3.4.

31 Mattavilcisaprahasana, act 1, prose between verses 11 and 12. 276


known to the lawbooks and myths: the hypocritical ascetic. The Sanskrit dictionaries themselves maintain this confusion. Apte gives "hypocrite" as a secondary meaning of ptisanda,32 and Monier-Williams includes in his definition of this term "any one who falsely assumes the characteristics of an orthodox Hindii, a Jaina, Buddhist, ib &c.[sic]."33 The Maitrtiyaniya Upanisad juxta- poses the hypocrite and the heretic : "There are those who falsely wear the red robe, earrings, and skulls. And moreover, there are others who wish to erect themselves as judges concerning Vedic matters by weaving illusions with logic, illustrations, and so-phisms."34 The term nagna ("naked") was originally applied to the Bud-

dhists and Jains, who were "clothed in the sky," that is, nude (digambara). But certain Hindu sects went naked as well, while most Buddhists did not, and the term was later interpreted meta- phorically as the rejection of "the raiment of holy writ."35 Thus, the Vtiyu Purtina extends the word to naked Brahmins who "practice austerities fruitlessly, that is, heretically or hypocriti- cally": "The Brahmin who falsely bears a staff, shaves his head, goes naked, undertakes a vow, or mutters prayers-all such per- sons are called 'Nagnas,' etc. [vythL dandi vythL mundi vrthii nagnaica yo dvijah / vythii vrati vythL jLpi te vai nagniidayo janiih]."36 The Visnu Purtina excoriates "heretics . . . by whom the three

Vedas have been abandoned, evil ones who dispute the doctrine of the Vedas, . . . those who perform evil rituals, hypocritical 'cat' ascetics, skeptical 'crane' ascetics. These are the evil heretics, men who falsely wear matted locks or shave their heads."37 The commentator notes that the "cat" ascetic seems pleasant a t first but then acts very unpleasantly; the "crane" is a rogue who is falsely polite. Manu similarly defines the "cat" as one who is covetous, deceitful, injurious, and hypocritical ; the heron is cruel, dishonest, and falsely gentle. Manu does not refer to these two types as heretics, however, but merely as Brahmins, and he groups them with those who have sinned and hide their sins under a pre-

32 V. S. Apte, Practical Sanskrit-English Dictionary (Poona, 1957). 33 Sir Monier Monier-Williams, Sanskrit-English Dictionary (Oxford, 1899). a4 The Maitrciyaniya Upanisad, text and trans. by J. A. van Buitenen

('s-Gravenhage, 1962), 7.8. 35 Horace Hayman Wilson, trans., The Vwhnu Purcina, 3d ed. (Calcutta, 1961),

pp. 267-68 n. 3%Vciyu Purcina, cited by Wilson, The Vishnu PurEpa, p. 268. 37 V k n u Purcipa (Gorakhpur, 1962), 3.18.95-104.

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The Origin of Heresy in Hindzc Mythology text of asceticism.38 The MErkandeya PurEna also omits any explicit reference to heresy but groups the "cat" ascetics with those who retire to the woods like ascetics but continue to enjoy "country pleasures" [grEmyabhujEn] and those who have fallen from the rituals appropriate to their var.~a-one of the usual criteria of heresy." Yajiiavalkya states that one should avoid hypocrites, skeptics, heretics, and those who act like ~ranes.~O The Kfirma PurEna lists "cat" ascetics with heretics who perform evil rites, and the left-hand Piiiicargtras and Piisupatas. An alterna- tivereadingsubstitutesfor "cat" ascetics (vaiddavratinah) outcastes (canpZ1avratinah)-the polar opposites of Brahmin hypocrites.41 The animal nicknames probably derive from the extensive anti-

ascetic folklore of India.42 The cat appears in the TantropG- IchyEna : A certain cat lived like an ascetic a t the entrance to a mousehole, eating fallen fruits and leaves as if he had refrained from all sins. The mice made pious circumambulations around him and the cat grabbed and ate the last of the mice returning to the hole each day. The mice, noticing that their number was diminishing, decided to test the cat by sending a mouse named Romaia ("Hairy") to the cat, who ate him. When the rest of the mice saw the bones and hair of Romaia in the faeces of the cat they went to him and said: "This is not virtue or proper behavior, to make a living by performing tapas. Hairy faeces do not come froin one who eats roots and fruits." And so, after calling the cat a hypocrite and a heretic, the mice went axvay.43

It may be noted here that even in the folk literature the confusion between hypocrisy and heresy persists. The cat ascetic appears on the famous seventh-century bas-relief of the Descent of the Ganges at Mamallipuram ; the cat stands on one leg with his paws above his head in imitation of the human ascetic who appears nearby, and he is surrounded by mice.44 The heron appears in a Sanskrit court poem :

The ugly vulture eats the dead, Guiltless of murder's taint.

The heron swallows living fish And looks like an ascetic saint.45

38 MCnavadharmaBristra, 4.192-98. 39 MCrkandeya PurC?za (Bombay, 1890), 47.58-60. 40 Yajiiavalkya Smrti, 1.130. 41 KCrma PurEna (Benares ed.), 2.16.14-15 ;KErma Pz~rEpa, Bibliotheca Indica

(Calcutta, 1890), p. 444. 42 See my two-part article, "Asceticism and Sexuality in the Mythology of

hive," History of Religions 8 (1969) :300-337 and 9 (1969) : 1-41, esp. pp. 321-25. 43 "Ten Tales from the Tantropiikhyiina," text and trans. by George T. Artola,

Adyar Library Bulletin, 29 :1-4 (Madras, 1965) ;my summary. 44 Heinrich Zimmer, The Art of Indian Asia, 2d. ed. (New York, 1960), pl. 276. 45 John Brough, Poems from the Sanskrit (London, 1968), verse 21 ;SubhBsitCvali

of Vallabhadeva (Bombay, 1886), verse 755. 278


Saiva ascetics are particularly liable to this kind of satire. The charlatan Kiipiilika in the fiafikaravijaya has adopted the character of an ascetic as an excuse for throwing off all social and moral restraint.46 The Kiipiilika in the MattavilCsa consort,^ with a female member of the sect in a surG bar which he likens to a sacrificial temple : The surti is the Soma, the drunks are the priests, the drunken cries the hymns, and the bartender the sacrificial spon- sor.47 NO particular sect is mentioned in most of the examples of this genre, which is based not so much upon doctrinal offenses (although these do contribute to a certain extent) as upon a deep- seated antiascetic tradition in orthodox Hinduism.48 Even the Rgveda satirizes Brahmins who croak like frogs" and priests greedy for gold.50 The ascetic's position was further weakened by the practice of kings, from the time of the Mauryan empire at least, who employed as their spies men who masqueraded as ascetics.51 That this tradition has persisted for more than 2,000 years is apparent from the recent accusation made by a inember of the Indian Parliament who charged that the United States Pentagon and the C.I.A. were infiltrating into the Himalayas spies disguised as yogis.52

The folk motif of the hypocritical ascetic should not be taken as a literal index of the existence of such figures, for the motif is a naturally attractive and humorous one, not only in India. Mock- ery, and even self-mockery, rather than fanatical disapproval is the motivating spirit of many Indian discussions of the religious hypocrite :

"So, friar [bhilcso],I see you have a taste for meat."

"Not that it's any good without some wine."

"You like wine too, then?" "Better when I dino

With pretty harlots." "Surely such girls eat

No end of money." "Well, I steal, you see,

Or win a t dice." "A thief and gambler, too?"

"Why, certainly. What else is there to do ?

Aren't you aware I'm vowed to poverty ?"53

46 Wilson, Essays, p. 21. 47 MattavilcZsaprahmana, act 1 , prose between verscs 9 and 10. 48 Louis Dumont, "World Renunciation in Indian Religion," Contribzctions to

Indian Sociology 4 (1960) :33-62. 48 Rgveda with the commentary of SByana (London, 1800-92), 7.103.1-10. 50 Rgveda 9.112.1. 5 1 ArthaJEstra, 1.11.13. The commentator interprets munda as a reference to

$&kyas, Bjivakas, etc., and ja.tila as a reference to Psiupatas, etc. ;he thus in-cludes both types of heretics.

