THE NATIONAL ORGANIC WASTE COMPOSTING STRATEGY - South African Waste …sawic.environment.gov.za/documents/1825.pdf · · 2013-02-05The National Organic Waste Composting Strategy

October 2012

FINAL Status Quo Report

NOVEMBER 2012

THE NATIONAL ORGANIC WASTE

COMPOSTING STRATEGY

Draft Guideline Document for Composting

February 2013

Compost is BLACK

GOLD to soil “Dirt,

the movie”

3110: National Organic Waste Composting Strategy: Draft Guideline Document for Composting February 2013

Page ii

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

The National Organic Waste Composting Strategy (NOWCS) has been developed to promote

composting as one method to beneficiate organic waste, as one of a basket of options, to divert

organics from landfill disposal. The NOWCS Report does not address in detail secondary elements

such as methane generation, detailed analysis of organic waste generation, quantities, usage, etc.

This draft Guideline Document has been developed as a supplement to the NOWCS (Strategy) Report

and Status Quo Report (amongst others) and is aimed to provide a practical conceptual-level

information tool to assist Authorities and other interested parties to identify viable and sustainable

composting opportunities.

This Guideline Document covers issues such as:

Regulatory processes,

Strategic planning by DEA with respect to composting,

Marketing,

Impacts and controls,

Education and skills,

Various Technologies (composting and alternatives),

Costs,

Typical layouts,

Planning tools and information,

Useful reading and references

This Guideline Document contains data, facts and figures that should be of assistance and value to

those wishing to expand existing composting activities or for those wanting to identify potential new

composting opportunities.


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FOREWORD AND DISCLAIMER

With respect to technologies, the Project team is aware that other technologies and opportunities are

available, other than composting or those illustrated in this Guideline Document, to treat and obtain

beneficial use of organic waste.

The Project Team does recognise that technology is also developing at an increasing rate, such that

more opportunities are arising to improve efficiencies and viability of getting beneficial use from organic

waste.

This Document does not imply that composting is the preferred method of treating (or diverting from

landfill) organic waste in South Africa. The Terms of Reference refers to a National Organic

Composting Strategy; hence the focus of this Guideline Document is only on composting.


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TABLE OF CONTENTS

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ....................................................................................................... II

FOREWORD AND DISCLAIMER .......................................................................................... III

TABLE OF CONTENTS ....................................................................................................... IV

LIST OF FIGURES .............................................................................................................. V

LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................................ V

ABBREVIATIONS ............................................................................................................. VII

DEFINITION OF TERMS .................................................................................................... VIII

1. INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW ................................................................................ 14

1.1. BACKGROUND ....................................................................................................... 14

1.2. SCOPE OF THIS GUIDELINE DOCUMENT ............................................................... 15

1.3. PURPOSE, NEED AND OBJECTIVES FOR THE GUIDELINE DOCUMENT .................. 16

2. REGULATORY PROCESSES ...................................................................................... 17

3. FEEDSTOCK AND VARIOUS COMPOSTING PROCESSES ............................................. 20

4. PRODUCTS, USES AND MARKETABILITY ................................................................... 27

4.1. PRODUCTS AND MARKETABILITY.......................................................................... 27

4.1.1. TYPICAL PRODUCTS ............................................................................................. 28

4.1.2. TYPICAL MARKETING STRATEGY ......................................................................... 30

4.1.3. LABELLING AND COMPOSITION ............................................................................ 31

4.1.4. ORGANIC CERTIFICATION ..................................................................................... 34

4.1.5. PRICING STRUCTURE ........................................................................................... 34

5. FACILITY MANAGEMENT MODELS ............................................................................. 37

6. PROPOSED ORGANIC WASTE STRATEGY BY DEA ...................................................... 47

7. TYPICAL IMPACTS ASSOCIATED WITH A COMPOSTING OPERATION ........................... 49

8. STRATEGY BY DEA REGARDING EDUCATION, SKILL-TRANSFER AND AWARENESS .... 53

9. COMMON TECHNOLOGY OPTIONS............................................................................. 55

10. TYPICAL COSTS OF COMPOSTING FACILITIES ........................................................... 64

11. TYPICAL LAYOUTS OF A COMPOSTING FACILITY ....................................................... 66

12. USEFUL CONTACT NUMBERS ................................................................................... 76

13. USEFUL READING .................................................................................................... 78

14. REFERENCES ........................................................................................................... 79


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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Regulatory Process of Identifying an Opportunity to Establish a Composting Facility ............ 19

Figure 2: McCarthy's 4 P's of Marketing ................................................................................................ 27

Figure 3: Graphical matrix for public-private sector involvement ........................................................... 46

Figure 4: Key Priorities and Timeframe Chart ........................................................................................ 48

Figure 5: Illustration of the stages of a simple composting process ....................................................... 62

Figure 6: The composting process and typical by-products ................................................................... 63

Figure 7: Processing facilities P1: Composting - chip & stockpile only Guideline Schematics ............... 70

Figure 8: Processing facilities P2: Composting - small-scale windrows without screening Guideline

Schematics ............................................................................................................................................ 71

Figure 9: Processing facilities P3: Composting - large-scale windrows with screening Guideline

Schematics ............................................................................................................................................ 72

Figure 10: Processing facility P4: Waste-to-compost facility Guideline Schematics .............................. 73

Figure 11: Typical windrow composting system..................................................................................... 74

Figure 12: Box composting (cross section) ............................................................................................ 75

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Suitability of composting typical general waste ........................................................................ 21

Table 2: Feedstock odour potential ranking ........................................................................................... 22

Table 3: Process Odour Potential ranking ............................................................................................. 23

Table 4: Compost feedstock category and type and possible composting technology and treatment

options ................................................................................................................................................... 24

Table 5: Examples of composting products with descriptions and possible uses (Guide to Best practice

for Organics Recovery, 2009). ............................................................................................................... 28

Table 6: Compost quality versus consumer interest .............................................................................. 31

Table 7: Market demand versus compost type and quality13 ................................................................. 33

Table 8: Typical compost customer demand sheet ................................................................................ 35

Table 9: Typical Municipally owned Municipally Operated management models (scenarios) for

composting ............................................................................................................................................ 38

Table 10: Typical Municipally owned Community operated management models (scenarios) for

composting ............................................................................................................................................ 40

Table 11: Typical Municipally owned Privately operated management models (scenarios) for

composting ............................................................................................................................................ 42


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Table 12: Typical Privately owned Privately operated management models (scenarios) for composting

.............................................................................................................................................................. 44

Table 13: Typical impacts and potential mitigation measures for a composting operation..................... 49

Table 14: Summary of composting technologies currently being undertaken ........................................ 57

Table 15: Technologies suitable for organics processing ...................................................................... 60

Table 16: Typical costing of items in a composting facility ..................................................................... 64

Table 17: Checklist for determining possible site-area of operation ....................................................... 67


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ABBREVIATIONS

ASP Anaerobic Static Pile

C:N Carbon (C) and Nitrogen (N) ratio

CO2 Carbon dioxide

DEA Department of Environmental Affairs

DEAT Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism

DWAF Department of Water Affairs and Forestry

ECA Environmental Conservation Act, 73 of 1989

EIA Environmental Impact Assessment

EPA Environmental Protection Agency, USA

GDACE Gauteng Department of Agriculture, Conservation and Environment

GDARD Gauteng Department of Agriculture and Rural Development

IWM Integrated Waste Management

IWMSA Institute of Waste Management of South Africa

MSA Municipal Systems Act, 32 of 2000

MSW Municipal Solid Waste

NEMA National Environmental Management Act, 107 of 1998 (as amended)

NEM:WA National Environmental Management: Waste Act, 59 of 2008

NIMBY Not In My Backyard

NOWCS National Organic Waste Composting Strategy

NWMS National Waste Management Strategy, 2011

RTS Refuse Transfer Station

SAWIC South African Waste Information Centre

SAWIS South African Waste Information System

SWM Solid Waste Management

UNEP United Nations Environmental Policy

WIS Waste Information System


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DEFINITION OF TERMS

Definition Act / Reference

Air Pollution Any change in the composition of the air caused by

smoke, soot, dust (including fly ash), cinders, solid

particles of any kind, gases, fumes, aerosols and

odorous substances.

National Environmental

Management: Air Quality

Act (Act No 39. Of 2004)

Animal

Manure

A by-product of animal excreta which is bio-degradable

in nature and could further be used for fertilisation

purposes.


Management: Waste Act

(Act No. 59 of 2008) : GN

718 19(1)

Biosolids Nutrient rich organic materials (solid/ semi-solid)

obtained from wastewater solids (sewage sludge) that

have been stabilised through processing and which is

often used as fertilizer.

Adapted from:

http://dictionary.referenc

e.com/browse/biosolids

By-Product A substance that is produced as part of a process that is

primarily intended to produce another substance or

product and that has the characteristics of an equivalent

virgin product or material.



(Act No. 59 of 2008)

Compost A stabilised, homogenous, fully decomposed substance

of animal or plant origin to which no plant nutrients have

been added and that is free of substances or elements

that could be harmful to man, animal, plant or the

environment.

PLEASE NOTE: In terms of the NEM: Waste Act there

is no definition for compost and these needs to be

addressed. On an international and national level, there

are multiple definitions of “Compost” and “Composting.”

Fertilizers, Farm Feeds,

Agricultural Remedies

and Stock Remedies Act

(Act No. 36 of 1947) :

GNR 732 Regulations

Regarding Fertilizers

Composting Controlled biological process in which organic materials Guide to Best Practice


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are broken down by micro-organisms.

See note above for “Compost”.

for Organics Recovery

(Sustainability Victoria

2009)

Domestic

Waste

Waste, excluding hazardous waste that emanates from

premises that are used wholly or mainly for residential,

educational, health care, sport or recreation purposes.



(Act No. 59 of 2008)

Fertilizer Any substance which is intended or offered to be used

for improving or maintaining the growth of plants or the

productivity of the soil.




