The nature and Impact of Crises:

The Berlin wall 1961, Cuban Missile Crisis 1962 and Czechoslovakia 1968

Context:- Germany and Berlin were divided into four zones at Potsdam Conference in 1945 in US, French and British zones

became capitalist, democratic, allowing citizens freedom of speech and other rights. While the Soviet zone became communist dictatorship where government controlled all economic activity and censored the media.

- The Soviet Union believed the West had delayed the construction of a formal peace settlement between East and West Germany in hope that the prosperity that West Germany was enjoying would pull East Germany and other Eastern European states out of the socialist bloc

Troubles for Soviets:- Couldn’t establish feasible state within East Germany- East German government resisted pressures for reform- Citizens immigrated to West Germany using Berlin as a thoroughfare- West Berlin was a propaganda symbol for the West, located deep within the communist bloc

Key Figures: Nikita KrushchevAfter Stalin died in March 1953, he was succeeded by Nikita Khrushchev as First Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) (1953-1964)

John F Kennedy (1961 – 22 1963)In June 1961, President John F. Kennedy traveled to Vienna, Austria, for a summit with Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev. Not only was the summit unsuccessful in its goal of building trust, but it also increased tensions between the two superpowers—particularly in discussions regarding the divided city of Berlin.

Tension between the East and WestFollowing the segregation of Germany into two separate nations, a great antagonism between the prosperous West whom had undergone an “economic miracle” (Panter, D) and the communist East manifested itself within Germany

The Soviet Union believed the West had delayed the construction of a formal peace settlement between East and West Germany in hope that the prosperity that West Germany was enjoying would pull East Germany and other Eastern European states out of the socialist bloc

East Germany a vital strategic position for USSR:- US had littered the West with nuclear missile facilities- Also sentimental (compensation for WWII where millions of their men perished)- Khrushchev issued a defensively motivated ultimatum:

German peace treaty that would recognise the existence of two Germanies- Called for the end of four-power control of Berlin- Western sectors of the Berlin become demilitarizes and self-governing free city- If US did not agree Khrushchev would grant the German Democratic Republic full

control of access to capitalist West Berlin S- oviet Union withdrew their ultimatum but tensions still existed – skilled workers

leaving East Germany – ensuing deficit of quality labour- Crisis reignited by U2 spy plane incident – Soviets realised the amount of classified

information that the US were receiving from their missions- President Eisenhower took responsibility for the flights

West Berlin ProspersBetween 1950-early 1960s, West Berlin began to prosper/grow after US and WG govts poured $600 billion each into the city. West Berlin became highly attractive to East Berliners, who were suffering economically and had no freedom of speech. More than 3 million East Germans fled to West Berlin; problem was that they were highly skilled workers/academically trained, and were vital to EG economy. By 1961, Soviets knew they had to stop exodus in fear of economic decline.

On 4 June 1961, Khrushchev demanded the Western powers leave Berlin, but the US refused.

Building the WallOn 13 Aug., 1961, a 27 mile long wall of barbed wire was put up, which separated West Berlin from East Berlin, with tanks/gunmen placed at strategic points to stop people fleeing to West Berlin. The wall made from barbed wire so to gauge the Western response; the three essentials of US foreign policy were not affected, and so the Western response was moderate.

Propaganda made the wall out to be something the EG people wanted; Khrushchev stated that “The working class of Germany has erected a wall so that no wolf can break into the German Democratic Republic again”.

The Berlin Wall:

Concrete construction of wall began on 17 Aug This permanent wall had:

- A touch alarm fence- Steel mesh- A pipe too large in diameter for climbers to grip on top of the wall- Towers, guards and dogs watching over ‘forbidden zones’ which ran for miles behind the wall.

Anyone found in these zones was shot.- East German govt. saw building of wall vital to economy/survival of EG regime.- West Geram saw it as the ‘Wall of Shame’, and was seen as a physical creation of Churchill’s ‘Iron

Curtain’. Each side of the wall reflected style of leadership on both sides:- West side: had graffiti/drawings all over it, showing how they felt about the divide. Highlighted

their freedom of speech- East side: unmarked, East Berliners not allowed near the wall. Reflected the dictatorship they were

living under.- Berlin Wall was first use of force to trap people in their own country, and cruel landmark of CW.

Creation of Berlin Wall only increased strain on already tense US-USSR relations.

Walling up the EastLess than a month later the East German government sealed off all access roads between East and West Berlin and began construction of the Berlin wall that surrounded West Berlin to ensure that citizens of East Germany would stay in their communist territory

A long wall of barbed wire was put up, which separated West Berlin from East Berlin, with tanks/gunmen placed at strategic points to stop people fleeing to West Berlin. A more permanent wall was later built out of concrete.

