The Neuroscience of Critical Thinking Sandra Johnson, Ph.D., MSW, CASAC

The Neuroscience of The Neuroscience of Critical ThinkingCritical Thinking

Sandra Johnson, Ph.D., MSW, CASACSandra Johnson, Ph.D., MSW, CASAC

What Motivated You toWhat Motivated You toReturn to School?Return to School?

Increase of knowledge?Increase of knowledge? Increase of Self-Confidence?Increase of Self-Confidence? Move upward at your place of Move upward at your place of

employment?employment? Will you receive more money with more Will you receive more money with more

schooling?schooling? Want to Impress Upon Your Children the Want to Impress Upon Your Children the

Importance of Education?Importance of Education?

Are You Ready?Are You Ready?

Do you have a support system?Do you have a support system? Do you procrastinate?Do you procrastinate? Do you have access to an on-line/physical Do you have access to an on-line/physical

library?library? Do you know how to research (use databases, Do you know how to research (use databases,

etc?)etc?) Do you have a quiet place to study?Do you have a quiet place to study? Do you have enough time to study/attend Do you have enough time to study/attend

school?school? Do you use stress reduction techniques?Do you use stress reduction techniques?

Kolb’s Learning CycleKolb’s Learning Cycle

1.1. Gathering InformationGathering Information

2.2. Reflective ObservationReflective Observation

3.3. Abstract ThinkingAbstract Thinking

4.4. Active TestingActive Testing

Kolb’s Learning Cycle andKolb’s Learning Cycle andCritical Thinking Critical Thinking

We can become critical thinkers through Kolb’s LearningWe can become critical thinkers through Kolb’s Learning The brain changes physically as it learnsThe brain changes physically as it learns As we take in or gather information (concrete As we take in or gather information (concrete

experience), we search and connect neuronally with experience), we search and connect neuronally with similar information in our brain (reflection)similar information in our brain (reflection)

Through this connection we integrate our old and new Through this connection we integrate our old and new knowledge and form new ideas (abstraction)knowledge and form new ideas (abstraction)

We can then act upon new ideas or newly formed belief We can then act upon new ideas or newly formed belief systems (active testing)systems (active testing)

During this process neurons grow new branches During this process neurons grow new branches (dendrites) as the old and new information are integrated(dendrites) as the old and new information are integrated

Kolb’s Learning CycleKolb’s Learning Cycle

Gathering InformationGathering Information

As we have previously stated, gathering As we have previously stated, gathering information triggers feelings in our bodyinformation triggers feelings in our body

These feelings are interpreted as emotionsThese feelings are interpreted as emotions Actually, our body has an affective experience Actually, our body has an affective experience

(feeling) with every cognitive experience(feeling) with every cognitive experience Therefore, when we learn, we have an Therefore, when we learn, we have an

intellectual experience, and in our body, we have intellectual experience, and in our body, we have an emotional reaction to each experiencean emotional reaction to each experience

Sometimes we may not actually, in our Sometimes we may not actually, in our conscious mind, be aware of the feeling, but it is conscious mind, be aware of the feeling, but it is still there in our subconscious mindstill there in our subconscious mind

Gathering Information (cont.)Gathering Information (cont.)

For example, adults entering the classroom bring with For example, adults entering the classroom bring with them thoughts concerning their ability to learn that they them thoughts concerning their ability to learn that they have acquired during their learning experienceshave acquired during their learning experiences

If these adults believe, based on previous negative If these adults believe, based on previous negative learning experiences (such as shaming experiences from learning experiences (such as shaming experiences from a teacher), that they are poor learners, it is because their a teacher), that they are poor learners, it is because their brains remember the trauma of these negative learning brains remember the trauma of these negative learning experiencesexperiences

These negative learning experiences can be the “colored These negative learning experiences can be the “colored glass” that influences not only our emotions concerning glass” that influences not only our emotions concerning new learning challenges, but how we view our abilities as new learning challenges, but how we view our abilities as adult learnersadult learners


In order to explain the trauma of negative learning In order to explain the trauma of negative learning experiences, we need to understand that “the entire experiences, we need to understand that “the entire brain is an organ of emotion, and…emotion, reason, and brain is an organ of emotion, and…emotion, reason, and memory are all linked together” (Zull, 2002, p. 65)memory are all linked together” (Zull, 2002, p. 65)

The fear center of the brain (the primitive brain), on a The fear center of the brain (the primitive brain), on a subconscious level, monitors our learningsubconscious level, monitors our learning

If certain learning situations have been negative in the If certain learning situations have been negative in the past, the primitive brain makes meaning of the past, the primitive brain makes meaning of the experience and lets our body know we are in dangerexperience and lets our body know we are in danger

