THE NEW ARMENIAN MEDICAL JOURNAL · 1989; Scott G., Turner C., 1997] towards develop-mental processes. Fluctuating asymmetry in bilat-eral morphological features frequently indicates

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THE NEW ARMENIAN MEDICAL JOURNAL Vol .8 (2014) , Nо 3 p . 13-26

STUDY ON REGULARITIES OF DENTAL PATHOLOGY DEVELOP-MENT IN HUMANS OF BRONZE AND IRON AGES FROM THE TER-

RITORY OF ARMENIA (PALEOANTHROPOLOGICAL ASPECT) Khudaverdyan a.yu.1, yenGibaryan a.a.2

1 Institute of Archaeology and Ethnography, National Academy of Science of the Republic of Armenia, Yerevan, Armenia

2 Department of Medical Biology, Yerevan State Medical University, Yerevan, Armenia

AbstractDental pathology related to the lifestyle and diet was investigated in the human dental re-

mains unearthed from 10 archaeological sites of Bronze and Iron Ages in Armenia. In the course of human life the food composition, regular masticatory load can bring to pathologies of teeth and jawbones. The study indicates that the tooth wear in populations of Bronze and Iron Ages was approximately similar. According to observations, the antemortem tooth loss frequencies were higher in population groups of Bronze – Early Iron Ages than in those of the Late Iron Age sites, while the frequencies of caries decreased within the historical sequence. Such a difference in caries occurrence depended on different proportion of carbohydrates rich foods in the diet. The increased frequency of alveolar abscess, enamel hypoplasia, dental calculus, and periodon-tal disease was recorded in the specimens from the Bronze – Early Iron Ages. Asymmetry of teeth was more common in individuals of Late Iron Age, but statistically, this indicator does not con-firm the differences between specimens of Early and Late sites. Isolated cases of traumatic dental injuries (microtraumas), hypodontia, hyperdontia, deformation in position of teeth and osteoar-thritis of the temporomandibular joints were recorded.

It should be noted that for the first time on the territory of Armenia, we recorded pit-tubercles on crowns of mandibular molars, and the marker was helpful for identifying a possible genetic relationship between different ethnic groups.

KeywordS: caries, tooth wear, dental calculus, enamel hypoplasia, dental asymmetry, periodontal disease, alveolar abscess.

AddreSS For correSPoNdeNce:Institute of Archaeology and Ethnography,National Academy of Science of the Republic of Armenia15 Charents Street, Yerevan, 0025, ArmeniaTel.: (+374 77) 13 32 54; (+374 10) 56 58 84E-mail: [email protected]

introduction

Dental pathology observed in prehistoric human remains contributes valuable information for de-ducing data from past lifestyles, including diets, which further indicate their living environments, cultural development and types of economy. This study is a continuation of the research work on in-teractions between the environment, lifestyle and diseases in the ancient population of Armenia [Khudaverdyan A., 2012; Khudaverdyan A. et al., 2013; 2014 a;b]. Tooth wear, caries, antemortem tooth loss, and some other related dental patholo-

gies were assessed in order to see, whether there were differences in diet and economy types be-tween the area relevant groups during the time pe-riod from 4000 B.C. to 1000 B.C., i.e. populations of Bronze and Iron Ages.

Dental caries is an infectious disease that de-stroys the tooth structure, as well as the root and the crown [Brothwell D., Sandison A., 1967; Aufderhe-ide A., Rodriguez-Martin C., 1998]. The study on epidemiology of dental caries is one of the impor-tant pathways to reconstruct diet of paleopopula-tions. Usually, populations with diet rich in carbo-hydrates, especially sucrose and fructose, have the highest incidence of this disease [Turner C., 1979; Scott G., Turner C., 1988; Lukacs J., 1992; Larsen C., 1997; Ortner D., 2003]. Diet high in protein sig-

Received 03/15/2014; accepted for printing 07/14/2014

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The New ArmeNiAN medicAl JourNAl, Vol.8 (2014), No 3, p. KhudAverdyAN A.yu., yeNgibAryAN A.A. 13-26

nificantly reduces the risk of dental caries. Dental wear of the functional chewing surface de-

pends on the hardness of food consumed and on whether the teeth are used as tools. Abrasion rate re-flects the physical content of the diet and, in particu-lar, was shown to differ between mobile hunters/gatherers and early-epoch farmers [Smith P., 1972; 1989]. When using grain grinders, a large number of tiny abrasive particles enter into flour, which causes increased tooth wear [Smith P. et al., 1984; Smith P., Kolska-Horwitz L., 1998; Walker L., 1998].

