The Negro Leagues: Breaking the Barriers

Ryan PohrteHIST 344

Professor Tinsley

1

The Negro Leagues: Breaking the Barriers

During the beginning of the 20th century, baseball was one of the foundational games in

the United States and developed into what society knows as “America’s pastime.” Baseball was

a popular sport played during breaks of working in the factories and fields. This renowned game

was created in 1845 by Alexander Cartwright. Although many aspects of the game have changed

slightly over the years, the game is currently played today. Along the way, rules were made for

pitchers and hitters, and there were even the regulations about the equipment used in the game.

Although baseball is looked at as the national pastime, the sport and the individuals involved

have had to overcome many struggles in order to develop this game. During the early 1900s,

racial tension was a fact of life in the United States because the white population did not see that

equality was a necessity in the country at the time. This was a large issue when it came to sports

because baseball leagues were segregated so blacks and whites could not play in the same

league. Due to this problem, much uncertainty was brought about within the sports world.

Racial inequality was common during the 1920s because the African American

population were rebelling against unequal treatment. Baseball was looked at as a sport dominated

by the white population. African Americans were unable to integrate with blacks due to the harsh

times. In sports, African Americans were unable to compete in the same athletic competitions as

whites. The Negro Leagues became the first installment in baseball, which gave African

American players a chance to showcase their talents hoping that one day they will be able to play

ball with other players in the professional Major Leagues. This affected many African American

ballplayers because they were allowed to showcase their skills in a professional sport. Negro

League participants had limited transportation, so competitions were mainly close. One of the

struggles within this time period involved the game of baseball where the leagues were

2

segregated because the white players did not want to play with the African American players due

to the racism that was taking place and their inability to stand up against it. As discrimination

became aggressive in the 1920s in baseball, African American players decided that they were

going to establish their own league where they would play against other African American teams

around the United States. Thus, the Negro Leagues were established in Missouri when Rube

Foster and other entrepreneurs discussed the formation of the league. As ballplayers expressed

interest, sports entrepreneurs created the Negro League teams for African American baseball

players who were not allowed to play in the Major Leagues with the white players. This league

allowed players who had the talents to play in professional baseball.

As the Negro Leagues began to take flight, teams would establish their grounds across

the United States. When creating a team, the first step is having the finances that are needed in

order to supplement the formation of the team. Teams were created across the United States, but

due to the financial circumstances, leagues would attempt to create smaller divisions with teams

that were relatively close to each other so that the traveling costs could remain low. Few teams

had much in the way of funding.1 This movement was started by Rube Foster, who was

considered to be one of the pioneers for this successful league. When Foster began the league, he

had an idea about how the league would be run, yet he never factored in the importance of

funding when planning. Some players in the league began their careers early in the Negro

League and witnessed the funding struggles. Even though funding was tight for the league,

players still suffered through rough times to play the game. Players played for many reasons:

some for passion, and others played the game in order to show that they deserved to be equal. It

was common in the league to see players switch teams yearly or within a five year span because

1 Lanctot, 32.

3

teams were unable to keep certain players under long contracts.2 Contracts were altered often due

to the funds that were given to each of the teams. A team funds not only covered salaries, but

also, the transportation to play other teams within their division.

The Negro Leagues history can be divided into four eras beginning with the “Foundation

of the Game,” then the “Downfall of the Game,” continuing into the “Restoration of the Game,”

then concluding with the “Transition of the Game,” which was the last run of the league.

Throughout the history of the Negro Leagues from 1920-1960, the game became one of the most

influential and powerful ways that African Americans pushed for racial equality. Breaking the

color barrier in the game of baseball showed that the African American ballplayers deserved to

play with Major Leaguers.

Foundation of the Game

The first Negro professional baseball teams were established in larger cities where they

were able to gain fans and draw sufficient attendance to support the games.3 In the early 1880s,

the Cuban Giants became the first team that was established in New York. New York was one of

the larger cities, so they would attract fans. Later, the Cuban Giants became the American Giants

due to the team gaining more African American players instead of the team being dominated by

Cuban players.4According to Sol White, Frank P. Thompson of the Giants gave ownership of the

team to Rube Foster in the 1920s. Foster, owner of the famous Kansas City Monarchs, decided to

move the team to the Midwest in order to start another team and gain a following. Andrew

“Rube” Foster also owned the Chicago American Giants.5 The Giants were one of the first ball

clubs to appear in the Midwest. As the 1920s progressed, more teams in the larger cities like

2 Monte Irvin. The Negro Leagues: America Baseball, DVD. 2012. United States: Bucknell University.3 Lanctot, 14.4 Sol White, Sol White’s History of Colored Baseball with Other Documents on the Early Black Game, 1886-1936. Bison Books, (New York, 1996), 36.5 Ibid

4

New York, Chicago, Kansas City, Philadelphia, and Baltimore began to form and created more

of a following and a fan base from the African American population. Teams branched out across

the United States and also new divisions formed within the Negro Leagues so that teams could

compete in one defined area.