For example, the brain links a new math class with the For example, the brain links a new math class with the old negative experiences of a previous math class, and old negative experiences of a previous math class, and anticipates dangeranticipates danger


The amygdale anticipates danger by sensing the The amygdale anticipates danger by sensing the environment to see if there is anything familiar in environment to see if there is anything familiar in the environment that reminds it of previous the environment that reminds it of previous negative experiencesnegative experiences

When danger is anticipated by the amygdale, When danger is anticipated by the amygdale, the amygdale produces chemicals that will make the amygdale produces chemicals that will make the body tense and the mind feel anxiousthe body tense and the mind feel anxious

When we become aware of the bodily feeling, When we become aware of the bodily feeling, we then interpret it as a negative emotionwe then interpret it as a negative emotion


Therefore, even though the learning situation Therefore, even though the learning situation may be safe, the primitive brain has sounded the may be safe, the primitive brain has sounded the alarm as the situation being dangerous to our alarm as the situation being dangerous to our emotional well being by creating:emotional well being by creating: body tensenessbody tenseness an inability to concentratean inability to concentrate inability to rememberinability to remember anxietyanxiety and perhaps confusionand perhaps confusion


However, if we have good learning However, if we have good learning experiences:experiences: we feel in control of our learningwe feel in control of our learning the primitive brain is not triggeredthe primitive brain is not triggered and the body produces dopamine, a good-and the body produces dopamine, a good-

feeling chemicalfeeling chemical Learning becomes enjoyable. (Zull, 2002)Learning becomes enjoyable. (Zull, 2002)

The Limbic SystemThe Limbic System


What experiences have influenced your ideas of What experiences have influenced your ideas of yourself as a learner?yourself as a learner? Have there been people in your life you have told you Have there been people in your life you have told you

that you are smart?that you are smart? Do you feel you gained self-confidence in learning Do you feel you gained self-confidence in learning

because of these positive experiences?because of these positive experiences? Have you had any teachers who made negative Have you had any teachers who made negative

comments about your learning ability in a certain comments about your learning ability in a certain subject area (such as math or your ability to write subject area (such as math or your ability to write well)?well)?

If so, how has this impacted your academic life?If so, how has this impacted your academic life?

Buying into the Buying into the Learning Experience Learning Experience

““All parts of the learning cycle are influenced by All parts of the learning cycle are influenced by emotions.” (Zull, 202, p. 223)emotions.” (Zull, 202, p. 223)

Therefore, emotions can affect learning at any stage of Therefore, emotions can affect learning at any stage of the learning cyclethe learning cycle

In fact, Zull (2002), states that deep learning probably In fact, Zull (2002), states that deep learning probably depends more on “signals from emotional centers than it depends more on “signals from emotional centers than it does on new sensory input.” (p 223)does on new sensory input.” (p 223)

This is quite a statement! In other words, This is quite a statement! In other words, if you believe your learning is important to you, you will engage if you believe your learning is important to you, you will engage

in the learning in a deep way, and the neuronal structures will in the learning in a deep way, and the neuronal structures will change in the brain indicating you have accepted the new change in the brain indicating you have accepted the new knowledge.knowledge.

Buying into the Buying into the Learning Experience (cont.)Learning Experience (cont.)

By acceptance, I mean, buying into the By acceptance, I mean, buying into the knowledgeknowledge

Zull states that when we “buy into” presented Zull states that when we “buy into” presented information (i.e., when the information is information (i.e., when the information is important to us), the nucleus bassalis fires and important to us), the nucleus bassalis fires and delivers acetylcholine to the auditory cortex delivers acetylcholine to the auditory cortex

The function of acetylcholine is to “trigger The function of acetylcholine is to “trigger chemical changes that increase the chemical changes that increase the responsiveness of existing synapses and alter responsiveness of existing synapses and alter the expression of genes so that the neurons the expression of genes so that the neurons produce stronger, more numerous synapses” produce stronger, more numerous synapses” (Zull, 2002, p. 225)(Zull, 2002, p. 225)


Therefore, when neurons receive the Therefore, when neurons receive the “importance” signal (meaning you have bought “importance” signal (meaning you have bought into the learning experience/information), the into the learning experience/information), the brain changes, and deep learning can happenbrain changes, and deep learning can happen

We now experience learning that goes beyond We now experience learning that goes beyond memorization and short term memorymemorization and short term memory

The information has meaning/importance and, The information has meaning/importance and, through the learning cycle, the information can through the learning cycle, the information can move into long-term memory. move into long-term memory.