Dental calculus is mineralized plaque accumu-lated on the enamel surfaces of teeth as a result of poor hygiene and diet [Mandel I., 1995; Hillson S., 1996]. Plaque buildup can occur in diets with heavy carbohydrates consumption [Stanton G., 1969; Hillson S., 1996], although protein might in-crease oral alkalinity, thereby promoting calculus mineralization [Wong L. 1998; Lieverse A., 1999; Jin Ye., Yip H., 2002].

Enamel hypoplasias are indicators of growth dis-ruptions during dental development; they are visible on teeth as areas of enamel deficiency. Most of these hypoplastic defects are oriented horizontally across the tooth, and multiple grooves reflect multiple en-vironmental stress episodes. The etiological factors implicated in the occurrence of a growth disruption and resulting in a hypoplastic defect include dis-eases, malnutrition, traumas, and hereditary condi-tions [Goodman A., Rose J., 1990; Hillson S., 1996; 2000; Roberts C., Manchester K., 2005]. However, malnutrition and diseases appear to be far more common causes of hypoplasia, because hereditary defects and localized traumas are of relatively rare occurrences [Goodman A., Rose J., 1990].

Fluctuating asymmetry is considered a measure of developmental stability used to make inferences about the general health of populations during growth and development. Asymmetry in human teeth sizes and structure is the result of genetic dis-ruptions or environmental factors [Bader R., 1965; Siegel M. et al., 1977; Zubov А., Khaldeeva N., 1989; Scott G., Turner C., 1997] towards develop-mental processes. Fluctuating asymmetry in bilat-eral morphological features frequently indicates an organism’s inability to effectively cope with the unfavourable impacts of environmental stressors. Heat, cold, and audiogenic stress – pre- and/or postnatally – each produce increased levels of den-

tal asymmetry in the period of permanent dentition [Scott G., Turner C., 1997]. Studies assessing the magnitude of asymmetry in ancient and preserved structures were used in numerous different scien-tific fields, many of which have attempted to as-sociate fluctuating asymmetry with a number of environmental and genetic factors [Harris E., Nweeia M., 1980; Townsend G., 1981; Khalaf K. et al., 2005]. Fluctuating asymmetry is mostly pro-nounced in representatives of ancient hominids [Zubov А., Khaldeeva N., 1989]. This type asym-metry is evident in the ethnic groups with the ar-chaic type of farming (Canadian Eskimos), which is consistent with the conclusion that this phenom-enon is due to the harsh living conditions.

Periodontal disease is the inflammation of soft tissues of the mouth, namely the gums, and/or the periodontal ligament, as well as the alveolar bone [Levin R., 2003]. Periodontal disease is caused by several irritants such as bacterial plaque that be-comes calculus due to calcification [Ortner, D., Putschar W., 1981; Clarke N., 1990; Aufderheide A., Rodriguez-Martin C., 1998; Ortner D., 2003]. Inflammation of the surrounding soft tissues (gin-givitis) might be another cause of periodontal dis-ease [Ortner D., 2003]. Furthermore, C.S. Larsen (1997) lists the influencing factors, such as nutri-tional status, bacteria, poor oral hygiene, maloc-clusion, pregnancy, and psychological stress. At the progressive phase of the disease dedentition occurs. Teeth lost during the life-span were not considered as periodontal disease-related, because other conditions, such as accidents or interpersonal violence, could also cause tooth loss.

Alveolar abscess (parulis) of a tooth leads fre-quently to its exfoliation and causes a remodeling process that usually destroys the alveolus and re-duces the size of the alveolar process at the site of the tooth loss [Ortner D., 2003]. Some researchers noted that abscesses were caused by Streptococcus milleri, Fusobacterium nucleatum, or Streptococ-cus mitis [Lewis M. et al., 1986]. Abscesses can be also instigated by various conditions, such as peri-odontal infection, traumas, and pulp necrosis. Peri-apical abscesses can be fatal, if the resulting infec-tion spreads into the maxillary sinuses. Although periapical abscesses can occur on the roots of any tooth, D. Herrera and co-workers concluded that molars are most frequently affected with odonto-

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genic osteomyelitis; the occurrence makes 69% [Herrera D. et al., 2000 а;b].