Teams began to sprout in areas throughout the United States, especially in the East

because many of the African American athletes were living in areas like New York, Pittsburgh

and Philadelphia, which is where many talented ballplayers like Jackie Robinson and Hank

Aaron came from. Baseball entrepreneurs were crucial during the beginning of the Negro

Leagues starting in the early 1920s because they were establishing early teams during this time.

After World War I ended, players who served in the war came home and decided to participate

and tryout for some teams, thus establishing more teams throughout the league. 6 Thomas T.

Wilson, the entrepreneur who owned the Nashville Elite Giants, would go on to establish a

league in 1923 known as the Negro Southern League that had teams from Nashville, Atlanta,

Birmingham, and other surrounding areas.7 Then, some of the teams began to run into financial

difficulty due to the lack of funds and the onset of the Great Depression that hit the United States

in 1929.8

Downfall of the Game

Since the beginning of the formation of the league, teams were responsible for paying

players, ballpark rentals, transportation, and other accommodations, thus leading to many teams

folding early. This was the beginning of the second era in the Negro Leagues known as “the

Downfall of the Game.” Due to the economic conditions, fans were unable to attend games as

they were during the beginning of the league. As the job market shut down and the factories

6 Lanctot, 21.7 Lanctot, 5.8 Angela Lumpkin. 2011. "Negro Leagues: Black Diamonds." Phi Kappa Phi Forum 91, no. 2: 22.

5

closed, fans’ wallets were also becoming emptier, and baseball was losing its audience because

many families could not afford to go to a game. This resulted in teams disbanding, leaving many

players unemployed and unhappy. Some of the players decided to retire after their teams were

disbanded due to the lack of the funding for travel and games.9 Negro Baseball was starting to

become a lost sport due to the low funds, and the entertainment value for the game was lost

because finances became difficult for people to attend ballgames. The Negro Leagues were

taking a financial hit when fans became less interested.

The Negro Leagues crashed in 1932 due to the poor economic conditions in the country.10

Then, Gus Greenlee made a large business investment in 1933 that gave the game a second life.

Greenlee, who previously owned the Pittsburgh Crawfords, made a business investment to take

control of the Negro Leagues and give African American ballplayers another chance to play in

the league, even though the country was not financially stable. After 1933, more teams were

established in the West, but they were slower to develop than in the East because of the unstable

economy.11 Gus Greenlee’s business investment transforming the Negro National Leagues was

one of the defining moments that changed the game of baseball for many African Americans.

This gave them a second chance for equality and success even though America was still

experiencing racial inequality. This was the third era in the game, and it could be best described

as the “Restoration of the Game.”

Restoration of the Game

One of the innovations of the revived league was the idea of the playoff system. Teams

throughout the Negro National League would play each other in their respective divisions, and to

9 Ibid10 James A. Riley, ed., The Biographical Encyclopedia of the Negro Baseball Leagues (New York: Carroll & Graf, 1994), 196.11 Ibid

6

see who the best team was as they established a playoff system. Rankings would be determined

by who had the best record in the division. They would play against a team who was the last

team eligible to make it to the postseason.12 Teams would play each other and each round two

teams would be eliminated until the finals. The two teams in the finals would battle to see who

the best in their league was. Most of the time, teams like the Kansas City Monarchs were favored

because they were known for being one of the powerhouse teams that dominated the

competition. The playoffs began to occur during 1931, and these games would draw great

audiences. Also, the Negro National League was unique because it was they established an All

Star Game to showcase the talents from many of the teams feature in Negro League.13

This game began in 1933 when the league began to rise in popularity amongst fans.14 The

All Star Game was a prestigious game that allowed the best players on each team to play against

other players whom they normally did not play during the regular season. As the years went on,

more teams were invited to send players so that spectators can see other talents from places

around the United States. 15

During the late 1920s, teams would be established as the thriving populations in

industrial cities would increase. As teams branched out across the United States, the Midwest

began to be one of the major epicenters for the game because they were one of the flourishing

regions in the United States for entertainment.16 Teams were branching out across the Midwest in

major cities like Chicago, Indianapolis, and even in Milwaukee.