It is important to note that our primitive brain appraises It is important to note that our primitive brain appraises all information for threat and meaningall information for threat and meaning

Therefore, if the information is not threatening and we Therefore, if the information is not threatening and we can find meaning in the academic topic, the information can find meaning in the academic topic, the information can move into the higher regions of the brain for the next can move into the higher regions of the brain for the next phase of the learning cycle: reflectionphase of the learning cycle: reflection

However, even if we meet this criteria, we, as adult However, even if we meet this criteria, we, as adult learners, may find learning difficult because of feelinglearners, may find learning difficult because of feeling

anxious over our learning (not enough time, anxious over anxious over our learning (not enough time, anxious over grades)grades)

overwhelmed with so many responsibilities (family, school)overwhelmed with so many responsibilities (family, school) a lack of confidence, etca lack of confidence, etc


Pro-longed stress/anxiety impairs memoryPro-longed stress/anxiety impairs memory Under prolonged stress/anxiety, the adrenal gland Under prolonged stress/anxiety, the adrenal gland

releases a chemical into the blood called cortisolreleases a chemical into the blood called cortisol Cortisol seems to have a devastating effect on cells in Cortisol seems to have a devastating effect on cells in

the hippocampusthe hippocampus Extreme stress can damage our memory centersExtreme stress can damage our memory centers Therefore, adult learners need to learn how to relax in Therefore, adult learners need to learn how to relax in

order for the brain to move into the higher levels of order for the brain to move into the higher levels of learning and be able to move through the rest of the learning and be able to move through the rest of the learning cycle:learning cycle:

reflectionreflection abstraction, and abstraction, and actively testing new ideasactively testing new ideas

Dendritic Spines in Dendritic Spines in Hippocampal CellsHippocampal Cells

Ways to Relax to ImproveWays to Relax to ImproveLearning and Memory Learning and Memory

What Works for You?What Works for You?1.1. autogenic relaxation (systematic relaxing of autogenic relaxation (systematic relaxing of

our muscle groups)our muscle groups)

2.2. listening to soothing musiclistening to soothing music

3.3. exercising before studyingexercising before studying

4.4. other…other…

ReflectionReflection Learning is much more than memorizingLearning is much more than memorizing If we want to encounter deep, meaningful learning that If we want to encounter deep, meaningful learning that

impacts our life, we need to be able to reflect upon our impacts our life, we need to be able to reflect upon our experiences and connect new knowledge with similar experiences and connect new knowledge with similar experiences (belief systems)experiences (belief systems)

Reflection then is literally searching for connections Reflection then is literally searching for connections between old belief systems and new information in order between old belief systems and new information in order to recreate old belief systemto recreate old belief system

In fact, every time we receive new information that we In fact, every time we receive new information that we can connect to a belief system, we can recreate that can connect to a belief system, we can recreate that system through the reflective experiencesystem through the reflective experience

Reflective thinking or reflective observing (observing our Reflective thinking or reflective observing (observing our thought structures), takes timethought structures), takes time

According to Zull (2002), it is the biochemistry of the According to Zull (2002), it is the biochemistry of the brain that is “behind this need for time” (p. 225)brain that is “behind this need for time” (p. 225)

Reflection (cont.)Reflection (cont.)

Neurotransmitters initiate a complex path of chemical Neurotransmitters initiate a complex path of chemical reactions within the neuronsreactions within the neurons

And since there are a number of separate steps in these And since there are a number of separate steps in these pathways, each of which takes up some time, these pathways, each of which takes up some time, these times add uptimes add up

They can be 100 times slower than the electrical signalsThey can be 100 times slower than the electrical signals These chemical cascades end up affecting the nature These chemical cascades end up affecting the nature

and number of synapsesand number of synapses Those changes can increase synapse number and Those changes can increase synapse number and

activity, so the power for changing the brain is great activity, so the power for changing the brain is great (Zull, 2002, p. 225-226)(Zull, 2002, p. 225-226)

Reflection (cont.)Reflection (cont.) We need to have time to self-reflect without disturbancesWe need to have time to self-reflect without disturbances We need to take time to find out what our thoughts are We need to take time to find out what our thoughts are

concerning a topic, bring our new knowledge into our concerning a topic, bring our new knowledge into our current thinking, and be able to cope with being current thinking, and be able to cope with being confused for a while as we integrate these knowledge confused for a while as we integrate these knowledge basesbases

This suspension of judgment is the key to our brain This suspension of judgment is the key to our brain making connections and achieving integrationmaking connections and achieving integration