Specific etiologies of antemortem tooth loss are problematic, as evidences might be lost, especially in instances of carious teeth, tooth wear, periodontal disease, heavy traumas. However, the close associa-tion between periodontal disease, dental caries, and antemortem tooth loss is well established, especially in archaeological series [Scott G., Turner C., 1988; Larsen C., 1997; Cucina A., Tiesler V., 2003]. The prevalence of antemortem tooth loss contributes to the overall picture of oral health in a sample.

Torus mandibularis is a bony sublingual protu-berance of different size and form, typically near the canine and premolar teeth [Scott G. et al., 1991; Jainkittivong A., Langlais R., 2000; Pechen-kina E. et al., 2002]. The etiology of tori is compli-cated and unclear. Possible causes include masti-catory hyperfunction (primary factor), continued bone growth, genetic and environmental factors, and diet [Jainkittivong A., Langlais R., 2000]. Mandibular tori are more common in Asian and Inuit populations, slightly more common in males.

Osteoarthritis of the temporomandibular joint is a unilateral, degenerative disease of the jaw joint. It is characterized by breakdown of the ar-ticular cartilage, architectural changes in bone, and degeneration of the synovial tissues causing pain and/or dysfunction in functional movements of the jaw [Richards L., Brown T., 1981].

The current article presents observations made through studies on dynamics of dental diseases and some anomalies in the “teeth – jaw bone” system (caries, tooth wear, dental calculus, enamel hypo-plasia, dental asymmetry, periodontal disease, al-veolar abscesses, pit-tubercles on molars), and an-temortem loss of permanent teeth as indices of general health [Goodman A. et al., 1984; Goodman A., Armelagos G., 1989; Ortner D., 2003] in popu-lation of Armenia in Bronze and Iron Ages.

Material and Methods

Skeletal material from 10 archaeological sites (Landjik, Kaps, the Black Fortress, Shirakavan, Lori Berd, Nerkin Getashen, Keti, Sarukhan, Arts-vakar, Noraduz) in Armenia was examined for the presence of dental disease. The material of the present study consisted of 156 skulls of the ancient Armenia individuals.

Craniological series: The Early Bronze Age sample involved exclusively burials from Landjik and Kaps (Kura-Araxes culture). Samples were an Early Bronze Age sites occupied from 4000 to 3000 B.C. A multiple burial contained the remains of 10 individuals from Landjik and 3 individuals from Kaps [Petrosyan L. et al., 2009; Eganyan L., 2010]. The site of the Black Fortress is remarkable owing to its archaeological features spanning two periods of ancient Armenian history: Late Bronze Age (1400 – 1200 B.C.) and Late Antiquity (1st century B.C. – 3rd century A.D.) [Ter-Markaryan S., Avagyan I., 2000; Avagyan I., 2003]. The re-mains of 13 individuals were recovered at the site of the Late Bronze Age. The Bronze Age sample was represented exclusively by burials from Keti (1400 – 1200 B.C.). A multiple burial was exca-vated there containing the remains (skulls) of 4 in-dividuals. Altogether, an estimated 21 individuals were found from Shirakavan site. The excavated material sheds light on various aspects of ancient life in this region, convincingly testifying that a complex culture existed all over the Shirakavan area [Torosyan R. et al., 2002]. All the burials ap-pear to be typical for Iron Age interments (9th – 6th century B.C.), being oriented to the east-west axis. The cemeteries comprise mostly single buri-als, but double and triple burials are also present. Skeletal remains were recovered as isolated bones and skulls, largely in disarticulated positions. Ex-cavations at Lori Berd began in 1969 and were per-formed by S. Devejyan. In Lori Berd the materials discovered in the tombs included a large number of rich ornamented ritual vessels, beads of stone and of precious metals, and other items [Devejyan S., 1981]. A total of 16 skeletons were excavated at Lori Berd site. Skeletons from Nerkin Getashen, Sarukhan, Artsvakar and Noraduz are a part of col-lection gathered by Anna Palikyan (1990).