End of the Cold War was heralded by the people of Berlin breaking down the wall in 1989

Impact of the Berlin WallSymbolic of the Cold War and the dictatorial and oppressive means that the communist party needed to employ to ensure loyalty of its inhabitants Shows the differences between the communist world and the non-communist world

An “ideological defeat of colossal proportions for the Soviet Union and world communism” (Painter, D)

Erection of the wall ended the period of instability that was plaguing East Germany – long phase of economic, social and political stability graced Europe – ensured the Cold War would not be played out on foreign shores – crucial moment in Cold War’s development. Symbolic of the Cold War and the dictatorial and oppressive means that the communist party needed to employ to ensure loyalty of its inhabitants – telling symbol of the closed society that was at the heart of the Soviet’s communist system. Concrete example of the differences between the communist world and the non-communist world.

CUBAN MISSILE CRISIS

CONTEXTSince 1933 Cuba was governed by a Pro-American dictator, Batista, who was committed to preserving a repressive, authoritarian regime which favoured the privileged class – anti-democratic policies – America supported this to avoid the rise of anti-Batista communists. The US bought the majority of all Cuban exports

However in 1959 Batista’s government was overthrown in a communist revolution by Fidel Castro.

Supporters of Batista, industrialists, bureaucrats and the privileged class, fled to the US – they were welcomed.

Context: Bay of the PigsRight wing Cuban refugees planned a counter-revolution to overthrow Castro. JFK endorsed the plan and so the CIA trained Cuban exiles for invasion and counter-revolution – April 1961 the invasion took place – the landing did not incite a popular uprising – the landing brigade was captured by Cuban army loyal to Castro – humiliation to the US – propaganda for the Soviets – Bay of Pigs incident.

Soviets stepped in to support the Castro government - they received aid from the USSR and the Cubans allowed Soviets to construct military/missile bases.

Frantic diplomatic exchanges between the two governmentsAmericans concerned when a U2 spy plane observed construction of missile bases – clear challenge to the Monroe Doctrine (tenant of American foreign policy that said North and South America was an “American sphere”). JFK warned Khrushchev against installing the missiles

Frantic diplomatic exchanges between the two governments

JFK agreed not to invade Cuba and Khrushchev accepted and sent a telegram to tell JFK that the missile bases would be dismantled

Soviets stepped in to support the Castro government – Cubans allowed Soviets to construct military/missile bases

Up to Aug. 1962, the Soviets sent equipment, troops and money to Cuba; this included 40,000 USSR troops and other specialised equipment.

14 Oct. an American U-2 spy plane photographed long-range missile sites under construction. Kennedy is informed of this, and was given a variety of options; a quarantine/blockade of the Cuban island; a bombing raid to destroy the missile sites; invasion; or a diplomatic solution involving the removal of the missiles.

Cuba Heats Up!Quarantine was announced on 22 Oct.; Soviet/Warsaw Pact ships would not be able to bypass the US ships blockading Cuba. On 24 Oct. the Soviet ships reached the line of US ships and were stopped. Khrushchev sent a message to Kennedy on 24 Oct., and another, more aggressive, note on 26 Oct. Kennedy responded to the first message on the advice of his brother, but ignored the second message.

27 Oct. – US guarantees that it will not invade Cuba/will remove US missiles aimed at USSR in Turkey. On 28 Oct., Soviets agree to dismantle the missile pads in Cuba. The crisis is officially over.

October 1962 – US naval cordon set up around Cuba – ships going into Cuba searches Soviet ships escorted by a Soviet submarine sailed towards Cuba with no intention to stop – realisation a “hot” war, likely to involve nuclear weapons, seemed like a possibility

Frantic diplomatic exchanges between the two governments. JFK agreed not to invade Cuba and Khrushchev accepted and turned the ships around and send a telegram to tell JFK that the missile bases would be dismantled

The Impact of the Cuban Missile CrisisPlaced communism on American doorstep!

Reduced the bargaining power of the USSR in negotiations with the West

Brought to the US reconsiderations about theories about nuclear war.

Both Kennedy and Khrushchev resisted the advice of hardliners who urged a military solution – a diplomatic solution was found – in the aftermath it was clear that both sides were keen to improve communication so as to avoid future misunderstanding

Period 1953 to 1969 – Historian Halliday called a time of “oscillatory (changing) antagonism”

Placed communism on American doorstepBrought to the US reconsiderations about theories about nuclear war – Robert McNamara concluded that nuclear weapons could not be used in war – MAD!

Both Kennedy and Khrushchev resisted the advice of hardliners who urged a military solution – a diplomatic solution was found – in the aftermath it was clear that both sides were keen to improve communication so as to avoid future misunderstanding

In 1963 a “hot line” direct communication link was established between Moscow and Washington

In 1963 a “hot line” direct communication link was established between Moscow and WashingtonIn 1963 also, a Partial Test Ban Treaty (ending the atmospheric testing of nuclear weapons) was agreed to.