One of the locally influential teams of the time was the Indianapolis Clowns, who were

established in 1935.17 The team was originally known as the Ethiopian Clowns but then received 12 Riley, ed., Biographical Encyclopedia of the Negro Baseball Leagues, 92. 13 Ibid14 Riley, 94.15 Lanctot, 100.16 Lanctot, 34. 17Lanctot, 108.

7

a name change and became an official team. The team officially joined the Negro American

League in 1943. This team was considered to be a hot team to witness due to them acquiring

talents like Hank Aaron, who started his career with them in 1943. Hank Aaron was one of the

most skilled players to play during the Negro Leagues and would go on to become a successful

Major League home run hitter. The Clowns gained their distinctive name due to them performing

different clown-like stunts on the field.18 The Indianapolis Clowns were mostly a team that

people came to watch for entertainment aspect because they were never considered to be a

quality baseball team. They attracted many fans due to their witty on-field excitement similar to

that of the present day Harlem Globetrotter basketball squad. Although the Clowns moved to

Cincinnati later on due to finances and because the owner wanted to move the team, they were

one of the many teams that made the Midwest become one of the popular areas for the Negro

Leagues.19 The ownership of the Clowns switched hands many times, so there was never one

definite person who claimed ownership of the team, but notable owner Johnny Pierce controlled

the team, then handed the team over to another individual after he retired.20 The Clowns were a

respected team due to their hidden talents that would be showcased on the field.

Another Midwestern team that had a heavy influence on the Negro Leagues was the

Kansas City Monarchs, who were one of the most well-known ball clubs. This team was

significant because many of its players fought in World War II, but returned to play for the team

after they came back from their tours of duty.21 They were known for winning the first Negro

League National World Series in 1924 and then later in 1942 after the league started again up.

The Monarchs were known for developing players who ended up going on to have great careers

18Jules Tygiel, The Negro Leagues, OAH Magazine of History, Vol 7, No. 1, History of Sport, Recreation, and Leisure (Summer, 1992), 25.19Lanctot, 108. 20 Ibid21 Riley, ed., Biographical Encyclopedia, 94.

8

in the Major Leagues many years later.22 The Monarchs were the longest running franchise to

survive in the Negro Leagues. This team also had many talents that continued their careers long

after African Americans were integrated into the Major Leagues. This team became one of the

faces for Negro League over the course of the 1930s.

Although the Monarchs spent quite a few seasons in the Negro Leagues playing in

Kansas City up to the middle of the 1940s, they ended up moving to Cincinnati where they

gained more of a fan base and notoriety after previously being known for their style of play.23

The Monarchs went on to send multiple players to play in different leagues around the United

States in the Negro Leagues. Some players even continued their careers and went onto the white

Major Leagues after spending years in other minor league ball clubs once the leagues were

integrated. Others decided to retire after spending numerous years dedicating their skills to the

sport. The Monarchs ballclub disbanded in 1961 after many of the players on their team decided

to either play with other teams to keep the league running, or follow Robinson’s lead if they were

talented enough to join the Major League rosters.

22 James A. Riley, Of Monarchs and Black Barons: Essays On Baseball's Negro Leagues (Jefferson, NC: Mcfarland,

2012), 27. 23 Ibid

9

Cincinnati and Kansas City Monarch Uniforms, Photo by author

The next team that became one of the influential groups to participate in the league was

the New York Black Yankees, who were based out of New York City.24 The team was created in

1936 and welcomed into the Negro National League under owners James Semler and Bill

Robinson. The team name was used to distinguish between the Major League New York

Yankees and the Negro League team. This team would play games at similar times as the white

Major Leagues so blacks and whites could both see the teams 25 The Black Yankees were known

for their exceptional play and their first championship in 1933, which was led by Negro League

notable player Josh Gibson, whose style of play was one-of-a-kind. This team was known for

sending many quality players to the Major Leagues later after the color barrier was broken by the

great Jackie Robinson.