(Act No. 36 of 1947):

GNR 732 - Regulations


Garden

Waste

NOTE: The NEM: Waste Act does not list a definition for

“Garden Waste”. For the purposes of this report,

“garden waste” is meant as organic biodegradable

waste material generated from the likes of a typical

garden.

Reference to “Green Waste” in this report typically

refers to “Garden Waste”.

None

General

Waste

Waste that does not pose an immediate hazard or

threat to health or to the environment, and includes—

a) domestic waste;

b) building and demolition waste;

c) business waste: and

d) Inert waste.



(Act No. 59 of 2008)

Green

Waste

NOTE: that there is no recognised common

definition for “Green Waste”. Reference to “Green

Waste” in this report typically refers to “Garden

Waste”.

None

Hazardous Any waste that contains organic or inorganic elements National Environmental


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Waste or compounds that may, owing to the inherent physical,

chemical or toxicological characteristics of that waste,

have a detrimental impact on health and the

environment.


(Act No. 59 of 2008)

Lagoons The containment of waste in excavations and includes

evaporation dams, earth cells sewage treatment

facilities and sludge farms.



(Act No. 59 of 2008) : GN

718 19(1):

Municipal

Compost

The disinfected and stabilised organic fertilizer

manufactured by the controlled decomposition of sorted

and milled urban waste including fermentable industrial

and commercial waste.




(Act No. 36 of 1947):



Municipal

Waste

Means any municipal compost that does not meet the

requirements for compost given in these regulations: on

the understanding that such waste must meet the

minimum requirements for municipal waste as set out in

the regulations for the registration of fertilizers.




(Act No. 36 of 1947):



Offensive

Odour

Any smell which is considered to be malodorous or a

nuisance to a reasonable person.


Management: Air Quality

Act (Act No 39. Of 2004)

Organic

waste

“Organic Waste” is categorised as, “garden waste, food

waste and wood waste.”

PLEASE NOTE: For the purposes of this project, waste

of biological origin which can be broken down, in a

reasonable amount of time, into its base compounds by

micro-organisms and other living things and/or by other



(Act No. 59 of 2008) :

GNR 625 - National

Waste Information

Regulations


Page xi


forms of treatment, regardless of what those

compounds may be, have also been considered as

“organic waste” and are referenced in this study.

Organic

waste

A carbon-based material of animal or plant origin (that is

defined as waste in terms of the South African gazetted

National Environmental Management: Waste Act, 2008

(Act No. 59 of 2008:) that naturally enhances fertility of

soil through a natural degradation process (natural

occurring fertilizer) but excludes human made organic

chemicals (such as solvents, chemicals and cleansing

agents) and naturally occurring organic chemicals which

have been refined or concentrated by human activity

(such as oil, petroleum, diesel and tar products).

“Organic Waste” will generally comprise materials that

can be accepted for disposal at a licensed municipal

general waste landfill facility (i.e. excludes infectious,

poisonous, health-care and hazardous organic wastes)”.

Proposed new definition

under this Project for

comment and ultimately

adoption by DEA as a

Strategic objective.

Recovery The controlled extraction of a material or the retrieval of

energy from waste to produce a product.



(Act No. 59 of 2008)

Recycle A process where waste is reclaimed for further use,

which process involves the separation of waste from a

waste stream for further use and the processing of that

separated material as a product or raw material.



(Act No. 59 of 2008)

Re-use To utilise articles from the waste stream again for a

similar or different purpose without changing the form or

properties of the articles.



(Act No. 59 of 2008)

Storage The accumulation of waste in a manner that does not

constitute treatment or disposal of that waste.




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(Act No. 59 of 2008)

Treatment Any method, technique or process that is designed to:

a) change the physical, biological or chemical

character or composition of a waste; or

b) remove, separate, concentrate or recover a

hazardous or toxic component of a waste; or

c) Destroy or reduce the toxicity of a waste, in

order to minimise the impact of the waste on the

environment prior to further use or disposal.



(Act No. 59 of 2008)

Waste Any substance, whether or not that substance can be

reduced, re-used, recycled and recovered:

a) that is surplus, unwanted, rejected, discarded,

abandoned or disposed of;

b) which the generator has no further use of for

the purposes of production;

c) that must be treated or disposed of; or

d) that is identified as a waste by the Minister by

notice in the Gazette, and includes waste

generated by the mining, medical or other

sector, but—

i. a by-product is not considered waste; and

ii. any portion of waste, once re-used, recycled

and recovered, ceases to be waste.



(Act No. 59 of 2008)

Wastewater

sludge

Material removed from wastewater treatment plants

designed to treat predominately domestic wastewater

and includes the following products:

Raw or primary sludge from a primary clarifier,

Primary sludge from an elutriation process,

Anaerobically digested sludge, both heated and

Guidelines for the

Utilisation and Disposal

of Wastewater Sludge:

Volume 1


Page xiii


cold digestion,

Oxidation pond sludge,

Septic tank sludge and other sludge from on-

site sanitation units,

Surplus or waste activated sludge,

Humus sludge,

Pasteurised sludge,

Heat-treated sludge,

Lime-stabilised sludge, and

Composted sludge.


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1. INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW

This Guideline Document must be read in conjunction with the Final Status Quo Report

(December 2012) and the Draft National Organic Waste Management Strategy Report (February

2013).

1.1. BACKGROUND

The development of the National Waste Management Strategy (2011) was an important milestone in

facilitating the implementation of the National Environmental Management: Waste Act, 2008 (Act No.

59 of 2008). The National Waste Management Strategy promotes composting as one of the

approaches towards achieving the objectives of the waste management hierarchy, amongst other

measures. This National Organic Waste Composting Strategy (NOWCS) has been initiated by the

Department of Environmental Affairs (DEA) with the aim to develop and promote the diversion of

organic waste from landfill sites for soil beneficiation and other uses through composting1.

The DEA appointed specialist consultants, Jeffares & Green (Pty) Ltd, in July 2012 to assist in the

development of a National Organic Waste Composting Strategy. The Project was divided into the

following phases:

Phase 1: Literature Review

A Literature Review Report was compiled and key information from the report was summarised and

carried forward as an appendix attached to the Status Quo Report.

Phase 2: Status Quo / Situational Analysis

The final Status Quo Report presents the current organic waste management systems that are in place

in South Africa with an overview and examples of international practices being discussed. The

Executive Summary and report were made available for Stakeholder comment prior to finalisation and a

copy of the final Status Quo report was made available online.

1 Department of Environmental Affairs (DEA) Terms of Reference (February 2012)


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Phase 3: Stakeholder Engagement

Stakeholder engagement is on-going and feedback obtained to date was summarised in the Status

Quo Report as well as in a separate Stakeholder Engagement Report.

Phase 4: Development of the NOWCS

The Strategy Report is the final phase of the project which is currently being undertaken. This Report is

in response to the final Status Quo Report and internal specialist engagements and workshops.

Supplement to Phase 4: Development of a Guideline Document for undertaking composting

Arising from stakeholder engagement, coupled with discussions with DEA, the need for general

information regarding establishing a composting facility was also identified as a critical tool that would

further assist with diverting organic waste from landfill.

This Guideline Document has also been developed as part of this project to assist Municipalities and/ or

private/ non-governmental organisations to consider key elements to undertaking composting prior to

developing such a facility.

1.2. SCOPE OF THIS GUIDELINE DOCUMENT

The Strategy (outlined in the Strategy Report) assists in enforcing direction and clear, structured

planning towards a common goal.

The overall aim for this project (NOWCS) is to ensure (where viable) that organic waste generated

within South Africa is diverted from landfill sites for composting, as one alternative treatment method,

through integrated and sustainable waste management planning.

The need for this Guideline Document arose from stakeholder engagement undertaken during the

Status Quo and Strategy phase of the project which clearly demonstrated the necessity for a broad, yet

informative document on key aspects that an individual, organisation and / or institution should consider

prior to undertaking composting. This document attempts to provide guidance on key elements to

consider as part of the planning, design, construction, operation and management phases for a

composting facility.


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It should be noted that this is a guideline document which aims to provide broad recommendations to

be considered during the feasibility and planning stages. Case-specific and local aspects such as the

receiving environment (both from a social and biophysical perspective) should always be integrated in

project planning. The needs for each composting initiative should be systematically analysed for each

individual project, including the following:

the scale of the project, and

the context of the proposed site.

This guideline document will assist by providing an indication of what aspects need to be considered

before establishing a new composting facility.

1.3. PURPOSE, NEED AND OBJECTIVES FOR THE GUIDELINE DOCUMENT

Based on the findings from the situational analysis that was undertaken from September 2012 to

December 2012 on organic waste within South Africa, the key findings documented in the Status Quo

Report (December 2012) clearly showed that strategies and actions are needed to divert organic waste

from landfill disposal. The findings highlighted in the Status Quo Report, assisted in identifying gaps in

information, as well as the challenges and issues with regards to organic waste composting within

South Africa.

The NOWC Strategy Report and this Guideline Document will provide stakeholders, such as

municipalities, with information to enable them to compile their own specific, implementable composting

action plans to divert organic waste from their landfills, in terms of their specific needs, demographics,

climate, budget, etc.

The development of the NOWCS is expected to facilitate and guide the development of legislation,

norms, standards, as well as South African Certification Standards specifically for organic

products, including organic compost and organic fertilizer.

This Strategy should be a public, ‘living’ and actively used functional report that comprises a strategy

which is practical and implementable to both DEA and other government departments.


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It would be incumbent upon the public and / or private body to assess potential waste streams for

composting viability and sustainability prior to undertaking such initiatives. This may be on a local or

regional level.

2. REGULATORY PROCESSES

This Section aims to identify, in broad-terms, regulatory and environmental processes when trying to

identify and establish a composting facility.