results and discussion

Dental caries: Caries was recorded only if there was surface destruction of the tooth: a cavity. Cav-ities were localized on the chewing surfaces of mainly first, second molars, sometimes reaching considerable size. In some subjects the complica-tions of dental caries were observed as cavities of periapical abscesses (Fig. 1). In the groups of Kaps, Keti, Sarukhan and Noraduz dental caries

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was not identified. A relatively high frequency of dental caries was observed in populations of the Bronze and Early Iron Аges: Landjik (33.4%), the Black Fortress (30.8%), Nerkin Getashen (2.3%), Artsvakar (22.3%); total frequency made 22.2%. Among the representatives of Late Iron Age fre-quencies of the caries-related affection decreased: Lori Berd (28.6%), Shirakavan (5.9%); total fre-quency made 17.3% (Fig. 2). Comparison of indi-ces on caries prevalence in chronological sequence tends to decrease of the disease.

Tooth wear: In subjects of Bronze and Iron Ages from Armenia the tooth wear rate was almost similar. Unlike the population of Landjik, the Black Fortress, Nerkin Getashen, Keti, Shiraka-van, and Lori Berd sites, nearly all teeth in subjects from Kaps (2 individuals), Noraduz (3 individuals) (Fig. 3), Artsvakar and Sarukhan (by 1 individual) were more severely worn. These findings allowed to believe that tooth wear within the Armenian populations of the Bronze – Iron Ages was smaller. In addition to the difference in tooth wear rates, we also found some special wear patterns in the sam-ples. Heavier uniform wearing of the anterior teeth compared to posterior teeth in some specimens, e.g. female subject from Nerkin Getashen (Fig. 4), provided basis to suppose untimely attrition of teeth as a result of functional loads. The degree of working deterioration of crowns of teeth depends on the general intensity of economic activities of the individual and possible use of teeth as the non-masticatory tools [Merbs C., 1983; Turner C., Machado L., 1983; Irish J., Turner C., 1987; Erdal Y., 2008]. The other special tooth wear patterns had relatively low frequencies in the present study.

Traumatic dental injuries: Such injuries were rare in archaeological populations from Armenia. Traumatic dental injuries were not revealed in child-hood and adolescence. The specified injuries of dif-ferent severity degree affected a total of 18 adult individuals in the population from Nerkin Getashen. Specified dental injuries were more common on the first and second molars, as well as canines. Five in-dividuals from Shirakavan and Lori Berd (Fig. 5) also had chipped teeth (antemortem damage to the crown of the tooth) on the left side of maxilla. Small pieces of enamel are missing on the buccal sides of the premolars (approximately 8×7 mm). This latter might also occur in “processing” of food (longitudi-

Figure 1. Dental caries, outcomes of alveolar ab-scesses, chipped teeth, dental calculus.

Figure 2. Frequency of dental caries occurrence in pop-ulation of Bronze Age and Iron Age from Armenia: NoTeS: archaeological sites: 1 – Landjik, 2 – Kaps, 3 – the Black Fortress, 4 – Nerkin Getashen, 5 – Keti, 6 – Noraduz, 7 – Artsvakar, 8 – Sarukhan, 9 – Shiraka-van, 10 – Lori Berd..

Figure 3. Severe wear of the first molars.

nal fractures), as well as due to use of maxillodental system as a tool in labor operations (longitudinal and transverse fractures).

Dental calculus: In the groups from Kaps and Keti dental calculus was not identified. A relatively high frequency of dental calculus was observed in

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populations of the Bronze and Early Iron Аges: Landjik (62.5%), the Black Fortress (60%), Nerkin Getashen (73.4%), Artsvakar (88.9%), Sarukhan (33.4%), Noraduz (53.4%); total frequency made 61.94% and prevalence of dental calculus was al-most total (Fig. 6; 7). Among the representatives of Late Iron Age frequencies of the dental calculus de-creased: Lori Berd (57.2%) and Shirakavan (23.6%); total frequency made 40.4%. Posterior teeth were more severely affected compared to anterior teeth, while the affection of lower teeth was more pro-found than upper teeth. There is an opinion that the presence of dental calculus in Bronze Age herds-men indicates a preference for viscous food and an intensive use of pickled, fermented milk products [Mednikova M., 2006]. However, it is quite at odds with the fact that weak acids, including lactic acid, contribute to demineralization of dental calculus [Jin Ye., Yip H., 2002]. Most researchers tend rather to the fact that a high intake of meat stimulates the formation of dental calculus [Lieverse A., 1999; Tur S., Rykun M., 2008].