24 John B. Holway, Blackball Stars: Negro League Pioneers (Carroll & Graf Pub, 1988), 64. 25 Holway, 67.

10

All Star Uniform, Photo by author

As the 1930s progressed, All Star Games were established by Gus Greenlee and talents

across the United States were able to be seen.26 The inaugural All Star Game took place at

Comiskey Park in Chicago, Illinois in 1933, between the teams in the East versus the teams in

the West. Charles Comiskey, who the stadium was named after, allowed the East-West game to

be played in the bigger stadium due to the attraction that it had to many African American

viewers. Comiskey was owner of the Major League ballclub known as the Chicago White Sox.27

The first Negro League All-Star game proved to be a major success by drawing countless

numbers of fans that packed the stadium to witness the great talents of those across the league.

The All-Star Game was looked at to be a showcase for the best players from each of the teams

that appeared in the Negro League during the time. Fans were allowed to pick the lineup during

the game as well so they were able to see the pitcher versus batter matchups that might not be

seen otherwise.28

The All Star Game became an annual event that would be played during the middle of the

season where teams were divided by a boundary and certain players would play for their side of

the boundary, while the other players would play for the other side. For example, the Pittsburgh

26Lanctot, 22. 27 Lanctot, 38.28 Ibid

11

Crawfords were considered to be on the East team because of the established boundary while the

Chicago American Giants would play for the West due to them being on the Western boundary.

Teams would play for the East or West depending on where the boundary line fell. Usually, the

boundary would divide the center of the United States, and players would play for the side that

their division was in. Teams that were east of Texas would play for the East and teams in the

West would play for the Western side.29 With the All-Star Game being one of the major events

that showed off player’s talents in the league, notable team pioneers were recognized.

One major influential individual throughout the game of baseball and in the Negro

League was Josh Gibson, who began his career in the league and acted as the political leader for

the African American community and tried to push for equality.30 Josh Gibson began his career

in 1930 playing for the Homestead Grays, which was formed by Cumberland “Cum” Posey.

Posey praised Gibson as a player because he had extraordinary talent and could hit home runs as

far as the eye could see. 31 According to Posey, Gibson was compared to the likes of players such

as New York Yankee legends Joe DiMaggio and Bill Dickey because they were all great home

run hitters, just like he was. Although Gibson was in the Negro Leagues, many scouts and Major

League teams believed that this man had potential to become one of the greatest catchers, but

due to the limitations in the United States, he was stuck in the Negro Leagues until legendary

Jackie Robinson broke the color barrier.32

Josh Gibson was a pioneer in the Negro Leagues, and he is looked at as one of the major

legends that kept the Negro Leagues on top of the baseball world. Gibson’s style of play was

unorthodox because he was a bulkier athlete than most, but he would hit home runs mostly so he

29 Ibid30 Mark Ribowsky, Don't Look Back: Satchel Paige in the Shadows of Baseball (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1994), 45-56.31 Ribowsky, 19332 Ribowsky, 194.

12

rarely ran except when he would trot around the bases after he hit a moon shot over the wall that

was 500 some feet away. During the 1942 Negro League season, fans were in for a treat because

they were able to see the best pitcher and hitter in the league face off.33 Many fans wanted to see

the battle between Satchel Paige, who was the faster and best pitcher of the Negro Leagues and

Josh Gibson’s home run power. Matchups were always crucial in Negro League baseball because

many intrigued fans wanted to see the best pitchers and batters face off.

Buck O’ Neil was one of first influential players in the Negro Leagues who was known

for his managerial skills along with his skills at first base.34 O’Neil was a manager who was well-

known for his ability to create strategic lineups that would help him win ballgames. According to

O’Neil, “black baseball was known for the speed and aggressive style of play.” Games would be

fast paced thus excitement would build.35 O’Neil was an influential player during the Negro

Leagues because he not only just played the game, but he also acted as one of the spokespersons

for the Negro League players. When O’Neil played, he would express his feelings about the

game and country’s current state of mind. He also served his time in the military in addition to

playing baseball.36 In an interview with O’ Neil, he credits Rube Foster for being one of his

greatest inspirations to the game for keeping the sport alive in the African American society

when the league was slowly declining due to the dwindling funds that were used during the

1930s. Rube Foster was the O’Neil’s manager and also his mentor for the game. His career

started in 1937 when he debuted playing with the Memphis Red Sox, where he played with

teammate Charley Pride, who later quit his career as a baseball player and found his new niche as

a country music artist, where he gained his fame.37 Commonly, players would not stick with one

33 Ribowsky, 23334 Buck O'Neil and David Conrads, I Was Right On Time,. (New York, NY: Simon & Schuster, 1997), 24. 35 Ibid36 “John “Buck” O’ Neil: Growing Up.” Youtube. n.d. Visionary Project, March 22, 2010. 37 O'Neil and Conrads, 29.