52 New York Times, August 14, 1968. 53 Brough, p. 105; Otto Bohtlingk, Indische Spruche (Saint Petersburg, 1872),

4, 588 ;Subhdsitrivali, 2, 402. 279

The Origin of Heresy in Hindu Mythology 5. THE ASSIMILATION OF HERESY

The fact that doctrines so widely divergent as those of the Clr- vLkas, Buddhists, Saiva PLiupatas, and Brahmin hypocrites are all subsumed under the term "heretic" indicates the extent to which this term was used simply as a catchall for condemning anyone who challenged the religious and social status quo, that is, the authority of the Vedas and the Brahmins. In Hinduism, heresy connotes a failure of the understanding more than a deliberate embracing of wickedness ; similarly, the more general concept of evil (pEpam), under which heresy was eventually subsumed, was originally considered primarily in terms of darkness and delusion (tams, moha) rather than sin. This, coupled with the general moral relativity of caste ethics-the notion that different moral codes apply to different social groups-made possible an infinitely elastic toleration of religious deviation. The vagueness of the term for heresy served not only to exclude various groups of heterodox thinkers but also to include many of them under the equally vague aegis of Hinduism itself. If the bounds of heterodoxy ballooned over into the mainstream of religion, so too the bounds of orthodoxy proved extremely flexible. The whole tradition of ascetism, as seen in the Upanisads, the

sannyEsa or ascetic stage of life, and the goal of moksa, was originally a violent challenge to the Brahmanical sacrificial system, which managed nevertheless to assimilate it by making the sannyzsin the fourth stage of life (after the original three: brahmaczrin, gyhapati, and vanaprastha) and moksa the fourth goal (after dharma, artha, and kcma). Moreover, various non-Vedic rites practiced by the indigenous population of India were ab- sorbed by the "Aryan" religion and practiced "without incon- gruity or contradiction being felt by the participant."54 Many of the teachings of the Buddha were assimilated by Hinduism and influenced the Bhagavad-GZtE, and the Buddha himself came to be regarded as an avatar of Visnu,55 a process which Keith described as "a curious example of the desire to absorb whatever is good in another faith."56 6aiva cults, in particular, betray an obviously heterodox

origin. As Eliot writes, although certain 6aiva rites are "if not antagonistic, at least alternative to the ancient sacrifices, yet far

54 D. D. Kosambi, A n Introduction to the Study of Indian History (Bombay, 1956), p. 8.

55 See below, sec. C2. 513Arthur Berriedale Keith, Indian Mythology, The Mythology of all Races,

vol. 4 (Boston, 1917), p. 169. 280


from being forbidden they are performed by Brahmans, and modern Indian writers describe Siva as peculiarly the Brahman's god."57 The dichotomy between the two groups of PZBupatas may be explained in the light of the possibility that the orthodox sect, as represented by the PGiupata SCtra and its commentary by Kaundinya, is the work of a reformer who attempted to cleanse the sect of its heterodox elernent,sg the element represented by the older description of 6iva which appears in the MahcFbhcFrata.59 The bowdlerized nature of the PcFiupata XCtra is obvious: The devotee is instructed to "pretend" to be drunk, to make indecent gestures toward women, etc., but not actually to violate any caste strictures. By this means he obtains the unjust censure of passers- by, and thereby his bad karma is transferred to them and their good karma to him.60 Ingalls remarks, "One suspects that the sfitras concerning lechery, improper action and improper speech once referred to actions less innocent than those specified by the commentator Kaundinya."Gl Since the whole logic of the ex-pressed purpose of the PLBupata rites turns on this point-that the actions should seem to be more immoral than they actually are-this seems most likely. It may even be that the expected remarks of the bystanders ("This is no man of chastity, this is a lechern)6z have reference to the original sect from which the PZSupatas were descended, a sect which conscientiously offended orthodoxy. The PEiupata sdtra then substituted mere symbolic gestures for the original rituals, and rationalized these as well. As the heretical sects were willing to make compromises in

order to be accepted in traditional circles, so too these circles willingly stretched a point in order to accept the prodigal move- ments back into the fold. Even Parsis and Rluslims were allowed to qualify as Hindus under certain circumstances.63 Moreover, according to the Satsang ruling, a Hindu might even become a baptized Christian "without ceasing to be a Hindu in both social and spiritual terms."64 The wording of the present legal definition of a Hindu involves this toleration for heresy : "Acceptance of the

57 Sir Charles Eliot, Hinduism and Buddhism, 3 vols. (London, 1921), 2 :192. 58 Sudhakar Chattopadhyaya, The Evolution of Theistic Sects in Ancient India

(Calcutta, 1962), p. 69. 5Wahcibhdrata, 13.17.45 ff.; cf. vol. 13, appendix 1, no. 4, 11. 66-67. 60 Pciiupatastitra, 3.6-10. 61 Daniel H. H. Ingalls, "Cynics and PBLupatas, the Seeking of Dishonor,"

Harvard Theological Review 55 (1962) : 291. 62 Kaundinya's commentary on Pciiupatasiitra, 3.15. 63 J. D. M. Derrett, Religion, Law and the State in India (London, 1968), pp.

46-51. 64 Ibid., p. 49.

281

The Origin of Heresy in Hindu Mythology Vedas with reverence ; recognition of the fact that the means or ways to salvation are diverse; and realization of the truth that the number of gods to be worshipped is large, that indeed is the distinguishing feature of Hindu religion."65 One of the texts cited in justification for this viewpoint is the

Bhagavad GCtE, in which Krsna says that he is reborn whenever righteousness wanes and that those who worship other gods are actually worshiping him.66 Together, these texts may be interpreted to imply that "any genuine religious reformer may be treated as an abode of divinity."67 Visgu's incarnation as the Buddha is by far the most important example of this process. The Muslim sect of the Imam Shahis believed that the Imam himself was the tenth avatar of Visnu and that the Qur'Bn was a part of the Atharva Veda.68 This view was supported by the traditional argument that only fragments of the Vedas still exist.69 Christ is sometimes included among the avatars of Visnu,70 a practice that was once "a cause of great alarm among Christian missionaries."71 Even Queen Victoria found a place in the Hindu pantheon ;when a plague broke out in Bombay just after her statue had been insulted, it was believed by certain pious Hindus that the disease was "the revenge inflicted by her as insulted divinity."72 A religion which can accommodate both Queen Victoria and the orgiastic goddess of Tantric worship is indeed a spacious abode.

6. THE MYTH OF THE FALL By this process of assimilation, many non-Brahmin ministers of non-Vedic cults, such as the VrBtyas, came to claim Brahmin status and were finally admitted to that status but with the stigma that "they had committed sins." Similar reasoning allowed certain eighteenth-century Hindus to speak of the English as "fallen Ksatriyas." Even Manu considered the Yavanas, gakas, Pahlavas, KirLtas, and other foreigners to be giidras who had sunk from their former status as Ksatriyas when they disregarded

65 Ibid., p. 51. 66 Bhagavad-Gitd [Oxford, 1969), 4.7, 9.23.

. .

67 Derrett, p. 50. ' 68 W. Ivanow, "The Sect of Imam Shah in Gujurat," Journal of the Bombay

Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, 1937, pp. 19-70, esp. pp. 62-64. I am indebted to Dr. Peter Hardy of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, for this reference.

69 See above, sec. A3. 70 Alain DaniBlou, Hindu Polytheism (London, 1964), p. 12. 71 Charles Drekmeiar, Kingship and Community in Early India (Stanford,

Calif., 1962). D. 120. 72 ~ dw a = dwashburn Hopkins, "The Divinity of Kings," Journal of the A,meri-

can Oriental Society 51 (1913) : 309-16, esp. p. 314.