Enamel hypoplasias: In individuals from Kaps and Keti burial sites there was no instance of hy-poplasia (Fig. 8). The prevalence of hypoplasia in samples of Bronze Age and Early Iron Age was high and appropriately made 50% in Landjik, 61.6% in the Black Fortress, 45.5% in Nerkin Getashen, 26.7% in Noraduz, 55.6% in Artsvakar, 54.6% in Sarukhan. The overall frequency in groups made 49%. It might be implied that the in-cidence of multiple enamel hypoplasias reflecting the effects of physiological stress in general popu-lation was conditioned by season-related varia-tions in food availability in the ration. Among the representatives of Late Iron Age frequencies of enamel hypoplasias decreased: Shirakavan (23.6%) and Lori Berd (57.2%); the overall frequency in these groups made 40.4% (Fig. 9).

Dental asymmetry: In individuals from Kaps, Lori Berd and Sarukhan sites there was no instance of dental asymmetry (Fig. 10). In Landjik group (Kura-Araxes culture) the frequency of asymmetry made 40%. The prevalence of dental asymmetry in samples from Nеrkin Getashen was 20.5%, in sub-jects from the Black Fortress – 23.1%, Keti – 50%, and Artsvakar – 50%. Overall frequency of dental asymmetry in groups of Middle/Late Bronze made 35.9%. Fluctuating asymmetry of dental system

Figure 5. Chipped left premolars.

Figure 6. Dental calculus, bone resorption (out-comes of periapical abscess) at the roots of the left first molar.

Figure 4. Wear of front incisors.

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was more common in Late Iron Age (Shirakavan: 57.2%). While asymmetry of the teeth in the speci-fied period was higher than in Bronze/Early Iron Age, this might be the result of statistical error (i.e., due to small sample size).

We also set a goal to compare the frequency of enamel hypoplasia with frequency of fluctuating asymmetry of teeth. We wanted to test the hypoth-esis of the interdependence of signs, in this way or another related to the adverse environmental im-pacts on the human body. Reversely directed stress indicators might signify that fluctuating asymme-try and enamel hypoplasias are different in nature of pathology development [Khudaverdyan A. et al., 2014 a]. It is also possible that the negative impact of environmental factors (in the form of dental asymmetry, enamel hypoplasias) occurred at different stages of individual human develop-ment. In individuals of Keti burial site we found a small relationship between dental asymmetry of inferior molars and enamel hypoplasias. Describ-ing the dentition in four individuals from Keti burial we recorded dental asymmetry and enamel hypoplasias in two subjects.

Periodontal disease: The development of peri-odontal disease (Fig. 11) correlated with age and age-related tooth wear, as well as teeth-jaw pathol-ogies of age dependency: dental abscess (odonto-genic osteomyelitis), antemortem tooth loss, osteo-arthritis of the temporomandibular joints [Tur S., Rykun M., 2008]. Apart from severe attrition and traumatic injuries of teeth, the reasons for develop-ment of periodontal disease can involve such fac-tors as vitamin C deficiency, protein deficiency or dental calculus [Ortner D., 2003]. In individuals from Kaps, Keti, Shirakavan and Lori Berd there was no instance of the specified disease. Periodon-tal disease was the most common dental pathology observed in Artsvakar (66.7%), Landjik (40%), Nerkin Getashen (33.4%), the Black Fortress (30.8%) and Noraduz (15.8%) (Fig. 12). On aver-age, there was greater bone loss in the mandible than in the maxilla.

Alveolar abscess: Another retrospectively con-sidered pathology was presented by alveolar ab-scess on maxillar and mandibular processes (Fig. 1). In groups from Kaps and Keti this pathology was not identified. A relatively high frequency of this type abscesses was observed in populations of the

Figure 7. Frequency of dental calculus occurrence in population of Bronze Age and Iron Age from Armenia: NoTeS: See notations indicated in Notes to Fig. 2

Figure 8. Enamel hypoplasia on front incisors, canine, chipped on the second premolar, first molar.