Reflective observation requires a procedure whereby, Reflective observation requires a procedure whereby, time and suspension of judgment is required in order for time and suspension of judgment is required in order for the brain’s neuronal connections to integrate and form the brain’s neuronal connections to integrate and form an opinion or new belief systeman opinion or new belief system

According to Zull (2002), critical reflective thinking and According to Zull (2002), critical reflective thinking and abstract thinking (forming new belief systems) forms the abstract thinking (forming new belief systems) forms the basis of our thinking process basis of our thinking process

Reflection (cont.)Reflection (cont.) However, bringing new knowledge to our current belief However, bringing new knowledge to our current belief

systems can be psychologically challengingsystems can be psychologically challenging Each one of us has had various experiences stemming from Each one of us has had various experiences stemming from

our culture, environment, friends, family and relationshipsour culture, environment, friends, family and relationships We may grow up in the same household as another but, on a We may grow up in the same household as another but, on a

daily basis, we have faced different experiences that have daily basis, we have faced different experiences that have shaped our belief systemshaped our belief system

Therefore, as we reflect upon what we believe about a topic Therefore, as we reflect upon what we believe about a topic (what our belief system is), and bring new knowledge to that (what our belief system is), and bring new knowledge to that belief system, we may, for the first time realize that the belief system, we may, for the first time realize that the opinion or opinions we hold may not be what we really believeopinion or opinions we hold may not be what we really believe

They may be our families’ or our culture’s beliefs, but not our They may be our families’ or our culture’s beliefs, but not our ownown

We may need to challenge these old beliefs and create new We may need to challenge these old beliefs and create new belief systems. belief systems.

Reflection (cont.)Reflection (cont.)

Being reflective means we remember our old belief systems without Being reflective means we remember our old belief systems without judgment, and reflect upon new informationjudgment, and reflect upon new information

It is like holding the old belief systems in one hand and the new It is like holding the old belief systems in one hand and the new information in our another hand, while examining the pros and cons information in our another hand, while examining the pros and cons of the issues of the topicof the issues of the topic

This process of being able to tolerate ambiguity means we are This process of being able to tolerate ambiguity means we are willing, for a little while, not to have preconceived ideas, and tolerate willing, for a little while, not to have preconceived ideas, and tolerate the creative tension of not knowingthe creative tension of not knowing

Through the process of reflection, we reflect on our thinking, and Through the process of reflection, we reflect on our thinking, and develop a new self, or new belief systemdevelop a new self, or new belief system

Adult learning is based on this premise: we keep recreating Adult learning is based on this premise: we keep recreating ourselves as we keep investigating new knowledgeourselves as we keep investigating new knowledge

The process of creating new belief systems is called abstract The process of creating new belief systems is called abstract thinkingthinking

Abstract thinking is creative thinking as we problem-solve and Abstract thinking is creative thinking as we problem-solve and discover new avenues of thought. discover new avenues of thought.

Abstract ThinkingAbstract Thinking As connections are being made by reflective thinking, we start the As connections are being made by reflective thinking, we start the

process of creating new ideas and solving problemsprocess of creating new ideas and solving problems ““We change from being receivers of knowledge to creators of We change from being receivers of knowledge to creators of

knowledge” (Zull, 2002, p. 18)knowledge” (Zull, 2002, p. 18) This process takes place in the front integrative cortex (the This process takes place in the front integrative cortex (the

executive brain)executive brain) Creating new ideas has two steps:Creating new ideas has two steps:

short-term storage of information and short-term storage of information and manipulation or rearrangement of that information to form new manipulation or rearrangement of that information to form new

relationshipsrelationships This manipulation of information in working memory is what creates This manipulation of information in working memory is what creates

new knowledge for the learnernew knowledge for the learner As he organizes things in new arrangements and attaches them to As he organizes things in new arrangements and attaches them to

the networks that represent his prior knowledge, each learner the networks that represent his prior knowledge, each learner creates his own understandingscreates his own understandings

This conscious rearranging and manipulation of items…comes This conscious rearranging and manipulation of items…comes closest to what we call thinking. (Zull, 2002, p. 185)closest to what we call thinking. (Zull, 2002, p. 185)

Taking ActionTaking Action

The last phase of the learning cycle involves taking actionThe last phase of the learning cycle involves taking action ““Active testing can take many forms…Any action that is inspired by Active testing can take many forms…Any action that is inspired by

your ideas qualifies as active testing” (Zull, 2002, p. 206)your ideas qualifies as active testing” (Zull, 2002, p. 206) Taking action can be talking to someone about your ideas or writing Taking action can be talking to someone about your ideas or writing

about your ideasabout your ideas You may develop a piece of art around your thinking, or, if you are a You may develop a piece of art around your thinking, or, if you are a

scientist, scientifically test your ideasscientist, scientifically test your ideas Why is acting upon our ideas important? Why is acting upon our ideas important?