One of the strategies identified in the NOWCS is to streamline the process of “Licencing” a composting

facility, via the possibility of rather “Registering” a facility, thereby effecting obligations to develop and

operate a composting facility.

For the purposes of this Document, the word “licence” can also mean “registration”.

Currently, in terms of South African legislation it is important to identify the parameters of a project

upfront in order to ascertain what processes and authorisations are required to prevent delays later in

the planning phase. It is important to consider the triggers contained within the National Environmental

Management: Waste Act (Act 59 of 2008), NEM:WA, which outlines the need to undertake one of the

following processes depending on the scale of the activity:

Basic Assessment (BA) process, which can take between 6 and 9 months to complete,

Scoping and EIA process, which can take in the region of 12 – 15 months. In general,

other legislative requirements (such as Planning Approvals, Water Use Authorisations or

Licenses, etc.) are dependent on the outcome of the NEMA EA process before an

Authority will issue a License or permit.

Only once the necessary approvals are obtained, can a facility be constructed and begin operating.

The cost and time that it takes to obtain the necessary permits/ licenses in terms of the above

legislation was noted by all private stakeholders consulted as being a huge constraint to operating

within the composting industry.


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Poor environmental management of composting and related organics processing facilities can typically

result in one or more of the following environmental problems:

air quality impacts, namely odours and particulate matter,

potential hazards, such as fire and explosions,

water and soil pollution,

the presence of vermin in excessive numbers,

excessive levels of noise from equipment (such as shredders and traffic),

wind-blown litter,

nuisances arising from particulate matter from delivery trucks and earthmoving equipment,

and

production of contaminated organic products.

With respect to medium to large scale composting facilities, there are key elements and considerations

which should be considered and addressed including:

feasibility considerations from a feedstock, land availability as well as suitability

perspective,

understand the processes in terms of regulatory requirements necessary prior to

constructing a facility, and

undertake a financial cost-benefit analysis for the various phases (i.e. planning,

implementation, closure and decommissioning) prior to establishing a composting facility.

All of these elements have been visually portrayed in a flow diagram for ease of reference. Refer to

Figure 1.

Each of the components are discussed and elaborated on in more detail in the guideline document.


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PLANNING PHASE

Data collection: Feedstock opportunities/ threats, quantities/ securing supply, quality and types*, proximity of input material to proposed site

Site suitability (ownership, licensed/ permitted, size/ scale, alternative sites, proximity to sensitive receptors e.g. buffer areas, markets, feedstock material), topography, environmental sensitivity of proposed site

Regulatory processes: Licenses/ registration in terms of the NEM: WA, NEMA, Fertilizers, Farm Feeds, Agricultural Remedies and Stock Remedies Act

Business/ financial planning: funding (start-up costs: regulatory processes, land, equipment and materials, construction; operational and maintenance costs: staff, monitoring, managing impacts, equipment failure, packaging and transportation), cost-benefit analysis, transportation costs; closure/ decommissioning.

Marketing analysis and product sales: Assess potential customers and competitors, product quality and type, pricing, market sectors, end-use etc.

WILL MY COMPOSTING FACILITY BE

FEASIBLE?

YES

NO

Review alternatives for

green/ organic waste

diversion: opportunities

Detailed Business planning: funding (start-up, operational and maintenance, closure/ decommissioning)

Detailed design of facility****: structures, offices, access, infrastructure

Construction phase: Environmental Management Programme, monitoring, license conditions of approval

Staff and equipment acquisition

Operations and maintenance: (data capture, record, monitoring, environmental impact and risk management e.g. dust, odour, employing suitably qualified staff to operate/ manage site, process control (temperature, moisture etc.), quality testing of product (weeds, pathogens)

End-use: Market demand & development / strategy, product information and labelling, certification (perhaps), quality assurance, distribution and sales.

CLOSURE AND DECOMMISSIONING

REGULATORY (LICENSING / PERMITTING PROCESSES IN TERMS OF NEMA AND NEM: WA)**

Waste Management Licence in terms of NEM: WA via undertaking a 6- 9** month Basic Assessment process or a 9 to 12*** month Scoping and Environmental Impact Assessment process in terms of the NEMA)

Application phase: submit application to competent authority

Basic Assessment/ Scoping & Environmental Assessment phase: Advertising, landowner notification, draft and final reporting for public comment periods, public engagement (e.g. meetings), authority review and consideration of reporting and information, environmental authorisation decision, appeal.

Decision and Appeal phase: notify registered I&APs, advertising

IMPLEMENTATION PHASE

* Directly impacts on the amount of space needed for the facility, the method of composting and associated equipment and staff requirements (number and qualification).

** This is only necessary if activities in terms of NEMA or NEM: WA are triggered and/ or if the proposed composting site is not licensed/ permitted.

***These timeframes are based on broad guidelines based on the assumption that there are no delays in the regulatory process.

**** Careful design and selection of process components and equipment, as well as good operating techniques, procedures and staff training are

key to managing potential impacts of a composting facility effectively.

Figure 1: Regulatory Process of Identifying an Opportunity to Establish a Composting Facility


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3. FEEDSTOCK AND VARIOUS COMPOSTING PROCESSES

Diversion of organic waste from landfill and the alternative treatments thereof, such as composting and

energy recovery reduces dependence on landfilling waste, as well as the associated risk of greenhouse

gas emissions. It reduces the risk of methane and other gases impacting on the surrounding land, and

reduces the risk of organic compounds and other contaminants possibly polluting groundwater.

Recovery and processing of organics can produce beneficial soil amendments (such as composts and

fertilizers) for improving South African soil profiles, increasing soil organic carbon levels, preventing soil

erosion and reducing water demand for growing plants and crops. Some recovery technologies also

allow the generation of electricity, production of heat for industrial purposes and the generation of other

fuels for secondary energy production2.

Not all waste is suitable to compost; however, and Table 1 summarises typical general waste types and

their suitability to composting.

2 Adapted from Guide to Best Practice for Organics Recovery (Sustainability Victoria 2009)


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Table 1: Suitability of composting typical general waste

Typical General Waste

Suitable for Composting Not Suitable for Composting

Biodegradable materials Hazardous material Residues Recyclables

Garden Waste - cleaning products

- automotive products

- Pesticides

- HCRW

- broken glass

- expired medicines

- batteries

- treated timber

- chemicals

- inflammable products

- soiled polyethylene

- Bones

- Painted woods

- glass

- metal

- aluminium

- paper

- plastics

- cardboard

- Grass; leaves; plants; cuttings;

branches; tree trunks and stumps.

Food Waste

- Vegetables;

- fruit and seeds

- processing sludges and wastes;

- winery, brewery and distillery wastes;

- food organics3

Wood Waste

- Untreated timber Sawdust

- shavings

- timber offcuts

- crates

- pallets

- wood packaging

Others

- Biosolids and manures

- Mulch

- seed hulls/husks

- straw

- bagasse and other natural organic

fibrous organics

- paper-processing sludge

- non-synthetic textiles

Composting Process Transport to Landfill site

Sell to

Recycling

Industry

3 (GW20-2) – National Waste Information Regulations (Notice 625 of 2012)


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The compostable fraction of organic waste or feedstock has the potential to emit odours if not managed

correctly. Typically, the composting process will emit odours if it becomes anaerobic (i.e. not sufficient

oxygen in the process). Table 2 reviews the odour generation potential of some common compost

feedstock.

Note that general organic waste is often mixed with contaminants which adversely impacts on their

suitability for composting. Organic stream management, with separation at source and systems for

separate collection and transportation may be required. A further important consideration is that

organic waste treatment facilities, whether public or private-sector owned and/or operated, should

receive a regular and constant supply of feedstock material within the constraints of seasonal

variations. This may require that certain organic waste streams directed to treatment facilities are

dedicated, or shared, on a properly planned (systems approach) and on a contractually binding basis.

Table 2: Feedstock odour potential ranking4

Feedstock composted Potential for odour generation

Animal excreta (includes dead livestock and manure) Highest

Lowest

Municipal green with food waste (kerbside green/food waste) and grease trap

waste* (GW01)**

Biosolids (fresh) (GW21)

Food waste (GW20-2)

Green waste (includes kerbside green waste, grass clippings, hay and sawdust)

(GW20-1)

Hard green waste (timber, branches) (GW20-3)

* Other oily Prescribed Industrial Waste is not encouraged and is considered case by case.

**“GW…” relates to reporting on SAWIS5

As with compost feedstock, the composting process selected also has the potential to impact on odour

generation. Table 3 summarises the common composting processes and ranks their odour generation

potential.

4 Adapted from (EPA Victoria, 2012)

5 DEA.August 2012. National Waste Information Regulations. GNR 625, 2012)


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Table 3: Process Odour Potential ranking6

Process type Potential for odour generation

Open, static pile/windrow Highest

Lowest

Open, turned windrow

Open, aerated, static pile/windrow, capable of continuous aeration

Vermiculture

Covered, aerated, static pile/windrow, capable of continuous aeration and moisture control, open-air maturation

Housed/indoor composting with odour-control equipment and open-air maturation

Covered process for active and maturation phase with odour-control equipment

In-vessel (tunnel or drum) aerobic composting with odour-control equipment and open air maturation

Fully enclosed facility with enclosed receipts and enclosed maturation phase with best-practice odour-control technology*

* Best-practice odour-control technology will be assessed based on the proposal and the best available

technology would be expected. Consideration of international practices may also be relevant.

Table 4 has been adapted from the Environmental Guidelines: Composting and Related Organics

Processing Facilities (Department of Environment and Conservation (NSW), 2004), which forms the

basis of the Categorisation of Organic Waste, as proposed in the NOWCS Report.