Figure 9. Frequency of enamel hypoplasias occurrence in population of Bronze Age and Iron Age from Armenia. NoTeS: See notations indicated in Notes to Fig. 2

Figure 10. Frequency of dental asymmetry occurrence in population of Bronze Age and Iron Age from Armenia: NoTeS: See notations indicated in Notes to Fig. 2

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Bronze and Early Iron Аges: Landjik (37.5%), the Black Fortress (10%), Nerkin Getashen (18.4%), Artsvakar (33.4%), Sarukhan (25%), Noraduz (13.4%); total frequency made 22.95% (Fig. 13). Among the representatives of Late Iron Age the frequencies of alveolar abscesses decreased: Lori Berd (10%), Shirakavan (5.9%); total frequency made 7.95%.

Antemortem tooth loss: On paleomaterials ante-mortem tooth loss looks like portion of the alveolar process with a missing tooth and socket, tightened or protracted with bone tissue. In individuals from Kaps burial there was no instance of antemortem tooth loss. A relatively high frequency of antemor-tem tooth loss was observed in populations of the Bronze and Early Iron Ages: Landjik (40%), the Black Fortress (38.5%), Nerkin Getashen (47.92%), Artsvakar (33.4%), Sarukhan (25%), Noraduz (13.4%); total frequency made 31.9% (Fig. 14; 15). Among the representatives of Late Iron Age fre-quencies of the antemortem tooth loss decreases: Lori Berd – 36.4%, Shirakavan – 16.7%; total fre-quency made 26.6%. Thus, the main trend in chron-ological dynamics of antemortem tooth loss can be described as a decrease in geometrical progression of prevalence and intensity of tooth loss in chrono-logical order. The most severely affected teeth in this group were molars, followed by the premolars.

Torus mandibularis: We considered the exosto-ses on mandibles and maxillae as indicators of masticatory stress. Our observations indicate that a severe degree of tori occurred only in the speci-mens from the Nerkin Getashen site (Fig. 16). In the groups from Kaps, Keti and Sarukhan torus mandibularis was not identified (Fig. 17). A rela-tively high frequency of the specified pathology was observed in populations of the Bronze and Early Iron Ages: Landjik (54.2%), the Black For-tress (16.4%), Nerkin Getashen (35.3%), Artsvakar (11.2%), Noraduz (53.4%); total frequency made 34.1%. Functions of teeth at those individuals, pre-sumably, were diverse from those in modern hu-mans, and tori were the possible consequence of adaptation to high load on jaws of those people. Among the representatives of Late Iron Age the av-erage frequencies of exostoses on mandibles and maxillae decreased: Lori Berd (7.2%), Shirakavan (29.5%); total frequency made 18.4%.

Osteoarthritis of the temporomandibular joint

Figure 12. Frequency of periodontal disease occurrence in population of Bronze Age and Iron Age from Armenia. NoTeS: See notations indicated in Notes to Fig. 2

Figure 13. Frequency of alveolar abscesses occurrence in population of Bronze Age and Iron Age from Armenia. NoTeS: See notations indicated in Notes to Fig. 2

Figure 11. Periodontal disease, retention of the right second lower incisor.

Figure 14. Lower jaw with antemortem tooth loss.

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is a degenerative disease of the jaw joint. It is char-acterized by breakdown of the articular cartilage, architectural changes in bone, and degeneration of the synovial tissues. This type pathology is a marker of mechanical overload on maxillodental system arising in the use of teeth as working tools at strong chewing and resulting severe tooth wear [Richards L., Brown T., 1981]. In the Nerkin Getashen sample (Fig. 18; 19), osteoarthritis of the temporomandibular joint was present in 40 indi-viduals, in the Noraduz sample – in 1 individual, in the Artsvakar sample – in 2 individuals.

Deformation of teeth position: In the course of human evolution, as the amount of space (in the man-dible) became smaller, a random mutation had selec-tive value, and its frequency increased over time. However, the third molar remains a scar of human evolution. Only two adults from Nerkin Getashen (Fig. 20) bore evidence of dentition deformation.