History of Religions Brahmins.73 This theory completely mirrors the historical process ;sects which had in fact risen to their position on the borders of orthodox Hinduism were said to have fallen from a yet more orthodox position to their ambivalent status. Yet there is probably some truth in the legends as well. Certain scriptures were said to have been revealed for the benefit of Brahmins whose sins had rendered them incapable of performing Vedic rites, and Brahmins who were excommunicated may have become the ministers of non-Vedic cults.74 Certainly this is the Hindu viewpoint ;KgpLli-kas are thought to have been Brahmins in former times.75 Ac- cording to Jain theory, all castes once professed Jainism, but certain groups fell into false ways and became Brahmins who formulated a cult sanctioning the slaughter of animals.76 Many castes consider themselves fallen Brahmins and justify

their change of occupation when they move up the scale by stating that they are merely resuming their former status. Ambedkar revived the traditional myth when he argued that the untouchables, and many Siidras, were Buddhists who had suffered from the hatred of Brahmins when the Hindu renaissance occurred.77 Many untouchables claim in their myths that, when fighting the Muslims, their Kqatriya ancestors pretended to be untouchables and were cursed to remain in that state as punishment for their cowardice.78 This "pretenseJ' neatly mirrors the PLiupata mime which derives from the actual sin, in contrast to the untouchable legend in which the pretense leads to the sin. According to the MahiFbZrata, all castes were once Brahmins, but those who abandoned their own dharma and fell prey to passion and anger became Ksatriyas, those who took to agriculture and cattle rear- ing became Vaiiyas, and those who indulged in falsehood and injury became Sfidras.79 According to one myth, certain "Brah- min giants" (the most mischievous of the race) were Brahmins who had been turned into giants as a punishment for former crimes : "Occasionally they adopted a hermit's life, without thereby changing their character, or becoming better disposed."so

73 Mhnavadharmaicistra, 10.43-44.

74 Eliot, 2 :193.

75 Gonda, p. 219.

76 Beni Prasad, Theories of Government i n Ancient India (Allahebad, 1927),

p. 225. 77 Bhimrao Remji Ambedker, The Untouchables (New Delhi, 1948), p. 78. 78 I am indebted to Dr. David Pocock of the University of Sussex for this

information. 7 9 MahBbhBrata, 12.181.10-13. 80 Abbe Dubois, Hindu Manners, Customs and Ceremonies, 3d ed. (Oxford,

1966), p. 516.

The Origin of Heresy in Hindu Mythology In this myth, the "fallen Brahmin" plays the role of another familiar figure in the mythology of heresy-the hypocritical ascetic. The belief that impure status is the result of former crimes appears in the myths of the cycles of evil ; and the concept of a fall from grace, whether or not it reflects historical development, is central to the mythology of the origin of evil.

7. EXPLICIT HERESY WITHIN ORTHODOX HINDUISM In spite of, or perhaps because of, the conservative strength of Brahmin orthodoxy, heretical doubts are raised in the mainstream of traditional Hinduism from the earliest records. Atheistic sentiments are expressed within the Rgveda itself: "Whence this creation developed is known only by him who witnesses this world in the highest heaven-or perhaps even he does not know."8l One hymn is addressed "to Indra, if Indra exists."82 Vasistha defends himself against charges of being a heretic and a demon: "If I were a follower of false gods, or if I regarded the gods wrongly. . . ."83 Anti-Vedic ideas appear frequently in the Upanisads and Aravyakas. The Bhagavad-GitE rejects the goals of the Vedas and considers the Vedas as much use to a wise Brahmin as a water tank in a flood.84 In the Aitareya Bra?zyaka, certain sages remark: "Why should we study the Vedas? Why should we sacrifice ?"55 According to Heesterman, the nEstika or atheist was originally

an integral part of the agnostic structure of the Vedic sacrifice. The term denoted one who confronted the Cstika as well as one who followed any of a variety of different teachings of material- ism.86 The doubts expressed in the Rgveda87 are merely part of the verbal contest with the official "reviler,"88 who does not re- ject sacrifice as a matter of abstract doctrine but merely rejects his opponent's sacrifice. Later these complementary ritual roles gave way to mutually exclusive doctrines denying the abstract institution of sacrifice.89 Even then, the nEstika remained on the fringes of orthodoxy. Yudhisthira, whose ideas of nonviolence owe much

81 Rgvede, 10.129.7.

82 Rgvede, 8.100.3.

83 Rgvede, 7.104.14.

84 Bhagavad-Gitci, 2.41-46.

85 Aitareya Arapyaka (Oxford, 1909), 2.1.2.

86 J. C. Heestermen, "On the Origin of the NBstika," Beitrage zur Geistes-

geschichte Indiens, Festschrift fiir Erich Freuwdlner, Wiener Zeitschrift ftir die Kunde Siid- und Ostasiens 12-13 (1968-69) : 171-85, esp. p. 171.

87 Rgveda, 5.30.1, 6.18.3, 6.27.3, 8.64.7, 8.100.3, 10.22.1. 88 Heesterman, pp. 180-81. 89 Ibid., p. 184.

284

History of Religions to Buddhism, is accused by the warrior Bhima of having nestika tendencies.90 A famous controversy over the sanctity of the Vedas appears in

the Nirukta of YBska; "'The Vedic stanzas have no meaning [anartha&], ' says Kautsa. . . . 'Moreover, their meaning is contradictory [vipratisiddhtirthli].' "91 A later commentator, Durga, regerded Kautsa as a convenient invention used by YBska in order to express Vedic skepticism.92 But Kautsa appears in an ancient list of Brahmin teachers and may have been a historical rationa- list.93 Sarup argues in support of the latter view : "It is inconceivable that the learned theologians would reproduce, in their orthodox books, a controversy which challenges the most fundamental beliefs of their religion."94 Yet this is precisely what theologians in India have always done ; the "false" view is given first and is then rebutted by the favored doctrine. Moreover, many originally controversial views have eventually been reproduced in orthodox books as accepted doctrine. From Vedic times to the present day, heresy has been present

within Hinduism. Politically, heresy has played a significant role ; heretical creeds appealed to kings for assistance, and Brahminism called upon royal support for the status quo.95 As Aiyangar remarks : "The heretic might be a nuisance, but an administrator could not ignore his existence in society, especially when he had a powerful following. . . . Heterodoxy was often believed to possess a mystic power which was the source of its confidence. The rule is thus merely one of prudence."96 The Seventh Pillar Edict of ABoka states : "I have arranged that some [Dhamma Mah&m~tas] will be occupied with the affairs of the [Buddhist] Sangha.. . some with the Brahmins and Ajivikas . . . some with the Nirgran- thas . . . with other religious sects [pGsandesu]."97 This apparent religious toleration may be viewed, however, in the context of the Buddhist legend that ABoka a t first attempted to destroy all the Nirgranthas and was unwittingly responsible for the decapitation of his own brother, who was staying in the home of a Nirgrantha.

90 MaJ~ZbhCrata,12.10.20.

91 YBska, Nirukta, ed. Lakshman Sarup (Oxford, 1921), 1.15.

92 John Muir, Original Sanskrit Texts, 5 vols., 2d ed. (London, 1872), 2 :169-72.

93 F. Max &fuller, A History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature (London, 1859), pp.

142 and 181.

9 4 Sarup, p. 72.

95 Hara Narayana Sinha, The Development of Indian Polity (New York, 1963),

p. 70.

96 K. V. Rangaswami Aiyangar, RCjadhamna (Adyar, 1941), p. 12.

97 Dines Chandra Sircar, Select Inscriptions, 2d ed. (Calcutta, 1965), pp. 62-64.

285

T h e Origin of Heresy in H i n d u Mythology When A.Boka learned of his error, he was profoundly saddened and issued an edict forbidding the execution of any monks, Buddhist or heretic.98 A4oka's successor, Dasaratha, also patronized the Ajivikas,99 and various lawbooks state that the king must support the customs of heretics.100 BaudhLyana cites the view that non- Vedic local practices may be allowed in their own territory, but he immediately counters with his own opinion that one must never follow practices opposed to the tradition of learned authorities.101 Most of the lawbooks, however, represent the strict orthodoxy

that was unbendingly opposed to all forms of heresy. This bias is clear from many of the definitions of heresy and from such statements as Manu's "Let not the householder honor. . .heretics"l02 and Yajfiavalkya's "One should avoid. . .heretics."l03 Yajfia-valkyal04 and NBrada105 disqualify heretics and atheists as witnesses. Kautilya allows the king to confiscate the property of heretics in an emergency106 and advises him to fine people who entertain $Bkyas, Ajivikas, or heretical ascetics [v?.salapravrajita] at feasts of the gods or the manes.107 This attitude grew more and more strict as Brahminism developed, and the late text of the ~ukrani t i s~raexhorts the king to punish atheists and those who have fallen from caste.108 By the tenth century A.D., heresy was so widespread and so

abhorred that giva himself was believed to have become incarnate as the philosopher gaiikara in order to explain the Vedas, destroy the temples and books of the Jains, and massacre all who opposed him,l09 particularly the followers of the Jain sect which he himself had taught in his previous incarnation.110 The Prabodhacandrodaya, a remarkable allegorical play written

during the following century, described the battle between good and evil, orthodoxy and heresy: "The PLgandas placed the

98 Adokcivadcina and Divydvadcina, cited by ~ t i e n n e Lamotte, Histoire du Bouddhisme Indien (Louvain, 1958), pp. 267-69.