6 (EPA Victoria, 2012)


Page 24 of 80

Table 4: Compost feedstock category and type and possible composting technology and treatment options

Potential to have

environmental

impact

Organics

category Types of organics permitted in categories

Technology

Choice7 Possible Treatment Option

Type Examples of organics

Lowest potential

environmental

impact Cat

egor

y 1

Garden and

landscaping

organics8

GW 20-1

Grass; leaves; plants; cuttings; branches;

tree trunks and stumps. Minimal - High

Open Windrows/ Piles (aerated or other)

Compost drums, bins or barrels

Vermicomposting

Mechanised "continuous flow" worm systems

Turned or agitated bays or beds

In-vessel units

Untreated timber9

GW 20-3

Untreated timber Sawdust; shavings;

timber offcuts; crates; pallets; wood

packaging.

Minimal - High



Vermicomposting



In-vessel units

Natural organic

fibrous organics

Mulch; seed hulls/husks; straw; bagasse

and other natural organic fibrous

organics.

Minimal - High



Vermicomposting



In-vessel units

Processed fibrous

organics

Paper; cardboard; paper-processing

sludge; non-synthetic textiles. Minimal - High



Vermicomposting



In-vessel units

Greater potential

environmental

impact than

Category 1, less

potential impact

than Category 3.

Cat

egor

y 2

Other natural or

processed vegetable

organics

(including GW 20-2)

Vegetables; fruit and seeds and

processing sludges and wastes; winery,

brewery and distillery wastes; food

organics10 excluding organics in Category

3.

Low - High

Compost bins or barrels

Turned windrows

Vermicomposting

Aerated static piles

Drum-type composters



In-vessel units

Biosolids and

manures

*HW20 & GW21

Sewage biosolids, animal manure and

mixtures of manure and biodegradable

animal bedding organics.

Medium - High





In-vessel units

Greatest potential

environmental

impact Cat

egor

y 3

Meat, fish and fatty

foods

Carcasses and parts of carcasses; blood;

bone; fish; fatty processing or food. Medium - High





In-vessel units

Fatty and oily sludges

and organics of

animal and vegetable

origin

Dewatered grease trap; fatty and oily

sludges of animal and vegetable origin. High


In-vessel units

Mixed residual waste

containing putrescible

organics

Wastes containing putrescible organics,

including household domestic waste that

is set aside for kerbside collection or

delivered by the householder directly to a

processing facility, and waste from

commerce and industry.

High Turned or agitated bays or beds

In-vessel units

* The prefix must be decided based on the analytical results from waste classification.

Note: “GW/HW…” relates to reporting on SAWIS11

7 “Minimal Technology” means a high-level of manual involvement, ranging up to “High Technology” which would have limited manual involvement. “Manual” means labour-intensive, operations by hand, etc.

8 (GW20-1) – National Waste Information Regulations (Notice 625 of 2012) 9 (GW20-3) – National Waste Information Regulations (Notice 625 of 2012) 10 (GW20-2) – National Waste Information Regulations (Notice 625 of 2012) 11 DEA.August 2012. National Waste Information Regulations. GNR 625, 2012)


Page 25 of 80

Organic Waste that has a higher potential impact (Category 3 or the like), that may be co-composted or

co-treated with general organic wastes, include the following:

a) Animal carcasses: This category of organic wastes may include abattoir waste, animal

carcasses, marine animal carcasses (seals, whales, etc.).

b) Alien vegetation: This category may include alien trees, shrubs, roots and seeds, water plants

such as hyacinths, sea-weed, etc. Alien vegetation cleared throughout the country (as part of

the Extended Public Works Programme as well as for Working for Water) generally gets

stockpiled and burnt. Some plant species require the high temperatures that veld fires produce

in order to trigger the germination process. This also results in significant amounts of pollutants

being released into the atmosphere, as well as ‘heat patches’ being produced which result in

rapid infestation of alien vegetation. Therefore, this burning may promote the germination of

alien invasive seeds which have just been cut, thus promoting the consideration of composting

as an alternative.

c) Sewage Sludge: Sewage sludge is considered to be organic waste, but this material must

meet the requirements for total metal and inorganic content as prescribed in the Fertilizers,

Farm Feeds, Agricultural Remedies and Stock Remedies Act (No. 49 of 1996). Composting of

sewage sludge furthermore needs to meet the requirements as stipulated in the “Guidelines for

Utilisation and Disposal of Wastewater Sludge” (WRC Report No. TT 261/06).

Use of stabilised sludge is also readily used in the agricultural sector as a nutrient source

and/or soil conditioner12 at an application rate determined to supply a crop’s nitrogen needs.

Care is needed to prevent the risk of nutrient leaching and this applies to both commercial and

small scale subsistence farming practices.

To achieve the correct conditions for successful composting of sludge, the following elements

are essential13:

1. Sludge must be mixed with a “bulking agent” that provides structural support and

create voids in the composting matrix to enable air to pass freely through the pile;

2. Air must be introduced into the pile to promote the biological activity;

12

Guidelines for the Utilisation and Disposal of Wastewater Sludge: Volume 2 13 Guidelines for the Utilisation and Disposal of Wastewater Sludge: Volume 5


Page 26 of 80

3. Sufficient organic energy must be present in the feed sludge to enable the biological

activity in the pile to generate the required pasteurising temperatures (65-70°C); and

4. The nutrient mix of the sludge must be suitable to promote bacteriological growth. The

optimal C:N ratio is approximately 20:1 and sludge tends to contain sufficient nitrogen

to meet this requirement.

Various restrictions, as set out in the “Guidelines for the Utilisation and Disposal of Sewage

Sludge”10,11 are imposed on the sludge quality when considering sewage sludge as a feedstock

for use in composting. The Guidelines furthermore provide a classification system for sludge

and provide compliance criteria and guidelines for the use, treatment and disposal of sewage

sludges that are treated by means of composting or co-composting.

Compost containing sludge can be distributed to the general public. Acknowledging however,

that the management of the product is out of the hands of the producer, these products should

therefore be of such quality that it can be used without restrictions and adverse environmental

and human health implications. Requirements have also been developed for fertilizer products

containing sludge.14

14

See Guidelines for the Utilisation and Disposal of Wastewater Sludge: Volume 5


Page 27 of 80

4. PRODUCTS, USES AND MARKETABILITY

A crucial step in evaluating the viability and sustainability of a new composting opportunity or to

evaluate an existing operation is to determine your final market, how to reach your market and the

demands thereof. Understanding this element of the business will allow the sale and/or beneficial use

of the compost to be more sustainable and viable.

This section of the Guideline Document aims to provide a broad-brush usable tool in approaching how

to plan the marketing, identify markets, presentation of the final compost product and ultimately

understand what the market value is of the final compost product.

4.1. PRODUCTS AND MARKETABILITY

Marketing is defined as the action or business of promoting and selling products or services. It is a

process of planning the concept, pricing, promotion, and distribution of products to create exchanges

that satisfy all parties concerned (Kohrell & Wells, no date).

The marketing process can be broken down into the 4 P’s, i.e. Product (quality and consistency), Price,

Position and Place (travel, geographical, distance to markets), which are represented in Figure 2.

These are the factors that need to be taken into consideration when determining the marketability of the

final product, be it compost or a by-product of compost.

Figure 2: McCarthy's 4 P's of Marketing


Page 28 of 80

4.1.1. TYPICAL PRODUCTS

The composting process can produce various products such as mulch, soil amendments, organic

fertilisers and blended products (see Table 5). At the outset, the producer needs to determine which

products will be produced by their chosen process.

Table 5: Examples of composting products with descriptions and possible uses (Guide to Best

practice for Organics Recovery, 2009).

PRODUCT DESCRIPTION USES

Mulch Fine mulch is a product with between

20% and 70% by weight of particles

having dimensions of less than 16mm.

Coarse mulch is a product with more

than 70% by weight of particle size

exceeding 16mm.

Pasteurised mulches are either fine

or coarse mulches that have

undergone ‘hot’ composting to kill

weed seeds and pathogens but are still

too biologically active for safe use in

sensitive applications.

Composted mulches are either fine or

coarse mulches that have undergone a

controlled composting to meet

stabilisation requirements

Fine mulch: It is suited to

application to the surface of

land for moisture conservation,

weed control and soil

conditioning benefit. It is

typically used in urban

landscaping.

Course mulch: These

mulches are typically used for

moisture conservation and

weed control in viticulture,

erosion management and

landscaping.

Pasteurised mulches:

Pasteurised mulches are still

very biologically active and

can have nitrogen and other

nutrient draw down, pH, self-

heating and phytotoxicological

impacts on plants in sensitive

uses.

Composted mulches: for use

in sensitive uses.


Page 29 of 80


Soil

Amendment

A range of soil amendments may be made

from recovered organics, including

composted soil conditioners, and liquid and

organic fertilisers. Soil amendments may be

sold in bulk (wholesale market) or be

packaged for retail markets.

Composted soil conditioners have less

than 20% by weight of particles exceeding

16mm, and meet stability requirements.

These products can be applied and

integrated to land to provide

biological, chemical and physical

benefits to soils. They can also be

blended to produce topsoil, growing

media or specific soil treatments, for

example, compost with added

gypsum is marketed as a ‘clay

breaker’. Matured composts,

particularly those deliberately

manufactured to do so, can provide

plant disease suppression benefits

as composts or liquid compost

extracts or ‘teas’.

Organic

Fertiliser

Liquid fertilisers can be made from

composts, liquor from AD processes or

ammonia gases extracted from emissions

from AD processing.

Organic fertilisers can be produced from

AD sludges or compost products

manipulated or blended to have higher

N:P:K benefits than conventional composts.

Blended

Product

Composted products may be graded and

blended with other materials to produce a

range of products. Common examples are

topsoil and growing media. Where soils are

sourced from urban sources or current or

former farmland, soil testing protocols should

be in place to ensure that contaminated soils

are not used in products.

Additives such as fertilisers, coal dust,


Page 30 of 80


gypsum, wetting agents and water holding

substances may be added to products to

improve performance and appearance.

The provenance of all additives should be

recorded in batch records within a quality

management system, to allow any issues

with processes or product quality to be

traced back to source.