Hypodontia: In dentistry, hypodontia is the con-dition, at which the individual has missing teeth as a result of the failure of those teeth to develop; the pathology is also called tooth agenesis [Fekonja A., 2005]. The defects of dental retention (Fig. 11; 21) can be caused by the absence of adequate space in the jaw, owing to the wrong position of a tooth or its neighbor. Most often (according to materials of ancient excavations) incisors and canines are re-tained in the jaw [Khudaverdyan A., 2012]. Dental retention was observed in 2 individuals from Ner-kin Getashen burial (Fig. 11): retention of the right second lower incisor; in 1 individual from Sa-rukhan (Fig. 21): left second upper incisor; in 1 individual from Noraduz: right second upper pre-molar, and in 1 individual from the Black Fortress: right second upper incisor.

Hyperdontia: Another anomaly is hyperdontia, in which there is more than the usual number of teeth, more commonly called as supernumerary teeth. Supernumerary teeth are a developmental abnormality that affects the number of teeth. The etiology of hyperdontia is not yet completely un-derstood [Liu J., 1995]. There are several theories explaining how this anomaly develops. Supernu-merary teeth are classified on the basis of position and form. The most common position of supernu-merary tooth is mesiodens, an extra tooth located in the incisor region. Other supernumeraries are paramolar (tooth present beside a molar), distomo-

Figure 15. Frequency of antemortem tooth loss occurrence in population of Bronze Age and Iron Age from Armenia. NoTeS: See notations indicated in Notes to Fig. 2

Figure 16. Torus mandibularis.

Figure 17. Frequency of torus mandibularis occurrence in population of Bronze Age and Iron Age from Armenia. NoTeS: See notations indicated in Notes to Fig. 2

Figure 18. Osteoarthritis of the temporomandibular joint.

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lar (tooth present distal to the last molar) and para-premolar (tooth present beside a premolar) [Therese M. et al., 1999]. According to one theory, supernumerary teeth are created as a result of a di-chotomy of the tooth bud [Liu J., 1995]. Another theory suggests that supernumeraries are formed as a result of local, independent, conditioned hy-peractivity of the dental lamina [Levine N., 1961; Liu J., 1995]. Sometimes this condition is related to syndromes such as Gardner’s syndrome, cleido-cranial dysostosis, and cleft lip and palate [Scheiner M., Sampson W., 1997]. An extra unerupted tooth, parapremolar, located between the two premolars was observed in subject from Sarukhan site burial 10 (Fig. 22). The mesiodens, the most common type of supernumerary tooth, was found in the midline of the maxilla palatal to the central inci-sors (at the level of lower right second incisor) of female subject from Black Fortress site (Fig. 23).

Mandibular molar pit-tubercle: While record-ing morphometric variations in specimens from several time periods dating from Ireland’s Neo-lithic (ca. 4000-1800 B.C.) to its Early Christian era (ca. 400-1170 A.D.), an indentation in the enamel crown was first noted on the buccal surface of heavily fragmented and cremated permanent mandibular molars from multi-component mega-lithic tomb sites [Weets J., 2009]. In our sample, an indentation in the enamel crown was first noted on the buccal surface of molars in series from Nerkin Getashen, Keti, Artsvakar sites (Fig. 24). As a rule, pit-tubercles were on the lingual surface. As re-ported by J. Weets, the mandibular molar pit-tuber-cle is rare on the first molar, as well as on the sec-ond molar (6.0%). In the third molar this trait is more common (31.4%). In the group from Nerkin Getashen 19 out of 26 dentitions showed evidence of mandibular molar pit-tubercle. The mandibular molar pit-tubercle was more common on the first molar (12 times), as well as on the second molar (10 times), while in the third molar this trait was rare (7 times). Regarding the skeletons from Arts-vakar site, 2 individuals showed evidence of man-dibular molar pit-tubercle. Studying dentition of four individuals from Keti burial, we found the mentioned feature in two cases.

Figure 19. Erosion of the temporomandibular joint.

Figure 20. Anomalous position of the third molar.

Figure 21. Retention of the left second incisor.