99 A. L. Basham, The Wonder That Was India (London, 1956), p. 295. 100 NBrada Smrti (Calcutta, 1885,) 10.1-2; Yajfiavalkya, 2.192. 101 BaudhByana Dharmaszitra, Kashi Sanskrit Series no. 104 (Benares, 1934),

1.2.1-9. 102 Mcinavadharm&&tra. 4.30. 103 Yajfiavalkya, 1.130. 104 Ibid., 2.70. 105 NBrada, 4.180. 108 ArthadGstra, 5.2. 107 Ibid., 3.20. 10s i5hkranitiscira (Calcutta, 1882). 4.1.97-98. 109 ~afikaraprcidu~bhd~a,cited by Francis Wilford, "On Egypt and other

countries. . . from tho ancient books of the Hindus," in Asiatick Researches (Calcutta, 1792), 3:295-468, esp. p. 411.

110 See below, sec. C2.

History of Religions Lokiiyatas in front, and they perished in the fight. After this defeat, the piisanda books were uprooted by the sea of orthodox teachings [sadiigama]; the Piisandas, Saugatas, Digambaras, Kiipiilikas, etc., concealed themselves among the most abject men in the countries of Piiiiciila, Miilava, etc."lll Yet the very vehemence of these orthodox texts hints a t the strength of the threat, the degree to which heresy had penetrated Hinduism by this time. Much of the assimilation took place in an earlier, more tolerant period, and more continued to take place on a popular level-as expressed in the mythology of the Puriinas-in spite of the ex- hortations of the orthodox Brahmins.

B. THE MYTHOLOGY OF THE ORIGIN OF EVIL

1. INTRODUCTION

The problem of the origin of evil and heresy has troubled Indian thinkers from the most ancient times. The early texts are less con- cerned with the specific problem of heresy than they are with the more general concept of evil (pGpam), which originally included natural misfortunes such as hunger, death, and ignorance, and only later assumed the connotations of sin and vice. The meaning of heresy developed in a similar way, from the original concept of the nGstika who merely played the devil's advocate, as it were, in the sacrifice, through the notion that the heretic was simply deluded (mohita), to the later view in which he is a vicious social outcaste. The concept of evil in Hinduism is only incidentally pertinent to

a discussion of Hindu heresies. However, the mythology of the origin of evil provides an essential background to the mythology of the origin of heresy. The myths discussed below demonstrate the manner in which episodes of heresy arose from and gradually superseded the more general mythology of evil. The first group, dealing with the natural origin of evil, concerns men described simply as evil men and atheists. No explanation for this evil is provided; it simply appears a t a certain point in primeval creation. Hardly more satisfactory is the later view which relegates the

cause to some earlier evil whose cause remains obscure. Here sin and virtue are mentioned, but without the doctrinal details which distinguish heresy from evil. A turning point is reached in the Manichean myths which cast the blame onto the demons. Here the

111 Prabodhucandrodaya,act. 5,prose between verses 10 and 11. 287

T h e Origin of Heresy in H i n d u Mythology concept of a "different" (i.e., wrong) philosophy of the soul may represent a heresy, and one rather atypical myth explicitly attributes heresy to the demons. The myths which blame the gods rather than the demons for the origin of heresy deal at first with the older concept of delusion but then enumerate actual heresies. And finally, with the concept of the necessity of evil, the full transition to heresy is reached ; the "seed of evil" leads to a denial of the Vedas, and the twofold universe provides explicit heresies. A similar transition may be seen in the group of myths in which the necessity for death (evil) yields to the necessity for corruption (heresy) to maintain a balance of population. The final series of myths details the origin of specific heresies taught to the demons of the Triple City, the sons of Raji, and the Pine Forest sages, and the general and specific concepts merge finally in the concept of the Tantric heresies of the evil Kali age.

2. THE NATURAL ORIGIN OF EVIL The earliest extant myths of the origin of evil appear in the Brghmanas, which describe the manner in which gods and demons, originally twin, became differentiated : "The gods and demons both spoke truth, and they both spoke untruth. They were alike. The gods relinquished untruth, and the demons relinquished truth. The truth which was within the demons beheld this and went over to the gods, and the untruth of the gods went to the demons."ll2 The spark of evil develops in terms of the Hindu concept of the transference of personal merit, or karma, which may be taken from or increased in an individual by the action of someone else as well as by his own moral behavior. In this myth, the demons' good karma (truth) is stolen by the gods as a result of the gods' spontaneous moral choice, just as the bystanders' good karma is stolen by the Pgbupatas. The ~ a t a ~ a t h a Brtihmana describes the self-reinforcing effects of

evil among mortals as well as gods:

Those [mortals] who made offerings in former times touched the altar while they were sacrificing. They became more evil. Those who washed their hands became righteous. Then men said, "Those who sacrifice become more evil, and those who do not sacrifice become righteous." No sacrificial food then came to the gods from this world. . . . The gods went to Brhaspati [their guru] and complained that unbelief [draddhcZ] was rife among men;

112 8atapatha BrGhmana of the White Yajur Veda, Bibliotheca Indica (Calcutta, 1903), 9.5.1.12-15, 5.1.1.1 ; cf. ChGndogya Upan@ad, 8.10, in One Hundred and Eight Upanishads, 4th ed. (Bombay, 1932).

288

History of Religions he told them to sacrifice without touching the altar and they would become more righteous.113

In this passage-possibly the earliest Indian discussion of the origin of evil-the evil (piipam)results from a ritual defilement, and unbelief then results from the misunderstanding of the true cause of the evil. The myth fails to provide a true answer to the problem, since the evil is quickly and superficially corrected.

The Ma&b&rata contains several descriptions of the origin of evil demons : Sri, the goddess of good fortune, dwelt among the demons in former times; the demons were then firm in their own dharma and honored their gurus and the gods. But then, with the passage of time and the change in their quality, their dharma was destroyed and they were in the grip of desire and anger. They became sinners and atheists, evil men with no moral bounds. Then Sri left them.114

This "passage of time" may refer to the appearance of the Kali age or may simply describe the eventual appearance of the new element, evil. Elsewhere, the Epic relates the fall of man in similar terms : Formerly, Prajtipati, the creator, brought forth pure creatures, virtuous and truthful, who joined the gods in the sky whenever they wished and lived and died by their own wish. Then, in another time, those who dwelt on earth were overcome by greed and anger, and they were abandoned by the gods. Then by their evil deeds they were trapped in the chain of re- birth, and they became atheists.115

A similarly automatic perversion is described in the Buddhist Sutta Nipiita : At first, all rsis were virtuous ascetics, but then came a reversal [tesam tki vipa2ldso1, and they began to covet one another's wealth, wives, and horses, and to slaughter cows. Indra, the gods, asuras, and rdksasas cried out against this adharma; and thus the three original diseases (desire, hunger, and old age) developed into ninety-eight.116 The text does not make clear whether the plague of evils arises directly from the loss of virtue of the sages or from the subsequent wrath of the gods;ll7 but the seed of corruption is merely inevitable change.

Another myth of the origin of evil appears in the Ma&b&rata : In former times there was no need for a king or for the rod of chastisement; of their own accord, and by their dharma, all creatures protected one

1138atapatha BrBhmana, 1.2.5.2626.

114 MahBbZrata, 12.221.27-28; emphasis added.

115 Ibid., 3.181.11-20; my summary; emphasis added.

116 Brshmana-dhammika Sutta, Sutta NipBta, Pali Text Society (London, 1913),

11. 284 ff. ;my summary. 117 See below, secs. B7 and B8.