4.1.2. TYPICAL MARKETING STRATEGY

When a new product is being marketed, it takes time to establish a perceived value for that product.

The most important step in this process is to get the product out into the market. As the product begins

to become readily accepted, and the number of customers increases, so the value of the product will

increase (Duprey, 2010). A strong Marketing Strategy will assist the producer in ensuring the product

gets into the market swiftly (Bonhotal, no date). The following steps detail key components to

developing such a strategy.

Step 1:

Conduct a Customer Analysis of the Target Market to establish who the customers are. The producer

needs to establish who they will be selling the product/s to. The list below could include one or a

number of customers15:

Direct market retail customers,

Garden centres/other retailers,

Nurseries/Silviculture,

Erosion control,

Agricultural applications,

Sod production,

Turf grass.

Public Works,

Construction sites,

Top soil producers,

Golf courses,

Greenhouse growers,

Landscapers/lawn care, and

15

Northeast Recycling Company, Inc, no date


Page 31 of 80

Step 2:

Let potential customers know about the product. This can be done in the following ways16:

Local Newspapers,

Local Home and Garden Centres,

Farmer Cooperatives,

Direct Mail to Targeted Audiences,

Industry-specific Publications,

Newspaper Columns,

Television Shows,

Trade Shows,

Yellow Pages,

Personal Web Site,

Word of Mouth,

Garden Clubs.

Market Research can identify customer preferences, as well as use and buying cycles. As such,

market research and customer service should be an on-going process.

4.1.3. LABELLING AND COMPOSITION

Products should be appropriately labelled for ease of use by the Customer. There are compost

qualities that are of interest to consumers such as weed seeds, soluble salts and maturity, pathogens,

pH, nutrient value and organic matter (Cornell Waste Management Institute, 2004) (see Table 6).

Table 6: Compost quality versus consumer interest

COMPOST QUALITY INTEREST TO CONSUMER

Weed and Alien Seeds Consumers have shown a high level of concern regarding weed and

alien seed content in compost products. Weed seeds are undesirable

in gardening and potting soils, as well as other applications. Knowing

weed seed content is valuable for both management and marketing

purposes.

Soluble Salts and Maturity Soluble salts and maturity can influence the health of plants. If soluble

salts are too high, plant toxicity may occur depending on the tolerance

of a particular species. Compost with low maturity may have a similar

effect. Volatile substances may still be present in immature composts

and may influence plant health.

Pathogens Manure and other compost feedstocks may contain pathogens

16 Cornell Waste Management Institute, 2004


Page 32 of 80

COMPOST QUALITY INTEREST TO CONSUMER

(disease-causing organisms). The heat generated in properly

managed compost piles eliminates most pathogens. The finished

compost would pose risks similar to potting mixes or garden soils.

Consumers may want to know that pathogen risks have been

minimized.

pH Many plants grow optimally within a certain pH range. Knowing the pH

of compost will help consumers make decisions regarding how to use

a product. Calculating the impact of compost additions on soil pH

requires an understanding of the neutralizing value of the compost and

is not simply based on compost pH.

Nutrient Value Nutrients are almost always of value to consumers, since all plants

have basic requirements to maintain health, and to grow.

Organic Matter Organic matter is material in compost that came from, or is, living

matter and is composed of plant residues, microorganisms, and

humus.

Humus is the stable end product left after the decomposition of fresh

organic materials. Living matter also contains minerals. As compost

matures, the organic matter degrades so the proportion of organic

mineral matter increases. Low organic matter content in compost may

indicate incorporation of mineral soil. End users are often using

composts to increase the organic matter in their soil.

Adapted from: Cornell Waste Management Institute (2004).

An important step in the process is identifying the potential market and relating this market to the type

and quality of compost required to create the demand. Table 7 outlines the relationship between

typical compost types and typical markets17.

17

Adapted from 5.3 (Sustainability Victoria , 2009)


Page 33 of 80

Table 7: Market demand versus compost type and quality13

Market sector Product

Residential

Urban amenity

(Municipal

parks)

Consisting of home garden

supplies/retail nurseries, recreational

surface establishment and

maintenance, commercial

landscaping projects and local and

provincial government projects.

These markets are typically strong for

blended soils and clean fine mulches.

Horticulture Consisting of intensive food and

flower production.

This market can use soil conditioners,

blended growing media, organics fertiliser

and mulch products in some applications.

There may be potential to develop disease

suppression products.

Agriculture &

viticulture

Viticulture or wine grape growing.

Agriculture

This market mainly demands clean water

conservation and weed control mulches and

is a market for clean pasteurised and

composted coarse mulches.

Soil amendment and organic fertiliser

products.

There may be some market for disease

suppression composts but this is

undeveloped.

Land/mine

rehabilitation

For landfill cover and rehabilitation,

mine site rehabilitation and erosion

stabilisation.

This is typically a low value market, and is

often an outlet for excess product rather

than a viable market.

Bioremediation Bioremediation for contaminated

sites, water purification and

biofiltration.

This market often uses lower grade and

value materials and is often an outlet for

excess products rather than a viable market.

However, there is potential to develop a

range of products for rehabilitation markets.


Page 34 of 80

4.1.4. ORGANIC CERTIFICATION

Note that this section refers to “organic” certification and not specifically “compost” certification.

Certification of organic food requires production according to a set of standards which limit the use of

certain fertilizers and pest control products.

South Africa does not currently have an official organic standard but two local certification bodies are

working under the local draft standards. One certification body is accredited by the International

Organic Accreditation Services (IOSA). However, there are a number of international certification

bodies that do approve inputs to the international standards. The South African draft standard was

originally based on the EU organic standards.

To apply for organic certification for compost products, one should contact a certification body such as:

European Union’s Council Regulation (EC) 834/07

http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:

2007:189:0001:0023:EN:PDF

USDA National Organic Program

http://www.ams.usda.gov/AMSv1.0/nop

Japanese Agricultural Standard on Organic Products

http://www.maff.go.jp/e/jas/specific/organic.html

Procedures may vary slightly based on the specific certifying company, however, all certification bodies’

are required to operate and be accredited according to the rules of ISO 65.

4.1.5. PRICING STRUCTURE

The last step in the marketing process is deciding on a pricing strategy.


Page 35 of 80

If the producer is going to include a mark-up on the cost, the percentage mark-up needs to be

determined. The producer will need to decide whether the products will be sold at the suggested

market price, whether the pricing will be competitive, below competition or at a premium price.

Other decisions to consider in the pricing strategy are:

The list price,

Discounts,

Bundling (e.g., product and delivery), and

Payment terms and financing options.

The producer needs to determine whether the prices are in line with the image of the producer

company and whether prices will cover costs and leave a profit margin. Sales should be continuously

tracked to ensure that reliable forecasts can be made and prices adjusted accordingly.

Table 8 gives an outline of a typical compost consumer demand sheet.

Table 8: Typical compost customer demand sheet

Customer Group: Horticulture / Nurseries

Geographic location Urban and peri-urban area, frequently along roadsides and on vacant

plots.

Uses Compost is used as soil substrate and potting mixture for container

plants such as trees, flowers, ornamental plants, and seedlings.

Quantity As aforementioned, compost alone is not recommended for use as soil

substrate, however, mixed with sand and/or soil it gives an excellent

potting mix. Potting soil typically is amended with 5- 40% of compost

(by volume).

Quality Seedlings require well-matured and finely sieved compost. Less

mature compost can be used as mulch for adult plants.

Ability to pay This customer segment usually draws a regular but not necessarily

high income from a continuous and reliable market. Thus, the ability to

pay is assumed to be average.

Willingness to pay Willingness to pay is dependent on the level of awareness and


Page 36 of 80

Customer Group: Horticulture / Nurseries

knowledge on how to use compost. Self-made compost by the

nurseries or animal manure may compete with your product and

reduce willingness to pay.

Purchasing behaviour Seasonal fluctuations in purchase are generally expected.

Competing products used Self-made compost, animal manure, peat, subsoil.

Estimated potential X number of nurseries have been identified in the city. The annual

demand of a nursery is estimated at Y tons of raw compost. Data is

based on local business statistics and own observations (multiply the X

value with the average of all Y values.

Source: Enayetullah, I., et al., 2006: 16.


Page 37 of 80

5. FACILITY MANAGEMENT MODELS

The operation of a composting facility can be undertaken and managed in a variety of ways (i.e.

privately or a public-private partnership). A key element is that the public authority “owns” the waste

until it is processed for beneficial use. This processing of the waste can be a municipal or private or

combination of effort, cost, risk and responsibility.

The beneficial use of the final product can equally be a municipal or private or combination of effort,

cost, risk and responsibility.

It is common that municipal sectors are not entirely familiar with marketing and the business of selling

compost. Typically the private sector tend to be more suited for this role.

Table 9 to Table 12 give a useful illustration of scenarios for the management models.


Page 38 of 80

Table 9: Typical Municipally owned - Municipally Operated management models (scenarios) for composting

Options Characteristics Main Actor(s) Role of City, Government or

Municipality Advantages Constraints

Model 1

Municipally

owned -

Municipally

operated

Integrated into the existing

municipal SWM system and

focused on reducing waste

which otherwise has to be

transported and disposed of in

landfills.

Municipality Introduces recycling and

composting into the SWM policy.

Implementing agency.

Composting is an alternative

treatment system, which can be

integrated into the existing system

(waste collection, transport, and

disposal).

All composting sites can be

centrally controlled.

City gains valuable soil conditioner

to maintain parks and green areas.

Financial constraints due to the

low priority given to SWM

projects.

Operating efficiency and

marketing potential may not be

fully exploited.

Lack of coordination between

departments regarding the use

of the compost product.

Difficulty in maintaining regular

and constant feedstock supply

and quality.



Page 39 of 80

Some Management Model examples18 of municipally owned – municipally operated facilities.

Municipally owned – municipally operated

Decentralised composting schemes of this kind are planned, implemented and operated by a

municipal division.