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some samples from burials of Kaps, Noraduz, Arts-vakar, Sarukhan. Among the several aspects of tooth wear, differences between the anterior and posterior teeth wearing seem to be most important, because people often used their anterior teeth to gnaw food, peel hard fruits, or even used their front teeth as tools. According to some previous studies [Scott G., Turner C., 1988; Cucina A., Tiesler V., 2003], the pattern of antemortem tooth loss is closely related to the living environment, behavior and types of econ-omy. According to our observations, the antemor-tem tooth loss was higher in populations of Bronze – Early Iron Ages than in those of the Late Iron Age. Carious lesions were frequent on human teeth un-earthed from archaeological sites. The frequencies and expressions of caries vary significantly with time periods and geographic areas. The reason for the differences is related to the etiology of caries [Turner C., 1979; Scott G., Turner C., 1988]. Even though there are many factors related to caries, it is generally accepted that the amount of carbohydrates in food is one of the most important factors for de-veloping caries [Turner C., 1979; Lukacs J., 1992]. Usually, higher frequencies of caries are found among individuals of Bronze – Early Iron Ages compared to those of Late Iron Age. In addition, the frequency of overstatement of antemortem tooth loss indicates a “sharp” form of the disease develop-ment in the samples. Though paradoxical, neverthe-less, today exploring the chronology of the disease we observe a decrease in the incidence of tooth decay and antemortem tooth loss in population of Armenia [Khudaverdyan A. et al., 2013]. The fre-quencies of caries decreased. We believe that such a difference in caries occurrence reflects different proportion of carbohydrates rich foods in ancient populations from Armenia.

Different forms of the exostoses seem to share the same causative factors of masticatory stress [Jainkittivong A., Langlais R., 2000]. These bulging bony structures decrease in size and frequency with the shift from hard in texture wild diet to a soft ag-riculture and animal husbandry-based diet [Scott G. et al., 1991; Pechenkina E. et al., 2002]. The dy-namics of this pathology manifestation in historical sequence shows that the frequency decreases from the Bronze Age to the Late Iron Age. We also found that prevalence of alveolar abscess, enamel hypo-plasia, dental calculus, and periodontal disease de-

Figure 22. Supernumerary tooth at the right second premolar.

Figure 23. Supernumerary tooth at the right second incisor.

Figure 24. Mandibular molar pit-tubercle.

conclusion

The study on the teeth and jawbones of prehis-toric human populations allowed to establish dental pathologies, as well as factors affecting the diet and lifestyles of ancient peoples. Our study indicates that the tooth wear of the human populations in Ar-menia of Bronze – Iron Ages was approximately similar. The severe tooth wear was recorded only in

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creased as well. The asymmetry of teeth is more common in individuals of Late Iron Age (Shiraka-van), but statistically, this indicator does not con-firm the differences between series of Early and Late sites. We recorded isolated cases of traumatic dental injuries (microtraumas), hypodontia, hyper-dontia, deformation of teeth position, and osteoar-thritis of the temporomandibular joint (except for individuals from Nerkin Getashen burial site).

Trends presented in the article only outline the serious problems associated with the influence of environmental and social factors on the develop-ment of human populations. These issues require a thorough study. Reconstruction of the reasons in each case requires a complex analysis using data of history, archeology, and other branches of sci-ence. In general, inter-group differences in stress parameters underlie genetic mechanisms that re-flect the biological history in the formation of spe-

cific populations. Each factor – ethnic and envi-ronmental – contributes to the character of the adaptive response.

For the first time on the territory of Armenia (groups: Nerkin Getashen, Artsvakar, Keti), we re-corded pits on crowns of mandibular molars (man-dibular molar pit-tubercles). This feature is not in-cluded in the program of odontology studies [Turner C. et al., 1991; Zubov A., 2006]. Whether it enters into circulation as a feature of molars and might serve as a marker phene – the time will show. Maybe we faced a narrow local anomaly as a result of isolation and isogametation, but this feature characterizes any ancient or modern group, and it certainly deserves attention. It should be noted that the marker was helpful (in conjunction with other dental markers) for identifying a possi-ble genetic relationship between different ethnic groups [Marado L., 2011].

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Documents

THE NEW ARMENIAN MEDICAL JOURNAL · 1989; Scott G., Turner C., 1997] towards develop-mental processes. Fluctuating asymmetry in bilat-eral morphological features frequently indicates