289

The Origin of Heresy in H i ndu JIythology another. But then they wearied of this [khedam paramam cljagmus] and then delusion entered them. Under the influence of this delusion, their dharma was destroyed, greed and desire overcame them, and the gods became afraid, saying, "Now that dharma is destroyed, we will become equal with the mortals, for they will rise and we will fall when they cease to perform the rituals [of sacrifice on which the gods depend]." Then, for the benefit of the gods, BrahmB established the science of Protection on earth, and Vi~nu created the first king on earth.118

Sheer boredom, i t would seem, suffices in this myth to sow the seed from which corruption inevitably develops. Several lawbooks use the assumption of the corruption of man

to justify the force of the coercive authority, the chastising rod of the king.119 The Vtiyu Purii?za relates this story of man cor- rupted by nothing but time : In the beginning, people lived in perfect happiness, without class distinctions or property; all their needs were supplied by magic wishing trees. Then because of the great power of time and the changes it wrought upon them, they were overcome by passion and greed. It was from the in$uence of time, and no other cause, that their perfection vanished. Due to their greed, the wishing trees disappeared; the people felt heat and cold, built houses, and wore clothes.120

Civilization-property and clothing-is a source of further greed and sin, not a solution for them. This much the Hindu philosopher shares with Rousseau, but clearly his basic attitude lies with Hobbes :With the passage of time, man's inherent evil must come to the fore. The inevitable sin of greed, the killing of the golden goose, destroys the magic fruit of paradise. Many Christian scholars have seen in this degenerative process a

similarity to the doctrine of original sin and the fall from grace. But the Hindu concept lacks the vision of pristine innocence and the Manichean attitude toward evil which underlie the myth of Eden. To the Hindu, the original state of grace is doomed to quick exiinction from within, without the need for a serpent or devil to corrupt it. Weber interpreted this Hindu relativity of paradise and sin in sociological terms : The conception of an "original sin" was quite impossible in this world order, for no "absolute sin" could exist. There could only be a ritual offense against the particular dharma of the caste. In this world of eternal rank orders there was no place for a blissful original state of man and no blissful h a 1 kingdom. Thus there was no "natural" order of men and things in contrast to positive social order.121

118 MahBbhkata, 12.59.13-30 ff. ;my summary; emphasis added. 119 Niirada, 1.1-2. 120 VGyu PurBva (Bombay, 1867), 1.8.77-88, esp. verse 80; my summary;

emphasis added. 1 2 1 Max Weber, The Religion of India (New York, 1958), p. 144.

History of Religions Yet, although the individual could only offend against caste law, the caste as a whole could violate a more universal law-the law of dharma-as may be seen in the myths of Brahmins who "fell" to untouchability or became demons.122 Moreover, there are Hindu myths in which individuals fall from paradise and in which devils are responsible for this fa11.123 It is, rather, the fleeting and in- substantial nature of the original paradise, and the pessimistic view of the nature of man, which distinguish the Hindu myths. I n these myths, men-and even demons-are originally good, but evil passions inevitably appear soon after creation, and this is the natural (albeit not original) state of man.

3. HUNGER AND SIN An important element of the myths of the fall-the apple-ap-pears in another series of Hindu myths. Men remain virtuous until the source of food begins to diminish, and only then do they become evil. This is perhaps the closest that the ancient Indians ever came to the concept of a virtuous natural state of man ;only when an external force threatens him does he violate the moral law. The connection between hunger and evil is a natural and

ancient one. The Rgveda says : "The gods did not give [us] hunger as [an instrument of] slaughter ;for [various] deaths overcome one who has eaten."l24 But the intention of the creators often mis- carries in matters of evi1,125 and by the time of the 8ataPatha BrEhma~a a more realistic and cynical attitude toward hunger prevailed: "Whenever there is drought, then the stronger seizes upon the weaker, for the waters are dharma."lZs When Brahmz began to create in his rEjasa form, he produced hunger, whence was born anger and the starving rcFlcsasas.127 I n human terms, hunger is the epitome of Epaddharma, the

extremity in which the moral law ceases to function:

Once there was a twelve-year drought, when Indra sent no rain. All dharma was destroyed and people ate one another. Sages left their &'ramas and wandered about; the great sage Viiviimitra came to a place where outcastes lived who ate dogs; the place was strewn with skulls and bloody bones. Viiviimitra begged but was given no food; seeing a dead dog he tried to

122 See above, sec. A6. 123 See below, sec. B5. 124 Rgveda, 10.117.1. 125 See below, sec. B6. 126 fiatapatha BrGhmana, 11.1.6.24. 127 V i p u PurGna, 1.5.41-43.

The Origin of Heresy in Hindu Mythology steal it, reasoning that theft was permissible in time of 6 p d . A Ca~d%l,la tried to stop him from committing the sin of eating a dog, but in vain. ViAviimitra ate the dog and burned away his sin by performing tapas, and eventually Indra sent rain.128

The initial premise of a twelve-year drought is a frequent motif in later myths of heresy,l29 as is the complete reversal of moral roles-the sage being instructed by the outcaste. I n fact, the satisfaction of hunger, rather than hunger itself, is

often considered the cause of the evil: "When the starving creatures had devoured one another Adharma was born. His wife was Nirfii [Wickedness], who had three terrible, evil sons-Fear, Terror, and Death."l30 Improper eating (which is of course the basic caste tabu) is the source of sin. A fairly late myth seems explicitly to connect the eating of the fruit of the knowledge of good and evil with the fall from grace, as in the myth of Eden. Schrader considered this myth to correspond to "the Fall of Man in Jewish and Christian theology,"l31 but Eliot pointed out the significant difference : "Here the ground idea seems to be not that any devil has spoilt the world but that ignorance is necessary for the world process, for otherwise mankind would be one with God and there would be no world."132 The myth itself is brief but obscure :

Knowledge became a cow, with a portion of herself, that is, she became a cloud. Then the milk called "the year" flowed from her and became food. But all the Manus, who had been omniscient, ate that milk of knowledge [vaidyam payah] and lost their knowledge [jridnabhram'am prapadyante]. Thereupon the Mstra was promulgated by the Manus.133

The dtistra is a PSiicarLtra text, regarded as a heresy by the orthodox Hindus though not by the Piificargtra author of the myth, of course. Eliot interprets the myth as an indication that "souls have naturally unlimited knowledge" which "for some reason becomes limited and obscured, so that religion is necessary to show the soul the right way."134 I n fact, these absolute statements must be qualified: Souls once had unlimited knowledge for a brief time, but the casual manner in which this knowledge was destroyed indicates the necessity of religious law (just as

128 MahCbhZrata, 12.139.13-92; my summary. 129 See below, sec. C6. 130 MahcZbhBrata, 1.60.52-53. 131 I?. Otto Schrader, Introduction to the Pancaratra, Adyar Library no. 3

(Madras, 1916), p. 78. 132 Eliot, 1 :lxxx,n. 1. 133 Ahirbudhnymamhita, rev. by V .Krishnamacharya, 2d. ed., Adyar Library

nos. 4-5 (Madras, 1966), 7.59b-63a.

134 Eliot, 1 :lxxx.

292

History of Religions it justifies regnal law)-particularly the PZiicarZtra law which is appropriate to the low estate of man.135

4. THE CHAIN OF EVIL The vague concept of the corrupting effect of the passage of time is expanded in another series of texts into the belief that "former sins" cause the fall of man. The apparent logical fallacy in this view is somewhat resolved in the context of the doctrine of karma; evil is a chain which has no beginning or end. Thus, the Buddhist Digha Nikiiya myth of the origin of evil ultimately falls back upon a still earlier evil to explain the fall : In the beginning, the earth was spread out upon the cosmic waters for the original creatures, who had no distinctions of sex. The earth was fragrant and sweet as honey. At first no one touched it, but then a certain being, born greedy [annataro satto lola-jdtiko (Commentator: greedy from a former birth)], said: "What can this be?" and tasted it, and craving overcame him. The others followed his example and tasted the earth in greed. Then women were differentiated from men, and passion arose; men built huts to conceal their sexual intercourse. Then someone of a lazy disposition decided to store rice instead of harvesting it. . . . Then someone of a greedy disposition appropriated another field that had not been given to him. . ..From such beginnings arose theft, censure, false speech, and punishment.136

Here again punishment itself is considered an evil institution rather than a satisfactory solution to the evil nature of man, which results from various wicked dispositions from former births. Property, the direct result of passion or greed, introduces all the evils of civilization. Elsewhere, the need for houses arises directly from the increased sensitivity to pain, heat, and cold which afflicts mortals when human nature is no longer perfect.137 As long as food is infinite and there is no need for individual property, man remains virtuous ; but when the supply is limited, when the wishing trees disappear, men are overcome by greed.138

In a Buddhist description of a much later stage of society, one of the Universal Emperors fails to rule properly : He did not give wealth to the poor, and so poverty became widespread. Soon a certain man took what had not been given to him, and this was called theft. They caught him and accused him before the king, who gave him wealth. People heard of this and thought that they would do the same in order to receive wealth from the king. To put a stop to this, the king

135 See below, see. C8.

1 3 ~Aggafifia Suttanta, Digha NikBya, Pali Text Society (London, 1911),

3:85 ff. ; my summary ; emphasis added. Anonymous commentator's remarks are in original Pali text.