The schemes form an integral part of the existing municipal solid waste management system.

The thrust for its implementation comes from an integrated municipal policy for improved urban

solid waste management. Such a policy foresees a clean and hygienic urban environment as a

result of the reduction or recycling of waste as close to its source of generation as possible.

Cost recovery for the composting schemes is not a prerequisite, but desirable.

The major aim is to achieve benefits for the entire solid waste management system by lower

transport costs, landfill airspace off-set costs and production of compost for landfill and land

remediation and rehabilitation.

Improved landfill management and reduced quantities of waste to be handled.

Furthermore, organic waste transformed into compost can contribute to generating a certain

income for the local authority area. Although this model assumes that decentralised

composting is managed entirely by a dedicated municipal team, cooperation with residents is

indispensable.

18 Enayetullah, I., et al., 2006


Page 40 of 80

Table 10: Typical Municipally owned - Community operated management models (scenarios) for composting




Model 2

Municipally

owned -

Community

operated

Community is involved in the

management of primary waste

collection and composting.

Non-profit seeking model.

Cost reduction through lower

transport and disposal costs.

Municipality

Local community

NGOs

Introduces recycling and

composting into the SWM policy.

Implementing agency supports

communities in finding composting

sites and develops a proper

system for waste collection and

disposal of residues.

Provides support funds for

construction of composting plants

and the setting up of a primary

waste collection.

Alleviates the municipal burden of

SWM through community inputs.

Improvement of solid waste

management through community

participation. Clear contracts help

ensure reliable partnerships with

community groups. Creates new

jobs in the neighbourhoods.

Lack of community awareness

and interest.

Need for a reliable informal

leader among the community.

Highly complex management.

Difficulty in maintaining regular

and constant feedstock supply

and quality.


Page 41 of 80

Some Management Model examples19 of municipally owned – community operated facilities.

Municipally owned – community operated

In this model, the decentralised composting schemes are planned and implemented by the

municipality, however, their operation and maintenance is handed over to the benefiting

community. Ideally, the community is invited to come forward with their own proposals and to

participate in the planning and implementing processes.

Apart from composting, this model often comprises primary waste collection and is frequently

applied in low-income urban areas. In many instances, an intermediary, such as an NGO or a

composting advisor, is required to provide or develop the technical composting and

management skills within the community.

The main incentive behind this model is to reduce secondary collection or transport costs by

reducing and treating waste as close to its source as possible.

It improves primary waste collection without significantly increasing municipal operation efforts

and creates local employment opportunities.

The operation and maintenance costs are covered by additional service charges paid by

households and by the profits from the sale of compost. This model requires a written contract

between the municipality and community or, alternatively, with an NGO as intermediary.

A regular and constant supply of feedstock is necessary to ensure its sustainability.

19 Enayetullah, I., et al., 2006


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Table 11: Typical Municipally owned Privately operated management models (scenarios) for composting




Model 3

Municipally

owned -

Privately

operated

Benefiting community is

partly involved.

Profit seeking model is

possible.

Requires at least full cost

recovery (from fees and

compost sales).

Cost reduction through

lower transport and disposal

costs.

Municipality

Private sector or

NGO

Introduces recycling and

composting into the SWM

policy.

Implementing agency selects

composting sites, constructs

plants (investments); develops

a proper system for waste

collection and disposal of

residues.

Contracts out the operation and

maintenance. Monitors

performance of contractors.

Alleviates the municipal burden

of SWM through private sector

participation.

Provision of additional funds and

knowhow through private

investors.

Clear contracts ensure reliable

partnerships with private

entrepreneurs.

Creates new jobs in the

neighbourhoods.

Lack of community

awareness and interest.

Need for a reliable and skilled

partner with sense of

entrepreneurship.

Complex management.

Difficulty in maintaining

regular and constant

feedstock supply and quality.


Page 43 of 80

Some Management Model examples20 of municipally owned – privately operated facilities.

Municipally owned – privately operated

As in the previous models the municipality plans and implements decentralised composting

programmes.

Composting plants are constructed on municipal land and the system is owned by the

municipality. Operation and maintenance of these schemes is, however, contracted out to the

private sector or NGOs by open bidding.

The call for tenders already stipulates the rights and responsibilities of the future operator and

forms the basis for a later contract between the partners. The contract regulates the duration of

the arrangement, required maintenance, rents, sharing of profits, and waste collection fees.

Operation and management costs have to be covered by the private contractor through the

revenues of the project.

The aim of such a project is to raise additional capacity in solid waste management by involving

third parties like the private sector, thereby contributing to additional ‘know-how’ and finances

to improve the entire solid waste management system.

Depending on contract design and the local compost market conditions, this model has the

potential to foster profit-seeking projects in solid waste management.

Waste Concern promoted this model during a UNICEF-supported programme in 14 towns of

Bangladesh21. The municipality tendered primary waste collection and composting schemes in

defined communities. The private operators received permission to use existing composting

plants for five years without paying rent or sharing the revenues from waste collection and

composting. However, without the involvement of funding agencies, rental rules and

regulations have to be included in the contract.

A regular and constant supply of feedstock is necessary to ensure its sustainability.

20 Enayetullah, I., et al., 2006 21 Enayetullah, I., et al., 2006: 31


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Table 12: Typical Privately owned Privately operated management models (scenarios) for composting




Model 4

Privately

owned -

Privately

operated

Profit-seeking enterprise

based on ideal compost

market conditions.

Income is generated

through compost sale and

collection fees.

Private sector Introduces recycling and

composting into the SWM

policy. Transparent regulations

for public - private partnerships.

Cooperates in supplying raw

material and disposal of

residues.

Alleviates the municipal burden

of SWM through private sector

participation.

Provision of additional funds and

skill through private investors.

Clear contracts ensure reliable

partnerships with private

entrepreneurs.

Can create employment and

business

Lack of private land for

composting activities.

Lack of vital compost markets

if compost is not a well-known

product.

Difficulty in maintaining

regular and constant

feedstock supply and quality.


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Some Management Model examples22 of privately owned – privately operated facilities.

Privately owned – Privately operated

This decentralised composting model is based on a profit seeking approach, which

presupposes that the income from waste collection fees and compost sale is sufficient to cover

all the costs of a decentralised composting plant.

Land and infrastructure are financed and managed by the private sector. However, if the

private company still requires a permit to collect waste from defined municipal areas, it cannot

act independently but has to conclude an agreement with the municipality. In Khulna,

Bangladesh for instance, the private organisation RUSTIC constructed a composting plant on

private land to process 20 tons of waste per day23. The Municipality of Khulna granted a permit

to collect waste from households and markets. Prior to the construction of the plant, RUSTIC

had to apply for an environmental clearance certificate from the Department of Environment.

A possible variation of this model allows a private entrepreneur to set up a composting plant on

public land. Although the municipality provides the land, the full financial and operational

responsibility remains with the private entrepreneur.

The municipality grants a long-term lease for that land (e.g. ten years) to ensure a long-term

operation and, thus, appropriate returns on investment.

A regular and constant supply of feedstock is necessary to ensure sustainability

Figure 3 provides a graphical representation of typical involvements between the various sectors.

22 Enayetullah, I., et al., 2006 23 Enayetullah, I., et al., 2006: 32


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Figure 3: Graphical matrix for public-private sector involvement24

24

Enayetullah, I., et al., 2006

National Government

Public Sector

Private Sector

Recycling Companies

SMEs

International Companies

Waste Pickers

NGO Households

CBO

SWM Dept

Fertilisers Companies

Municipalities

Non-governmental


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6. PROPOSED ORGANIC WASTE STRATEGY BY DEA

A summary of the proposed National Organic Waste Composting Strategy has been visually portrayed

in Figure 4 which highlights the key actions and responsibilities for the various government

departments to action over the next five years and beyond.


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Figure 4: Key Priorities and Timeframe Chart

SHORT TERM (0 to 2 years)

Registration Process

Information booklet

SAWIS and reporting

Categorise organic waste

Norm & Standards

Establish “Baseline”

Municipal Structure

Funding Support mechanisms

Forum for Communication

MEDIUM TERM (2 to 5 years)

Organic Waste planning e.g., IWMP, IDP ,etc

By-laws & Organic waste diversion legislation

Finalise reduction goals

Collection strategies

Finalise generators & opportunities

Adapt SAWIS

Skill development

Establish communication channels

Best practice guidelines

LONG TERM (> 5 years)

Specific “good practice” guidelines

Implement reduction goals

Home-composting review

Communal composting review

National Organic Waste Treatment

Strategy

Waste Exchange


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7. TYPICAL IMPACTS ASSOCIATED WITH A COMPOSTING

OPERATION

Table 13 provides a broad guide to alleviating common challenges (impacts) associated with operating

and managing a composting facility.