13

team for quite some time, but O’ Neil was an exception to that rule because he ended up playing

the next sixteen seasons with the Kansas City Monarchs where he acted as both a player and a

manager.

Due to his great influences, team members and coaches made him become a better

ballplayer because he always played with passion on the field. Although O’Neil was unable to

make it to the Major Leagues, he was looked at as one of the greatest players to play the game

and he served as the Negro League ambassador for many years after the league disbanded in

1966.38 Buck O’Neil was honored for being one of the major individuals in the league. O’ Neil

passed away in 2005 due to complications with his health and also old age, but his legacy still

lives on as one of the greatest players to grace the game of baseball within the black community.

O’ Neil’s legacy still lives on today because one ballplayer is awarded the O’ Neil Award for

their play and volunteer work off the field as well.39

Transition of the Game

Although the Negro Leagues were gaining fame by the end of the 1940s, so were the

Major Leagues. The black players in the Negro Leagues began to speculate when they were

going to be allowed to play in the Major Leagues because many players believed that their

talents were equal to those of the Major Leaguers.40 Although the country’s discriminatory

actions were still occurring throughout the 1940s onward, some influential players came along

and changed the perspective of how people viewed the game. Some dedicated fans thought that

the league should remain segregated, but after they witnessed some of the talent that was

displayed during the games, they had second thoughts. Players like Buck O’Neil, Jackie

Robinson, Josh Gibson, Satchel Paige, and Roy Campanella were a few of the influential Negro

38 O'Neil and Conrads, 83. 39 O’Neil and Conrads, 103. 40 Lanctot, 130.

14

League stars who began to change things as they made their push to desegregate the leagues and

have all teams and players become united under one roof.

The most influential player in the Negro Leagues of the 1940s was Jackie Robinson; he

was the individual that set the standards for baseball and also changed how the game came to be

played. Robinson was a pioneer of the game who politically changed the country. He fought for

his equal rights by refusing to play in some games due to the harsh way that blacks were being

treated. He would stick up for players that experienced hate crimes due to the color of their skin.

Although his struggle for equality was painstaking and stressful, Robinson was looked at not

only as a player in the Negro Leagues but also as an activist who started a movement. A

movement that would become globally binding as he was able to integrate races in a game. The

racial climate in the United States was hostile, but Robinson fought the hostility and endured as

he gained freedom and desegregated baseball teams so that teams could be playing together in

one league.41 Robinson would receive various death threats and be called abusive names, but still

would resort to nonviolence. He fought the hostility of the league by not turning to violence after

he was maliciously attacked by the media. Robinson’s actions were looked at as advantageous by

the black community, and many of the Negro League players followed in his legacy as they

would not resort to acts of violence when faced with turmoil.42 When Robinson played in the

Negro Leagues, he spoke out on national television proclaiming that blacks and whites deserved

to be together and he decided that he was going to take a stand for the black community.43

Robinson acted as a spokesperson for civil rights and equality for the black population

even though he went through many trials and tribulations to get there.44 Robinson was a major

41Chris Lamb, Blackout: The Untold Story of Jackie Robinson's First Spring Training (Lincoln, NE: Bison Books, 2006), 2442 Lamb, 3243 Lamb, 47. 44 The Jackie Robinson Reader: Perspectives on an American Hero. New York, N.Y., Dutton, 1997.

15

spokesperson who believed that blacks and whites deserved to play baseball under the same

league and be united under one title. The poise and dignity hushed when he spoke showed his

passion for wanting to play with white ballplayers because he felt that his skills on the field were

just as good as those in the Major Leagues. Jackie Robinson began his baseball career in 1945

when he played for the Kansas City Monarchs.45 After he was picked up by the Kansas City

Monarchs, he began to attract attention from Branch Rickey, who was the owner of the Major

League Brooklyn Dodgers. Rickey was worried about the race riots because of the feeling that

Robinson could lose his temper with being the only African American in the Major Leagues.