137 V i ~ uPurBna, 1.6.17-20.

138 Ktirma PurBpa, 1.29-30.

The Origin of Heresy in Hindu 2lIythology began to execute thieves. Thus came poverty, theft, murder, and false- h 00d . l ~~

Once need has caused men to sin, the cycle has begun and cannot be arrested, even by the correction of need. The king's belated generosity only inspires further wrongdoing, and coercive authority (though considered yet another evil, murder) must take effect. Since need is originally responsible for man's fall, since hunger is man's eternal condition, temporary satisfaction merely masks the flaw. Interesting evidence of the antiquity of the Digha NihGya

myth of the origin of evil appears in the report which Strabo attributes to Onesicritus, who entered India with Alexander in 327 B.C. and heard this tale from a naked "sophist" named Calanus: In olden times the earth was full of barley and wheat; fountains flowed with water, milk, honey, wine and olive oil. But man's gluttony and luxury [ ~ ~ v ~ r j ]led him into boundless arrogance [Gf ip~s] ,and Zeus, hating this state of things, destroyed everything. When self-control and tho other virtues reappeared, blessings were again abundant, but the state of man is again increasing in arrogance and the destruction of all existence is immi- nent.140

The basic elements of the Indian myth are faithfully reproduced here, in spite of the apparent Hellenization evident in the olive oil and Zeus : Food is at first limitless ; greed appears naturally ; the gods hate man and destroy his welfare ;I41 virtues reappear142 but man is near his ultimate destruction (i.e., the end of the Kali yuga). This degeneration, preordained in spite of all episodes of virtue, is inherent in all the Indian versions of the myth. When the magic trees disappear, creatures are reborn as Brahmins, Kyatriyas, VaiSyas, and 6iidras according to their respective deeds in previous births.143 Not time alone, nor hunger alone, but both of these coupled with the individual predilection to sin destroy the golden age.

5. DEMONS AS THE CAUSE O F EVIL The crimes of demons are cited surprisingly seldom as a cause of evil on earth, primarily because the demons are by no means clearly representative of the powers of evil. They are indeed the

139 Cakkavatti Sihangda Sutta, Digha Niktiya, 3 :65-70;my summary. 140 Strabo, Geography (Loeb Classical Library ed.), bk. 15,chap. 1, para. 64. 141 See above, sec. B3,and below, secs. B6 and B7. 142 See below, sec. C8. 143 VEyu PurEpa, 1.8.154-59.

294


enemies of the gods, but this is a matter of power politics rather than morals, and the gods themselves are often far more wicked than the virtuous demons whom they trick and cheat. Neverthe- less, there are some references to the role of the demons in the origin of evil, particularly in myths of the fall. In the Pali canon, asuras are fallen beings, "devas in opposition or in revolt or dis- grace."l44 Some eighteenth-century Hindus encountered by the Danish mission at Tranquebar were said to have believed that human souls are "heavenly spirits, which for their sins are driven out of heaven."l45 Holwell recorded a t greater length a myth of this type, from

"Brahmiih's Shastah," but his interpretation is obviously clouded by Christian attitudes : [The initial creation was a state of joy and harmony] which would have continued to the end of time, had not envy and jealousy taken possession of Moisasoor [Mahi~iisura] and other leaders of the angelic bands. . . .They spread their evil imaginations amongst the angelic host, deceived them, and drew a large portion of them from their allegiance. . ..The eternal One then commanded Sieb [Siva] to go armed with his omnipotence, to drive them from Mahah Surgo [Mahiisvarga], and plunge them into the Onderah [Andhatgmisra?, a hell], there doomed to suffer unceasing sor- rows. . . . Part of the angelic bands rebelled and were expelled from the heavenly

regions; . . .the leaders of their rebellion, . . .in process of time, regained their influonce, and confinned most of tho delinquents in their dis-obedience.146

Holwell's assumption that paradise "would have continued to the end of time" conflicts with the general Hindu view of original creation, which is more closely represented in the statement that the demon rebels regained their influence "in process of time." (The statement that giva was to drive the demons from heaven corresponds with another pattern of Hindu myths in which the demons are the victims rather than the initiators of corruption.147) According to the MahZb&rata, all creatures were righteous and

obedient until the demons caused a decrease in dharma, since they were filled with anger and greed.148 It is probably only their own virtue that is destroyed in this way, though they may have been responsible for general corruption as well. The demons' willing

144T. 0. Ling, Buddhism and the Mythology of Evil (London, 1962), p. 22. 145 Robert Orme, India Office, Orme MSS, 1 :179. I am indebted to Dr. Peter

J.Marshall of King's College, University of London, for the transcript of the Orme manuscript as well as for the citations from Holwell.

146 J. Z. Holwell, Interesting historical events relative to the Provinces of Bengal, .. . (London, 1766, 1767, 1771), pp. 9-10,42-43.

147 See below, secs. C1, C2, and C3.

148 MahBbhBrata 12.160.26.

295

The Origin of Heresy in Hindu Mythology participation in their own corruption and the subsequent cor-ruption of others is implicit in this Maitrtiyaniya Upanisad myth : "The gods and asuras came to BrahmB and asked him to tell them the titman. He thought to himself, 'These asuras desire an titman different [from the true titman].' Therefore a very different doctrine was taught to them, a doctrine which fools here adhere to, praising what is false."149 The "different titman" may imply a heretical doctrine, but the terminology is still rather vague. The V"8yu Purtina, however, contains a unique episode which specifies both the heresy and the demons' intention: During the battle between gods and demons, the conquered demons changed all men into heretics; this was not part of the creation by PrajB- pati.150 This brief statement is the only clearly Manichean doctrine that I have ever found in Indian sources, but there are episodes of a Manichean type, dealing with evil rather than heresy, in other Puriigas : A rfiksasa carried off the wife of a Brahmin, but he did not eat her. A king questioned him about this and received this reply: "We are not man-eaters; that is another kind of demon. We eat the fruit of a good deed. When we eat the patience of men, then they become angry; when we have eaten their evil nature [bhukte du&e svabhfive ca], they become virtuous."l51 The demon in this story is responsible for the disruption of the chain of h rm a in both directions. He destroys the power that causes men to pay for their past actions and thus changes evil men to good, as well as the reverse. An interesting inversion of this concept appears in the statement of another rtilc+-asa who main- tains that it is mankind who make demons evil, not vice versa : We are all hungry and eternally devoid of dharma. We do not do all the evil that we do because of our own desire; it is because of your evil karma and your disfavor toward us. Our faction increases because of the Brahmins who behave like rfiksasas and the evil actions of the other three classes. Those who dishonor Brahmins become rfiksasas, and our ranks are swelled by the sins of lascivious women.152

Thus, the force of karma may be transferred in either direction ; the demons cannot be made to bear the stigma by themselves. I n fact, by far the more common view is that demons are given as their food various groups of sinners, thus ultimately destroying evil rather than producing it.153

149 Maitrciyapiya Ujani?ad, 7.10. 150 VByu Purepa, AnandBQrama Sanskrit Series 49 (Poona, 1905), 78.29-30. 151 MBrkandeya PurBna, 67.16-18; my summary. 152 Vcimana Purcina, All-India Kashiraj Trust (Benares, 1968) ;Saromdhcitmya,

19.31-35.