Kennedy handled the situation well and his reputation and authority was enhanced, whilst Khrushchev’s authority was undermined – the Soviet military resented the humiliating back down – others in the USSR saw the move to place missiles in Cuba as unnecessary

Highlighted the fact that the USSR was no match of the US in nuclear weapons – prompted a determined effort on the Soviet part to catch up – thus, although the US-Soviet relations were much better by the end of the sixties, the arms build-up had made the world a potentially more dangerous place

Czechoslovakia (1968) Nature of the Prague SpringStalin-appointed dictator Antonin Novotny was disliked by his party and the country for his anti-liberalism and sincere Stalinism.

January 1968 – liberal reformer Alexander Dubcek chosen as new leader of the communist party. Wanted to improve the economy:

- Less central planning- Making more contacts with the West- Modernising the communist party- Introduced reforms: freedom of the press; a socialist market economy; more

democracy

Alexander Dubcek’s reformsIntroduced reforms: freedom of the press; a socialist market economy; more democracy

“socialism with a human face” – resurgence in artistic expression which had long been repressed

Censoring eased

ALL EQUALED A SENSE OF EUPHORIA AMONG THE POPULOUS THAT BECAME KNOWN AS “PRAGUE SPRING”

Dubcek did not want to withdraw from the Warsaw Pact

The Czechoslovakian Communist Party (CCP) gradually split in the late 1960s between the reformers/conservatives. Reformers were still pro-communist, but wanted to implement changes, such as freedom of speech.

5 Jan CCP formally splits between reformers/conservatives. Alexander Dubcek, a reformer, becomes new leader of the CCP.

6 April new govt. cabinet is formed. Censorship of TV/press is lifted, and this starts to worry Brezhnev in May; censorship was formally abolished in Czech. in June. Several other reforms are passed, leading to more tension.

21 August – troops from USSR, Poland, Hungary, Bulgaria and East Germany invade Czech.; invasion is supposedly in response to a request from CCP. Is much protest from Czech. students/artists, etc., and the UN calls for peace/moderation.

Tensions heighten with Romania/Yugoslavia, who proclaim support for Czech. Soviet troops appear to be readying themselves to invade Romania (24 Aug.); President Johnson of the US warns the USSR against invasion, and none comes.

In Oct., Dubcek is forced to sign a treaty with the USSR while under arrest in Moscow. Reforms in Czech. from this point do not continue.

16 Oct. treaty signed by CCP allows 100,000 Soviet troops to be permanently stationed in Czech.

Nov. protests against USSR by students and others continue. Is announced that 5000 Czechs have applied for asylum in the West.

Dec. Soviet troops remain in Czech. Dubcek stays in power but is eventually removed in Sept US does not act militarily in the situation, in accordance with their policies over internal affairs in the Soviet bloc.

“socialism with a human face” – resurgence in artistic expression which had long been repressedCensoring eased

This led to a sense of euphoria among the populous that became known as “Prague Spring”

The Brezhnev Doctrine decreed the Soviet Union’s right to intervene in the affairs of another country when the interests of socialism were being threatened

20 August 1968, troops from Warsaw Pact countries invaded Czechoslovakia to restore Soviet control. Most Czechs did not resist – although there were rocks thrown at tanks, street signs removed to confuse tanks, etc.

Dubcek and his colleagues’ were arrested and replaced with dictator, Gustav Husak. A new, pro-Moscow government is introduced

The Brezhnev Doctrine decreed the Soviet Union’s right to intervene in the affairs of another country when the interests of socialism were being threatened

20 August 1968, troops from Warsaw Pact countries invaded Czechoslovakia to restore Soviet control

Most Czechs did not resist – although there were rocks thrown at tanks, street signs removed to confuse tanks, etc.

Dubcek and his colleagues’- arrested and replaced with pliable dictator, Gustav Husak

A new, pro-Moscow government is introduced

Impact of the Prague SpringThe Brezhnev Doctrine was born. It was the justification for the invasion and said that Warsaw Pact countries were not allowed to follow policies involving any departure from a one-party state; and if any developments took place in any Warsaw Pact member country which seemed a threat to socialism, it was the right/duty of other member states to intervene militarily to bring reforms to an end.

This Soviet military imposition on a supposedly sovereign country provoked international outrage – although, Western countries offered only vocal criticism. Brutal reminder of the Soviet Union’s paranoia about protecting its frontiers through the maintenance of friendly buffer states – in the USSR there were a number of open acts of dissent e.g. activists protested against the use of military force in Czechoslovakia in the Red Square on 25th August 1968.

If any developments took place in any Warsaw Pact member country which seemed a threat to socialism, it was the right/duty of other member states to intervene militarily to bring reforms to an end.

Contributed to the growth of Eurocommunist* ideas in Western communist parties – leading to the eventual dissolution or break-up of many of these groups

* Eurocommunism: a new trend in the 70s and 80s within various Western European communist parties to develop a theory and practice of social transformation that was more relevant in a Western European democracy and less aligned to the party line of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union

Soviet intervention put a stop to any further official moves towards reform in Soviet bloc.

On 12 Oct., Brezhnev announced the justification for the invasion, and what became known as the ‘Brezhnev Doctrine’, which entailed the following:

Warsaw Pact countries were not allowed to follow policies involving any departure from a one-party state.