After the two sat down, Robinson reached an agreement with Branch Rickey, thus breaking the

color barrier in minor league baseball. This was an intervention that was initiated by Branch

Rickey and took place over time. Jackie Robinson was held under contract for one year by the

Montreal Royals, who were the minor league affiliate for the Brooklyn Dodgers.46

Jackie Robinson made baseball history in 1946 when the Brooklyn Dodgers brought him

up to the Major Leagues, thus breaking the color barrier in baseball and allowing blacks and

whites to play together on the same team. Many players followed in Robinson’s footsteps by

shifting from playing in the Negro Leagues to playing in the Major Leagues. Players like Satchel

Paige, Campanella, and Gibson made the jump to the Major Leagues after Robinson broke the

barrier in 1946. Robinson played second base for the Brooklyn Dodgers and became one of the

greatest ballplayers to come from the Negro Leagues. Robinson assisted players in making the

change over to the major leagues through breaking the color barrier. Although many of the

African American ballplayers still experienced hate-crimes and comments when they would play

in the Major League, they would resort to nonviolence and play the game with pride and dignity.

45 Lamb, 8.46 Ibid

16

Players would wear their uniforms proudly and attempt to ignore the racist remarks from the

crowds.

Robinson’s Uniform, Photo by author

Robinson’s transition to the Major Leagues was problematic in other regions because

people were unsure of the hostility that the African American athlete would bring to the game.47

After Robinson made the transition, regions within the United States began to foresee a problem.

In the South, people thought the integration of African Americans into the league would lead to

problems. The Negro League players were making transitions to the Major Leagues after

Robinson left. Within the white communities in the south, Robinson would be degrade because

of his skin color. Games had to be canceled in order to protect Robinson and his teammates from

the harsh actions that Southerners were threatening. The North was filled with fans who were

uncertain about the game, so many Negro League teams had were unable build a steady fan base.

Another player from the Negro Leagues that had an influence on the rising game of

baseball was Roy Campanella, who proved to be one of the most talented catchers to play in the

47 Chris Lamb, Blackout: The Untold Story of Jackie Robinson's First Spring Training (Lincoln, NE: Bison Books, 2006), 151.

17

both leagues. Campanella was a pioneer for the Negro Leagues because he was also another

individual who was crucial to the success that the league had.48 Campanella came to the Negro

Leagues at the age of 15 in 1937 and began to make an immediate impact the moment that he hit

the scene. Early on in 1939, Campanella declined to sign with the Brooklyn Dodgers after

Branch Rickey, who was the owner at the time, offered Campanella a contract. Campanella

declined the deal because he believed that players in the white baseball league would resort for

foul play such as fighting causing harm to the catcher.49 Campanella was a tough player who was

also physical because he had a fighting background. He would taunt other players but had the

ability to back up his actions by the way that he played on the field.50

Campanella’s talents were displayed within the Negro Leagues, and he drew fans no

matter where he was playing. He played baseball and spoke out for the black community for

equality after experiencing mistreatment by white fans. Campanella was a catcher in the Negro

Leagues for the Elite Giants who moved to Baltimore where he spent most of his Negro League

career before Robinson made his jump to the Dodgers.51 Campanella was mistreated by having

beer bottles and other trash thrown at him, which caused him to stick in the Negro Leagues for

some time. The catcher’s talents were scouted by multiple ball clubs, including the Pittsburgh

Pirates of the Major Leagues, who wanted to give him a tryout as a catcher. Campanella would

go on to play for the Brooklyn Dodgers with Robinson. He passed away in 1993 due to a heart

attack, but he is still remembered for his great attitude on and off the field. Campanella’s legacy

lives on and is honored by the Dodgers today by giving one player an award for their leadership

throughout the season.

48 Lew Freedman, African American Pioneers of Baseball: A Biographical Encyclopedia (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 2007), Roy Campanella. 49 Roy Campanella, It’s Good to Be Alive (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1995), 36. 50 Lanctot, 237.51Lanctot, 235.

18

Another influential player that made a crucial impact on the Negro Leagues and in the

Major Leagues is Hank Aaron. “Hammerin Hank” was known for his skillful outfield play in

addition to the powerful bat that he contributed to the team.52 Hank Aaron started his career with

the Indianapolis Clowns at a stellar age of 18 years old. “Aaron took the game seriously, and his

talents were so professional that the Major Leagues wanted to take this young kid and sign him

in 1952.”53 Aaron’s career in the Negro Leagues was short but effective because his talent was

great enough to play in the Majors. Aaron would go on to play for the Milwaukee Braves in the