6. EVIL DUE TO GOD'S ERROR Far more typical than the Manichean myths are those in which evil is the work of god himself, created by him sometimes on purpose, sometimes in error. Forster recorded a conversation with the Maharajah of Dewas Senior which reveals the persistence of this attitude : When I asked him why we had any of us ever been severed from God, he explained it by God becoming unconscious that we were parts of him, owing to his energy at some time being concentrated elsewhere. . ..If you believe that the universe was God's conscious creation you are faced with the fact that he has consciously created suffering and sin, and this the Indian refuses to believe. "We were either put here intentionally or unintentionally," said the Rajah, "and it raises fcwer difficulties if we suppose it was unintentionally."154

The unintentional creation of evil is apparent in this early text: Prajiipati produced the golden egg of the universe. He created the gods, and there was daylight. Then, by his downward breathing, he created the demons, and they were darkness for him. He knew that he had created evil for himself; he struck the demons with evil and they were overcome. There- fore, the legend which tells of the battle between gods and demons is not true, for they were overcome because Prajiipati struck them with evi1.155 Here we encounter a logical inversion which haunts these myths: Because the demons were evil, PrajZpati made them evil, a corollary to the theory of the chain of evil karma. The apparent nonsense of this concept is somewhat offset by the Hindu view of selfcorrecting cycles,l56 but this is certainly a weak point which betrays the constant confusion that the origin of evil generated in the Hindu mind. Similarly circular logic pervades another myth recorded by

Holwell : [After the revolt of the demons] the eternal One spoke again and said, "I have not withheld my mercy from. . . the leaders of the rebellious Debtah [DevatBs]; but as they thirsted for power, I will enlarge their powers of evil; they shall have liberty to pervade .. .and the delinquent Debtah shall be exposed and open to the same temptation that f i s t instigated their revolt: but the exertion of those enlarged powers, which I will give to the rebellious leaders, shall be to them the source of aggravated guilt, and punishment; and the resistance made to their temptations, by the per- verted Debtah, shall be to me the great proof of the sincerity of their sorrow and repentance."l57

The temptation in this episode is contrary to the general pattern of Hindu mythology, in which the evil man who is tempted with

154 E. M. Forster, The Hill of Dewi (London, 1965), p. 25. 155 L?atapatha BrChmapa, 11.1.6.1-11 ;my summary. 156 See below, sec. C8. 157 Holwell, pp. 57-58.

The Origin of Heresy in Hindu Mythology further evil is meant to succumb in order that the god may conquer him.158 But, whatever the intention, the net result is the same: The punishment is merely an enlargement of the sin, in this instance with the consequent guilt that is a moral torture in the Christian context and a source of the progress to a cycle of improvement in the Hindu context. Although the secondary corruption of the "rebellious leaders"

is clearly intentional in the Holwell myth, the source of the original sin is not specified and may have been a mistake on the part of god. One Sanskrit text actually states that god was deluded by his own power of delusion,l59 and the Prabodhacandrodaya describes a t some length the manner in which delusion overcomes god.160 I n most of the creation myths, delusion simply appears and continues to generate evil forces :

When BrahmB was thinking about creation, at the beginning of the kalpa, there appeared a creation preceded by ignorance and made of darkness; from it was born fivefold ignorance, consisting of darkness, delusion, great delusion, gloom, and blind-darkness [tamo moho makmohaa tcimisro hyandhasamjriitah]. Seeing that this creation was imperfect [as&dhakam], Brahmii began to create again. .. .His fourth creation produced creatures in whom tamas and rajas predominated, afflicted by misery; these were mankind.161

The qualities of passion and darkness appear in the course of creation as the natural complement to the third basic quality- sattva, light and truth-and they influence subsequent creation until another force predominates. Evil is an integral part of god and stems from him. This is

apparent from a passage in the BhZgavata Purtina which describes the parts of the creator which correspond to and produce the parts of the universe: His rectum is the origin of injury, misfortune, death, and hell ;his back is the source of defeat, adharma, and ignorance.162 I n a multiform of the creation myth, the goddess of misfortune, JyesthB, appears from the ocean when it is churned by the gods, who instruct her to dwell wherever there are quarrels or false speech and to eat people who lie and who fail to wash their feet.163 The existence of the evil goddess on earth is the fault of the gods, who produce her-as they produce the Kglakiita poison which immediately precedes her-when their greedy determina-

158 See below, secs. C1, C2, and C3. 159 Kcirikci of Gaudapada (Poona, 1953), 2.19. 160 Prabodhacandrodaya, act 1.

V i ~ p uPurcina, 1.5.4-8, -.16-18 ;my summary. 162 Bhcigavata Purcipa (Gorakhpur,1962), 2.6.8-9. 163 Padrna PurCpa, 6.260.22-33.


tion to obtain the Soma causes them to churn the ocean too fast. But she may only prey upon those who are already evil, like the demons whom Prajiipati corrupts.

In the ParGiara PurEna, heresy arises through the mistaken ideas of the sectarian gods Vienu and BrahmL, who have replaced Prajapiiti. This late text specifies heresy rather than the older, general evil :

BrahmFi and Vi~gu were arguing, each shouting that he was supreme. In anger, Brahmii cursed Vicnu: "You will be deluded and your devotees will have the appearance of Brahmins, but they will be against the Vedas and the true path to release. They will be Tantric Brahmins, initiated into the PBiicarFitra, ever averse to the Vedas, lawbooks, and the proper rituals that give release."l64

One variation upon this theme is seen in the many myths in which sin, conceived of as a physical entity like karma, arises in a god who is then forced to rid himself of it by transferring it to mankind. This is the reverse of the motif-very rare in Hinduism -in which god takes to himself the sins of mankind. Indra, king of the gods and most immoral of them, often places the burden of his sins on mankind or, more usually, womankind, for women are prominent in the creation of evil. Indra's lechery creates adultery on earth,l65 and the Fury of Brahminicide which pursues him is distributed among fire, water, grass, and the apsarases (this portion to be transferred to any man who makes love to women in their menstrual season), while the sin placed in women appears as the blood of their menstrual flow.166 A similar transfer of evil was made by the wicked king Vena, from whose left thigh there was born a small dark man who was the first of the NisLdas. By this means, the king's evil (pEpam) left his body, and his sins (kalmqa) were destroyed. Then from Vena's body there appeared fishermen, wild mountain tribes, and those who delight in adharma -barbarians and outcastes. Vena was thus purified and able to go to heaven.167

7. THE NECESSITY OF EVIL ;THE NECESSITY O F HERESY It would seem that god has no choice; part of him is evil and must create evil. Other Hindu myths seem to imply, however, that it is god himself who wills us to sin, a concept in direct opposition to the

lG4 ParGSara PurGna, chap. 3 ;cited by the Tantrdhikaranirnaya, p. 34.

16Qirniyapa of VBlmiki (Madras, 1958), 7.30.35.

MahibhGrata, 12.273.26-54, 5.13.17; Bhcigavata Pur ina , 6.9.6-9.

167 Hariva&a (Bombay, 1833-76). 1.6.15-20; Vispu PurGpa, 1.13.37.

299

--

The Origin of Heresy i n Hindu Mythology Manichean ideology. According to the Jairniniya BrGhmana, the gods were displeased with man and visited upon him the evils of sleep, sloth, anger, hunger, and the love of dice and women.168 Whether through jealousy or mere incompetence, it is the gods, rather than the demons, who are responsible for man's evil. Holwell compares the implications of the view that god creates evil against his will and the more typical Indian view that he creates it willingly: God would have made all things perfect, but . . . there was in matter an evil bias, repugnant to his benevolence, which drew another way; whence arose all manner of evils. . . . To produce good exclusive of evil, is one of those impossibilities, which even infinite power cannot accomplish. . .. How much more rational and sublime the text of Brahmah, which supposes the Deity's voluntary creation, or permission of evil, for the exaltation of a race of beings, whose goodness as free agents could not have existed without being endued with the contrasted, or opposite powers of doing evi1.169

The Abbe Dubois described the advaita philosophy that "neither good nor evil exists; that, in fact, all crimes, even parricide, adultery, fraud and perjury, are but acts incited by the divine power."l70 In this view, god creates evil not through his own incompetence but rather purposely, to perpetuate a basic flaw in the cosmic order. Once again, the ultimate responsibility is merely pushed back one step farther. Eliade once noted that in India there is not only no conflict between good and evil, but there is in fact a confusion between them.171 This is particularly true of Saiva philosophy, which denies the very existence of evil by stating that "God is the director of the universe, and under His rule nothing untoward can happen."l72 Agrawala has written: "In the body of Siva the devas and the asuras become reconciled and their coexistence is expressed as the rhythmic dance of the Great God. In the scheme of the creator darkness also has a place as inevitable as light." 173