Table 13: Typical impacts and potential mitigation measures for a composting operation

IMPACT SOURCE POTENTIAL MITIGATION MEASURES

Air Quality

Unpleasant

Odours

Anaerobic decomposition Increase aeration of compost piles

Decrease moisture content of over-saturated

piles

Prevent waterlogging

Minimise storage of unprocessed feedstock

Install odour control equipment

Gas

Emissions

Aerobic decomposition (Carbon

Dioxide)

Not Applicable

Anaerobic decomposition

(Methane; hydrogen sulphide,

organic sulphides and/or volatile

fatty acids)

Increase aeration of compost piles

Decrease moisture content of over-saturated

piles

Prevent waterlogging

Minimise storage of unprocessed feedstock

Ammonia and

amines

High nitrogen feedstocks Correct the C:N ratio

Reduce the use of high quality nitrogen

feedstocks

Exhaust

emissions

Exhaust emissions from vehicles Attach emission filters on equipment

Dust Vehicle movement, exposed soils

and during storage, shredding,

mixing, and screening of compost

Cover dusty materials

Applying a light water spray over dry materials


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Revegetate exposed soils

Paving of all operating, storage, unloading and

loading areas

Shredding on non-windy days

Windbreaks around facility and piles

Suction sweeping of areas

Bio-aerosols These organisms can enter the

ambient air during the movement

and agitation of materials

Paving of all operating, storage, unloading and

loading areas

Applying a light water spray over dry materials

Windbreaks around facility/piles

Suction sweeping of areas

Water Quality

Surface Water Leachate generation from the

processing of compost

Keep contaminated stormwater and leachate

separate from clean stormwater

Minimising, containing and re-using

contaminated stormwater and leachate so there

is no discharge of contaminated wastewater

from the premises

Avoid run-off from feedstock or compost

material

Sediments and suspended solids Revegetate exposed soils

Reduce runoff volume and velocity

Avoid run-off from feedstock, compost material,

exposed soil

Good housekeeping

Ground Water Leachates from the processing of

compost

Store feedstock and compost on bunded and

hard foundation, where practical to minimise

groundwater intrusion


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Soil Quality

Soil

contamination

Leachate allowed to infiltrate

through the ground

Reduce leachate infiltration

Store feedstock and compost on bunded and

hard foundation, where practical to minimise

groundwater intrusion

Noise

Ambient Noise Vehicles Install and maintain silencers on vehicles and

equipment

Where possible, noisy equipment should be

housed within a building or similar structure

Provide noise attenuation screens such as

earth berms or trees

Restrict operating hours

Maintain designated buffer distances

Machinery

Waste

Litter Transportation of general waste Good house keeping

Educate staff

Litter trap

Windbreaks such as trees

Employee disregard

Windblown general waste

General General facility operations (offices,

eating areas, workers etc.)

Recycle

Disposal at a registered general landfill site

Hazardous Hydrocarbon spills from equipment

and machinery

Disposal at a registered hazardous landfill site

Animal waste from feedstock

Aesthetics

Unpleasant

aesthetics

General visual presence of facility Vegetation screening

Good house keeping

Landscaping


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Pest

Fauna Rodents, flies, and birds Remove residual waste promptly

Cover compost piles

Good housekeeping

Flora (Alien

invasive

infestation)

Transport of invasive plants, their

seeds or propagules to the facility,

from the facility itself or from the

final compost product

Monitor feedstock and final product

Good house keeping

Fire

Uncontrolled

Fires

Anaerobic decomposition

produces methane as by-product.

Methane is highly flammable

Keep fire extinguisher in close proximity

Prevent anaerobic decomposition

Keep area free of open flames or sparks

Dry stockpiles of feed stock or

compost

Keep fire extinguisher in close proximity

Keep area free of open flames or sparks

Construction and Decommission

There are various impacts

associated with the construction

and decommissioning of a

composting facility

Dealt with during the Environmental Impact

Assessment (EIA) process


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8. STRATEGY BY DEA REGARDING EDUCATION, SKILL-TRANSFER

AND AWARENESS

As of 1 January 2013, the National Waste Information Regulations (GNR 625, 2012) compel individuals

conducting listed waste management activities to register, record, and report waste data to the

respective Provincial Waste Information System (WIS). In addition to this, the Draft Waste

Classification and Management Regulations (GNR 613-615, 2012) aim to ban or prohibit a significant

portion of certain materials or substances from being taken for disposal at landfill. One of these

materials is garden waste.

As a means to address the limitations set out in these new Regulations, public awareness and

education campaigns and programmes regarding certain waste types will need to be undertaken. This

will assist with not only separation at source, but diversion of organic waste from landfill by means of

potential home composting in urban and residential areas, as well as possible communal composting

within the informal, lower-income areas.

South Africa currently does not have comprehensive government run education and awareness

programmes specifically on composting of organic waste either at the household or industrial level.

There are programmes, such as the City of Cape Town’s current ‘WasteWise’ programme and the

Nelson Mandela Bay municipality ‘All Hands on Waste Campaign’, deal with educating communities on

separation of waste at source and promote reuse and recycling above disposal. Some projects are

focused on rural and low income areas and generally target education at primary school level.

As part of these programmes, home composting is encouraged as a means to divert organic and

garden waste from the general waste stream and create a usable ‘product’ which is beneficial for the

individual and the community at large.

The Strategy proposed by DEA covers the following key items:

Compile an Information Booklet on how to quantify, record and monitor organic waste easily

and pragmatically, which would include information on:

o The registration process (assuming the registration process is adopted), as well as


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A one page summary-flagging important issues, and

Reference to legislation.

Invitation letters to be issued to known composters encouraging registration (assuming the

registration process is adopted).

Liaison with the Department of Trade and Industry regarding their database of all businesses.

Develop a user-friendly, easy to read and comprehendible guidebook/ pamphlet/ flyer on

making compost and the benefits thereof.

Develop a website for public use.

Educate and generate awareness amongst the general public via awareness campaigns.

Undertake pilot studies (forms part of local authority implementation plan).

Develop ‘best practice’ guidelines for undertaking composting.

Investigate inclusion of compost knowledge and awareness and waste management in school

and tertiary curriculums.

Investigate mechanisms for consumer markets.

Educate / train / empower Municipalities.

Educate “Implementing Authorities” (IAs) on suitability, pitfalls and benefits of Service Level

Agreements, Public Private Partnerships, Annual Contracts, etc.


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9. COMMON TECHNOLOGY OPTIONS

The decision by an Implementing Authority, as to which technology would be the most suitable for

organic waste treatment is dependent on a number of factors. No one technology solution suits all, and

each Implementing Authority has its own unique situation which needs to be evaluated on its own

merits and set of conditions. These are not limited to, but should include:

Size of the organic waste stream: The quantities of the different available types of organic

wastes that make up the total organic waste stream need to be calculated so that a “stream

management” strategy and the type and capacity (size) of treatment facilities can be

determined.

Organic Waste Characterisation: The composition of the organic waste stream is necessary

in order to differentiate between the different potential feedstocks which in turn will determine

the type and capacity (size) of the treatment facility.

Climatic and Geographical Factors: Different climatic and geographical factors as well as

the demographics within different waste generation regions will influence organic waste

quantities and composition.

The Extent of Contamination: Contamination of the organic waste will generally affect the

quality and demand for the output product and will therefore also influence the selection of the

type of technology to be employed.

Organic Waste Collection System: An Implementing Authority will need to assess its

current organic waste collection system in order to achieve an appropriate and cost effective

method for implementing an efficient organic waste collection service that enables proper

stream management to be implemented with respect to the different organic waste

feedstocks.

Strategy for compost versus energy-from-waste: An Implementing Authority should

develop a medium-to-long-term organic waste management strategy that caters for either

composting or energy-from-waste technologies or a “basket” of different technologies.


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Private-Sector Involvement: Waste that is beneficiated is not considered to be a necessary

Implementing Authority service delivery function, and private-sector involvement should be

considered for the treatment and beneficiation of organic wastes.

Human and Financial Capacity: An Implementing Authority will need to assess its human

and financial capital in order to determine the most feasible and viable technologies

necessary to achieve its organic waste diversion goals. A capital and operating cost model

should be developed for the preferred technologies selected.

Market Demand: It is generally regarded that the market demand for compost is largely

influenced by the quality of compost produced.

Health and Environmental Considerations: The type of technology selected should ensure

that health and environmental issues are addressed, e.g. harmful pathogens and bacteria

need to be sterilized, odours and contaminants contained alien plant seeds destroyed, etc.

In order to add “value” to this Guideline Document, additional information on alternatives to composting

have been outlined below, so as to put organic-waste diversion in to broader perspective. The focus of

this Guideline Document nevertheless remains on composting as an option and opportunity.

Table 14 and Table 15 provide a summary of commonly used technology options. Table 14

summarises the different types of composting technologies that may be considered and Table 15

provides a guide for various technologies suitable for organics processing.


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Table 14: Summary of composting technologies currently being undertaken25

Issue/ criteria Minimal Technology Low Technology Medium Technology High Technology

Examples of

composting methods

used at different

levels of technology26

Static Piles (No air) Compost bins or barrels, turned windrows, and

vermicomposting (worm boxes or windrows)

Aerated static piles (forced aeration), turned windrows,

drum-type composters, and mechanised “continuous flow”

worm systems

Turned or agitated bays or beds (forced aeration),

box-type in-vessel units (forced aeration), and

“Dutch tunnels” (forced aeration)

Potential input waste

type27

Garden waste, wood waste, manures, food

waste and fruit waste.

Windrows: Garden waste, wood waste,

manures, fruit waste.

Vermicomposting: Food and garden waste.

Mixed organics (food and garden waste) and possibly

primary sewage sludge, manure, and in some cases

(Aerated Static Pile systems {ASP}) animal waste

(carcasses, abattoir waste, etc).

Mixed organics (food and garden waste) and

possibly primary sewage sludge, manure and animal

waste (carcasses, abattoir waste, etc).

Output product Lower-grade Compost, soil conditioner Compost, soil conditioner

Compost, soil conditioner of a high calorific value from the

process.

Output product from ASP systems can be high-quality Bio-

Organic Fertilizers (BOF) if treated with the right microbial

and nutrient mixes.

High-quality & high-demand Compost, soil

conditioner of a high calorific value from the process,

biogas.

Output product from high-tech systems can be high-

quality Bio-Organic Fertilizers (BOF) if treated with

the right microbial and nutrient mixes.

Capital costs Minimal Low, depending on any structural requirements Medium High

O&M costs Minimal Low Medium High

Key process controls

Key control elements in the processing are: pH, oxygen, moisture content, temperature control, carbon: nitrogen ratio.

Regarding moisture content: low technology processes may involve simple watering of windrows or piles, by hand. Larger volumes and / or higher-technologies would start using automated systems (sprinklers, etc).

This is all dependent on climate and location of operations.

The shape of the windrow and/ or pile also plays a key part in the control of moisture and other key elements.

Plant (mechanical)

Types

Manual labour (if small operation)

Front-end loader (bigger operations).