Major Leagues.54

As a result of Robinson breaking the color barrier in 1946, many Negro League players

decided to go to tryouts for professional ball clubs, and many made the major league teams. This

brought about the last era of the Negro Leagues and would be best understood as the

“Transformation Era,” since many players would make the transition over to the integrated

Major Leagues. Although racism was still a major problem in the United States, Robinson and

many other players acted as spokespeople for the African American athletic community. Players

would prove that they deserved to be on the same field as white ballplayers. After players like

Robinson and Campanella went through the Negro League, fans became more wrapped up in the

game during the 1950s because this was considered to be one of the starting places for many

African American ballplayers who ended up playing in the Major Leagues. During the 50s, the

Negro Leagues were considered to be the foundation for many ballplayers that would go on and

continue their careers in the Major Leagues, so many more fans became attracted and finances

for the league substantially improved throughout the country.55 From the time that Robinson

52 Lanctot, 310.53 Ibid54 Ibid55 Lanctot, 320.

19

played in the Negro Leagues to his jump to the majors was known as the “Golden Era” because

that was when the league became famous. 56After the players like Robinson and Campanella left,

the Negro Leagues still was prosperous due to players like O’Neil, who kept attracting loyal fans

to the games. Audiences were still attracted to the talents and pioneers to the game. Many fans

remained devoted to the league until it ended in 1960.57 .

The second run of the league was more successful than the first run due to the stability

with funds and more fans became interested in seeing many of the talents that came through.58

Two leagues that were previously separated under one roof were fused together. The Negro

National League and Negro American Leagues worked together to form the entire Negro

Leagues, thus having more teams play each other. This was a major push for the league and was

effective because African Americans began to strive for equality and achieve greatness.

The push for equality fed into the game of baseball because many of the ballplayers who

were shifting felt comfortable playing in the Major Leagues knowing that they were given the

same treatment as the white players.59 According to Lanctot, the Negro Leagues “relied on

support of the black community and allowed many African American ballplayers to prepare for

the Major Leagues, which helped many players when they arrived on the professional scene.”

Players like Campanella, Robinson, Banks, and Gibson flourished in the league and created

impacts on the game that left audiences speechless.60 After the Negro Leagues disbanded, black

baseball players as well as Cuban ballplayers began to arrive and change the game of baseball,

making this one of the most diverse sports that was played in the United States. The roles of the

56 O'Neil and Conrads, 102. 57 Lumpkin, 22.58 Ibid59 Lanctot, 39660Bob Luke. The Baltimore Elite Giants: Sport and Society in the Age of Negro League Baseball. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2009.

20

Negro League players were to stand for the black community and be their voice through the

game of baseball. Although they endured the racial discrimination, the players were activists

who showed that they belonged with the white players in one integrated league.

The Negro Leagues from 1920-1960 changed the game of baseball for many African

Americans as they pushed for racial equality and desegregation in the game of baseball. African

American ballplayers and Cuban players who developed in the Negro Leagues contributed to the

success of the Major Leagues by putting more fans in the seats, selling out baseball games across

the United States. As the Negro Leagues concluded, many ballplayers continued their careers

and retired but became major influences on the athletes that still play the game today.61 Many

African Americans have changed the game of baseball, including heroes of the game like Hank

Aaron, who set the all-time home run record before it was broken in 2005 by Barry Bonds.

Overall, the game of baseball has transformed over time from being a game centered on harsh

racism and inequality to a game of players uniting together.

Appendix

61 Jules Tygiel, Past Time: Baseball as History (New York: Oxford University Press, USA, 2001), 240.

21

Nowadays, Major League baseball still honors the Negro Leagues by modern teams

wearing throwback jerseys in order to pay tribute to those who paved the way for the players

today. Teams will play games in uniforms that were similar to those worn by the players in the

Negro Leagues. The uniforms would be baggy long sleeved shirts that would have the team

name across the front with a number on the back. Most of the time, the jersey just had a number

because players were usually given nicknames during the Negro Leagues, so it would be unusual

to put just a nickname on the jersey during the time. Also, Negro League teams were

distinguishable from one another because they would play with different long sock designs.

Teams would also wear floppy hats that would usually have a curved bill unlike today’s hats in

baseball that are mostly flat-billed.