Several texts describe a t some length the manner in which the creator purposely incorporated evil into his world: "BrahmZ created the pairs of opposites, virtue and sin. Moreover, to distinguish actions, he separated merit from demerit, and whatever he assigned to each a t the first creation, noxiousness or harmless-

168 Jaiminiya [Talavarka] BrGhmana, Sarasvati VihBra Series no. 31 (Nagpur, 1954). 1.97.

7 L~

170 Dubois, p. 403.

171 Mircea Eliade, "Notes de d6monologie," Zalmoxis 1 (1938):202 ff.

172 P. Shivapadasundaram, TheSaivaSchool of Hinduism (London, 1934), p. 67.

173 V. S. Agrawala, 8iva Mahtideva, the Great God (Benares, 1966), pp. 4-5.


ness, truth or falsehood, that quality clung spontaileously to it."174

The Visnu Purtina contains a key passage in which evil results in the basic heresy-the denial of the Vedas: That portion of Visnu which is one with Death [IiBla] caused [created beings] to fall, creating a small seed of adharma from which darkness and desire were born, and passion urns brought about. . . . Those in whose minds the seed of evil [pEpabindu] had been placed in the first creation, and in whom it increased, denied Vedic sacrifices and reviled the gods and the followers of the Vedas. They were of evil souls and evil behavior.175

The Lifiga PurGna also attributes to god the explicit wish to make the universe ambivalent by means of heresy as well as evil fortune (Alaksmi): NBrByana made the universe twofold [dvaidhan~]-for the sake of delusion. He made the Brahmins, Vedas, and the goddess Sri, and this was the best portion. Then he made Alakgmi and the lowest men, outside the Vedas, and he made adharma. When the goddess Jyesth8176 appeared from the ocean, the sage Markandeya said, "Jyestha is Alaksmi." She must dwell far from where men follow the path of the Vedas and worship NBrByana and Rudra. But she may enter wherever husband and wife quarrel, wherever there are people who delight in heretical practices and are beyond the pale of the Vedas, wherever there are atheists and hypocrites, Bud- dhists or Jains.177

This myth accounts for the presence of wicked people on earth by making them "food" for the goddess JyesthB in the usual manner, but i t also accounts for the actual heresies of Buddhism and Jainism. I n a similar manner, Hinduism describes the origin of the "left-hand" Visaraga sect: "Formerly Prajgpati, in order to conceal [the true] teaching, created the branch of the Visaragas, which deluded even the Munis, let alone ordinary men."178

The statement that Prajzpati acted "in order to conceal" the truth (upade&agBhanbrtham)does not satisfactorily explain his motivation; but this may be implicit in the Hindu belief in the necessity of evil. I n justifying the wickedness of kings, Arjuna argues: "I do not see any creature in this world that lives without injuring others; animals live upon animals, the stronger on the weaker. .. .No act is entirely devoid of evil." 179 This doctrine is further developed and more specifically related to 6iva in a Tantric hymn describing Biva's cosmic dance: "By the stamping

174 MBnuvadhamnas'cZst~a,1.26, -.29. 175 V i ~ uPurBpa, 1.6.1P15, -.29-31.

See above, sec. B6.

177 Liiiga PurBna (Calcutta, 1890), 2.6.1-57; my surnmary.

178 VaikhBnasas~rtas.Litra,Bibliotheca Indioa (Calcutta, 1927), 8.11.

I79 MahEbhBrata, 12.15.20, -.50.

2

The Origin of Heresy in Hindu Mythology of your feet you imperiled the safety of the earth and scattered the stars of the heavens. But you dance in order to save the world. Power is perverse [vtimaiva vibhuta]." 180 The commentator explains that 6iva behaves in the manner of a king protecting his subjects, an allusion to the view that, if a village is troubled by robbers or demons, the king's army will protect it, but the village will then have to tolerate the evils resulting from the presence of the army itself (rape, pilfering, etc.). This argument, that god cannot but do evil, appears in Hinduism with the corollary that god does not wish to avoid evil. Sin is necessary for the balance of earthly society. Just as the gods become demons, so it is necessary for there to be untouchables in order for there to be Brahmins; purity depends upon impurity. Goddesses of disease and filth are worshiped throughout India despite their impurity; the Hindus recognize the necessity of coming to terms with evil. Within this wide scope, each member of the society has his svadharma, his own particular role to fulfill, and of necessity some of these must be evil roles-the slaughterer of animals, the presser of seeds, the benefits of whose labors are enjoyed by castes too pure to indulge in them themselves. As these tasks are necessary, they are not considered to conduce to damnation. On the contrary, it is only by abandoning one's own impure svadharma in aspiration to a higher way of life that, in the classical Hindu system, the individual is damned. A striking illustration of the doctrine of svadharma may be seen

in the myth of the rciksasa SukeBin, who abandoned his demon dharma of rape and plunder in order to devote himself to the higher goals of truth and compassion; for forsaking his appointed role, he was cast down from the sky by the envious sun god.181 Yet this myth occupies a turning point in the moral evolution of the concept of evil. Though the demon is weakened by his violation of the strict caste law of svadharma, nevertheless the higher ideal of an absolute morality appears as well. This is due to the influence of the medieval bhakti movement which subordinated caste law and ritualism to the power of a direct bond of love between the worshiper and his god. Thus, SukeBin is eventually vindicated and restored to heaven in spite of his admitted lapse. Traditional ritualism continued to exert its power alongside the new devotional

180 Mahimnastot~aof Puspadanta, with the commentary of MadhusEdana (Benares, 1924), verse 16. He glosses v8mB as pratikiil8 and compares the svadedo-pad~avaresulting from the king's army.

181 V8mana PurGva, chaps. 11 and 16. 302

History of Religions movement, but in a similar story in another text the theory of svadharma, though clearly stated, is again challenged: There was a y a k ~ anamed Harikeia, who devoted himself to asceticism, dharma, and h a , behaving like a Brahmin. His father said to him, "This is not the behavior of our family. We are crucl by nature, harmful flesh eaters and scavengers. Pour behavior is not what the creator instructed you tq do." But Harikeia went to Benares, where he performed asceticism until Siva accepted him as a great yogi, one of Siva's own hosts.ls2

8. THE NECESSITY OF DEATH; THE OVERCROWDING OF HEAVEN One great evil which can never be superseded is death. That death was in fact considered an evil is clear from many explicit statements as well as from the contexts of the myth. That the possibility of its absence was considered, though inevitably rejected, is also clear: Once the sages made Death their slaughterer of sacrificial animals. No one died then except those animals slaughtered for the sacrifice; mortality became immortality. Heaven became empty and the mortal world, ignored by death, became overcrowded. The gods said to the demons, "Destroy the sacrifice of the sages." The demons attacked the sacrifice, but the sages begged Biva to help them, and he himself completed their sacrifice. The sages then said to the gods, in anger, "Since you sent the demons to destroy our sacrifice, let the evil demons be your enemies." And thenceforth the demons became the enemies of the gods.183

In this late myth, evil originates in the absence of death; sup- posedly there were no evil demons until the gods sent them to interfere with the sages. Without death, the balance of heaven and earth, good and evil, is upset, and only the creation of another evil-the demons-can right it again. Sometimes Siva indulges in a kind of preventive euthanasia, refusing to create beings subject to the fear of death and karma, while Brahmii, the creator, is ironically the one who sees the need for death: "Only that creation which is composed of good and evil is auspicious. . . .Creatures free from death will undertake no actions."la4 Death and evil are similarly related in another series of myths

in which people become virtuous, heaven is full, and hell, the abode of Death, is empty. In fact, this is a recurrence of the problems posed by the original golden age, but here it is the excess of virtuous people, not of immortals or people in general, that upsets the balance, and therefore heresy, rather than death, may

182 Matsya Purtina, ~%nandi$rama Sanskrit Series no. 54 (Poona, 1907), 180.5-99, esp. 8-13; my summary.

183 Brahma Purtina (Calcutta, 1954), 116.1-21 ;my summary. 184 Matsya Purtipa, 4.30-32; Liiiga Purtipa, 1.70.315.

The Origin of Heresy in Hindu Mythology be used to solve the problem. There are many early texts dealing with the basic disinclination of the gods to allow crowds in heaven. The datapatha BrEhnzana states that the gods, having conquered heaven, tried to make it unattainable by

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The Origin of Heresy in Hindu Mythology