Taking action biologically completes the cycleTaking action biologically completes the cycle The brain gets ideas so the body can actThe brain gets ideas so the body can act At the same time, the action of the body provides sensory feedback to At the same time, the action of the body provides sensory feedback to

the brainthe brain It is through action that the biological wholeness of learning becomes It is through action that the biological wholeness of learning becomes

apparent” (Zull, 2002, p.104). apparent” (Zull, 2002, p.104).

Taking ActionTaking Action According to Elder & Paul (1994), critical thinking can According to Elder & Paul (1994), critical thinking can

be best understood as the ability of thinkers to take be best understood as the ability of thinkers to take charge of their own thinkingcharge of their own thinking

According to Orman-Mitchell (1992), attributes of critical According to Orman-Mitchell (1992), attributes of critical thinkers may include:thinkers may include:1.1. Independence of mind, in the sense of intellectual autonomy, Independence of mind, in the sense of intellectual autonomy,

self-understanding, self-confidence, and courageself-understanding, self-confidence, and courage2.2. Open-mindedness, in the sense of alert curiosity, attentiveness, Open-mindedness, in the sense of alert curiosity, attentiveness,

and the spontaneous outreaching for alternative perspectives, and the spontaneous outreaching for alternative perspectives, intellectual flexibility, and the willingness to suspend judgmentintellectual flexibility, and the willingness to suspend judgment

3.3. Wholeheartedness -- that is, enthusiasm and perseverance in Wholeheartedness -- that is, enthusiasm and perseverance in pursuit of an intellectual goalpursuit of an intellectual goal

4.4. Respect for others, in terms of sensitivity, empathy, fair-Respect for others, in terms of sensitivity, empathy, fair-mindedness, readiness to listen, and willingness to consider mindedness, readiness to listen, and willingness to consider other points of viewother points of view

Critical Reflective Thinkers Critical Reflective Thinkers

Through the path of becoming critical reflective thinkers, we Through the path of becoming critical reflective thinkers, we are able to look at all aspects of topics and make decisions of are able to look at all aspects of topics and make decisions of about what we really believeabout what we really believe

We become seekers of the truth, with an ability to withhold We become seekers of the truth, with an ability to withhold judgment, and tolerate creative tension, while we seek for the judgment, and tolerate creative tension, while we seek for the best possible solution/answers to problems/outcomesbest possible solution/answers to problems/outcomes

Most importantly, as we seek answers, we create and Most importantly, as we seek answers, we create and recreate our belief systems as we take in new knowledgerecreate our belief systems as we take in new knowledge

This ability keeps us socially current as we keep pace with our This ability keeps us socially current as we keep pace with our informational ageinformational age

We become “wise” learners, willing to seek to understand We become “wise” learners, willing to seek to understand another’s viewpointsanother’s viewpoints

The outcome is global citizenship as we can negotiate a The outcome is global citizenship as we can negotiate a complex world and contribute our understandings to this complex world and contribute our understandings to this complexity. complexity.

ReferencesReferences Elder, L, & Paul, R. Critical thinking: Why we must Elder, L, & Paul, R. Critical thinking: Why we must

transform our teaching. Journal of Developmental transform our teaching. Journal of Developmental Education, 18(1), 34-35.Education, 18(1), 34-35.

Kegan, R. (1982). The Evolving self: Cambridge, MA: Kegan, R. (1982). The Evolving self: Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Harvard University Press.

Kolb, D. A. (1984). Experiential Learning: Experience as Kolb, D. A. (1984). Experiential Learning: Experience as the source of learning and development. Upper Saddle the source of learning and development. Upper Saddle River, N.J: Prentice Hall, 1984.River, N.J: Prentice Hall, 1984.

Oxman-Mitchell, W. (1992). Critical thinking as critical Oxman-Mitchell, W. (1992). Critical thinking as critical spirit. Viewpoints, 4(7), 1-16. Upper Montclair, NJ: spirit. Viewpoints, 4(7), 1-16. Upper Montclair, NJ: Institute for Critical Thinking, Montclair State College.Institute for Critical Thinking, Montclair State College.

Zull, J. (2002). The art of changing the brain: Enriching Zull, J. (2002). The art of changing the brain: Enriching teaching by exploring the biology of learning. Sterling teaching by exploring the biology of learning. Sterling Virginia: Stylus.Virginia: Stylus.

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The Neuroscience of Critical Thinking Sandra Johnson, Ph.D., MSW, CASAC