Teams such as the Kansas City Royals have traditional games where they will wear the

uniforms that the Kansas City Monarchs used to wear.62 These uniforms would consist of baggy

button down shirts with “Monarchs” written across the front of the uniform with the number on

the back. Also, the team would continue the Negro League tradition and wear the red socks like

the team wore when Kansas City Monarchs played. Another modern tradition that pays tribute is

when the Milwaukee Brewers and Chicago White Sox play in their “Turn Back the Clock”

uniforms that are similar to those worn in the Negro Leagues. The Milwaukee Brewers wear the

uniforms for the Milwaukee Bears, which were always grey and blue. The Chicago White Sox

would always wear the navy blue striped uniforms that were similar to the Chicago American

Giants who were one of the first teams that initiated the Negro Leagues in the Midwest. As

shown in the images below, the jerseys were much simpler than the ones that players wear today.

62 Vinnie Duber, “Oliva Helps Royals, Twins Salute Negro Leagues,” MLB.com, July 21, 2012, accessed March 28, 2014,http://kansascity.royals.mlb.com/news/print.jsp?ymd=20120721&content_id=35329478&vkey=news_kc&c_id=kc.

22

Credits to UniformLineup.com

Photo Credits to William Purnell/Icon SMI ESPN.com

Overall, teams are still showing tribute to the Negro League’s various teams playing with

their respective uniforms and numbers of players being retired. Teams also bring back players

from the Negro Leagues to be spotlighted for awards and special occasion ceremonies. They are

recognized for not only their great play on the field, but also for their fight for equality as

African American athletes. These players strove to gain equality and achieved their dreams. This

was a major step not only for baseball but also for the African American community. The Negro

Leagues will live on as one of the major sporting leagues that allowed African Americans to gain

their equality.

23

Bibliography (Primary)

Campanella, Roy. It's Good to Be Alive. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1995.

Duber, Vinnie. “Oliva Helps Royals, Twins Salute Negro Leagues.” MLB.com. July 21, 2012.

Accessed November 12, 2014. 

Holway, John. Blackball Stars: Negro League Pioneers. New York: Carroll & Graf Pub, 1992

"John "Buck" O'Neil: Growing Up." YouTube. n.d. Visionary Project, March 22, 2010http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=v3rtNgk9vcs.

Luke, Bob. The Baltimore Elite Giants: Sport and Society in the Age of Negro League Baseball.Baltimore, Md: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2009.

O' Neil, Buck, and David Conrads. I Was Right On Time. n ed. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster, 1997.

The Jackie Robinson Reader: Perspectives on an American Hero. New York, N.Y., Dutton, 1997.

White, Sol. Sol White's History of Colored Baseball with Other Documents on the Early Black Game, 1886-1936. Bison Books, 1996.

Bibliography (Secondary)

Cottrell, Robert Charles. The Best Pitcher in Baseball: The Life of Rube Foster, Negro League Giant.New York: NYU Press, 2004.

Freedman, Lew. African American Pioneers of Baseball: A Biographical Encyclopedia. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 2007.

Lumpkin, Angela. 2011. "Negro Leagues: Black Diamonds." Phi Kappa Phi Forum 91, no. 2: 22. Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost (accessed September 4, 2014).

Irvin, Monte. The Negro Leagues: Baseball, America, DVD. 2012. United States: Bucknell University.

Lamb, Chris. Blackout: The Untold Story of Jackie Robinson's First Spring Training. Lincoln, Nebraska: Bison Books, 2006.

Lanctot, Neil. Negro League Baseball: The Rise and Ruin of a Black Institution. Philadelphia:University of Pennsylvania Press, 2008.

Peterson, Robert Only the Ball Was White: a History of Legendary Black Players and All-Black Professional Teams. New York: Oxford University Press, USA, 1992.

24

Purnell, William Icon SMI, Kansas City Royals (2010), Accessed December 1, 2013, ESPN.com.

Ribowsky, Mark. Don't Look Back: Satchel Paige in the Shadows of Baseball. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1994.

Ribowsky, Mark. The Power and the Darkness: the Life of Josh Gibson in the Shadows of theGame. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996.

Riley, James A. Of Monarchs and Black Barons: Essays on Baseball's Negro Leagues. Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland & Co., 2012.

Riley, James A. The Biographical Encyclopedia of the Negro Baseball Leagues. New York: Carroll & Graf Publishing, 1994.

Tygiel, Jules, The Negro Leagues, OAH Magazine of History, Vol 7, No. 1, History of Sport, Recreation, and Leisure (Summer, 1992).

Tygiel, Jules. Past Time: Baseball as History. New York: Oxford University Press, USA, 2001.

25