Grinder, loader, screen. Grinder, loader, screen, blowers, compost turner, or other

specialised compost system equipment.

Grinder, mixer, loader, screen, conveyor, blowers,

compost bays, in-vessel unit and handling

equipment or other specialised compost system

equipment.

Skill required for

operation

Generally more labour intensive per cubic

metre of compost produced.

Less skilled staff required.

As for “minimal technology” except may require

more skilled personnel depending on size of

operation.

Less manual labour, higher number of skilled personnel

who also need to have specific knowledge of mechanical

equipment

Extensive and specific, certain systems become

automated

Labour and/or

employment

opportunity (in

relation to cubic

metre of compost

produced)

The larger the pile, the larger the unskilled/

low-skilled workforce required

The larger the pile, the larger the unskilled/ low-

skilled workforce required

Less manual labour, higher number of skilled personnel

who also need to have specific knowledge of mechanical

equipment

Less than other processes

25 This Table is a modified version of that from the following source: Clean Washington Centre. 1997. Will Composting Work for Us? A Decision Guide for Managers of Businesses, Institutions, Campuses, and Other Facilities. 26 “Minimal Technology” means a high-level of manual involvement, ranging up to “High Technology” which would have limited manual involvement. “Manual” means labour-intensive, operations by hand, etc. 27 If compost contains more than 67% ash, then it cannot be classified as compost, but must be termed a soil conditioner (The Fertilizers, Farm Feeds, Agricultural Remedies and Stock Remedies Act (Act No. 36 of 1947: GNR 732, 2012)).


Page 58 of 80


Description of

technologies

A compost pile provides the simplest form of

composting. Starting at a minimum size of

about one cubic metre to generate and retain

heat, compost piles have been known to

become quite large. Static piles have no

forced aeration i.e. they use passive

ventilation. The addition of water may be

required if water content is not sufficient.

Windrow: As the volume of materials being

processed increases, it becomes prudent to

make additional piles, often side-by-side, until

you have created a long row. Hence, a “windrow”

is an elongated compost pile, designed to allow

for better air flow. Materials need to be

physically turned in order to introduce air into the

process. Turning can be manual, i.e. spades, or

with the use of a compost ‘turning’ machine. The

addition of water may be required if water content

is not sufficient.

Vermicomposting: “Vermicomposting” refers to

the controlled degradation, or

composting, of organic wastes, primarily by

earthworm consumption.

Compost bins / barrels: This refers to an

aerated bin containing layers of carbons, kitchen

scraps, garden waste and soil left to decompose.

Aerated static piles: Includes the use of aeration

systems to push or pull air through the piles (by applying

a positive or negative pressure).

Windrows: As with the low technology windrows, bigger

facilities require bigger turning machines to move the piles.

If utilising a forced aeration system turning may not be

necessary; however if passively ventilated, turning is

required. The addition of water may be required if water

content is not sufficient.

Drum-type composting: Cylindrical drums are sometimes

chosen as part of a composting system for their ability to

mix and tumble, and thus aerate, composting materials,

like clothes in a tumble dryer.

Mechanised “continuous flow” worm systems:

An enclosed horizontal reactor is about 2 to 3 metres high,

feeds in the compost at one end and out at the other end. It

may use pressure or vacuum-induced aeration, which is

set in the floor of the reactor.

Agitated bays: Agitated bay composting reactors

are long concrete channels or bays with an aerated

perforated floor and rails on top of the walls.

Aeration is provided in multiple zones along the

length of the bays. Each zone is aerated by a

dedicated blower located in the aisles along the side

of the channels. The blowers are controlled based

on temperature readings from sensors for each zone

in the bays, and by a baseline timer. A mechanical

agitator rides on rails along the sides of the bays to

mix and ‘fluff’ the decomposing material on a daily

schedule. The agitators are designed so they

gradually move the compost from the start of the bay

to the finish.28

“In-vessel” composting: Involves composting in

enclosed structures or containers. Being enclosed,

these systems offer a high level of odour, nuisance,

pest, and leachate control. Exhaust air from these

systems is typically treated in a bio-filter.

Box-type in-vessel units (forced aeration):

Because many in-vessel systems are “batch”

processes, meaning you compost a boxful at a time,

facilities often find they require the use of two or

preferably three units.

“Dutch tunnels” (forced aeration):

Involves a closed metal container. This composting

process refers to a static biological process with

forced aeration. The principle applies air as the only

medium to control the decomposition process.

Historically, this process is used or processing

animal manure and compost for growing

mushrooms.

Municipal function

(Dependent on

private sector)

Could be simply operated and managed by a

municipality

Could be simply operated and managed by a

municipality

Possibly operated by a Municipality, but possibly requires

private-sector involvement and possibly private-sector

maintenance

Predominantly private sector technology and skill

28

http://www.lmconline.com/system.htm [Accessed : 30 November 2012]

http://www.lmconline.com/system.htm


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Advantages

Comparatively inexpensive. Assuming that

the piles are turned every few weeks,

relatively few days per year of equipment

(typically front-end loader) operation is

required.

1) moderate cost;

2) labour intensive;

3) ability to use a front-end loader and other

generic types of equipment; generally

satisfactory quality and marketability of the

final product ; and

4) Limited control of the process.

1) a large volume of organic material can be composted

quickly with less labour;

2) improved odour control; and

3) the quality of the end product can be controlled better.

The labour savings can be significant. A major guide

to farm composting found that the rates for turning

compost with a bucket or front end loader ranged from

45 to 100 cubic metres (m3) per hour. With a

small windrow turner, turning rates were increased to

about 760 m3 per hour.

4) Some control of the process.

1) An advantage of these systems is the

containment they provide. Another is their

turnkey nature i.e. a complete set-up that is

ready for immediate use; and

2) High control of the process.

Disadvantages

1) More space is required than for other

methods. Preference for a remote site,

which can result in higher transportation or

handling costs. It is also difficult

to maintain high-rate or “hot” compost

conditions, so the compost products from

minimal-tech methods will likely be lower in

quality. They will also be coarser, and

when screened will have a larger oversize

fraction.

2) Less control over issues such as odour,

dust, leachate, water contamination,

vectors, pests, litter, noise and fire.

1) More difficult to achieve consistent results;

and

2) Potential for odours.

1) The comparatively high capital investment in the

facility, equipment and training; and

2) The cost of operation and maintenance of specialized

and often complex equipment.

Possible disadvantages include cost. Another factor

worth remembering is that although these “boxes”

take up little space, the compost they produce may

require additional curing29 after coming out of the

box, which means additional space next to the box

or in another location.

Space Can be space intensive Can be space intensive Reduced space requirements Very space efficient

Buffer Zones30 450 metres+ 50-150 metres 50-150 metres 50-150 metres

Aeration Passive Passive Forced Forced

Temperature control No Preferable Yes Yes

Cover Outside Mostly outside Sometimes with floating cover, under roof, or inside

building Enclosed system or inside building

Risk Control31 Limited control, therefore potentially higher

negative impact.

Low-level of control, less negative impact

compared to “minimal technology”.

Good control, more emphasis on prevention, sometimes

uses odour control systems.

Excellent control, emphasis on prevention and

control using biological controls.

Electronic or

Computer Controllers Manual monitoring Manual monitoring Sometimes, mostly for monitoring purposes Yes, for monitoring and process control

Time Period 18-24 months 9-12 months 4-6 months <6 months (and at times as short as 3 weeks)

Product Quality Poorer Fair Good Good

29 The bulk of the nutrient and energy-containing materials within the pile have been transformed and the remaining materials continue to decompose at a slower rate. 30 Distances are subjective, are dependent on the receiving environment and the type of the composting method used. These indicated buffer zone distances are based on international experiences. 31 Risk Control includes the control of odour, dust, leachate, water contamination, vectors, pests, litter, noise and fire


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Table 15: Technologies suitable for organics processing

Technology Feedstock for organic recovery operation Products /outputs from organic recovery operation

Open windrow

composting

Source separated garden organics

Limited amounts of food and other wet organics Mulches

Composts

Blended products

Potentially woody material for pyrolysis, combustion or

refuse derived fuel (RDF) manufacture

Controlled environment

open composting

Garden organics

Limited amounts of food and other wet organics

In-vessel composting Garden organics

Food and other wet organics

Anaerobic digestion

(AD)

Food and wet organics

Organic load extracted from source separated organics or

derived organics rich fraction (DORF) from mixed waste

Renewable energy

Organic fertilisers

Anaerobic fermentation Starchy or sugary organics

Potentially woody organics

Bio-products (alcohols, organic compounds that can be

used to synthesise polymer products and fuels)

Potentially gas for renewable energy

Pyrolysis/gasification

Predominantly dry woody organics from source separated

collection, DORF or residual from other organics recovery

technology

Renewable energy

Syngas and synoil products for further refinement and use

as fuel

Biochar and other charcoal products

Combustion Mixed waste

Derived organic/calorific fraction from mixed waste

Renewable energy

Ash and emissions scrubbing wastes which may require


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Technology Feedstock for organic recovery operation Products /outputs from organic recovery operation

Woody organics from other organics recovery operations management as prescribed waste

RDF manufacture Derived organic/calorific fraction from mixed waste

Woody organics from other organics recovery operations RDF for use as fossil fuel replacement

Mechanical biological

processing

Mixed waste is screened to recover DORF

Anaerobic and/or aerobic treatment

Restricted use compost and stabilised organic products

Potentially renewable energy

Potentially some unrestricted use organic products

Stabilised organics to landfill

Biological mechanical

processing

Mixed waste is first processed using aerobic composting,

followed by screening of organics and recoverable recyclables

Stabilised organic fraction for landfill, restricted land

application or thermal energy recovery

Figure 5 illustrates a simple process of a composting operation and the common stages involved in such a process (which is dependent on the technology

selected).

Figure 6 gives a snapshot view of the composting process and the by-products of such a process (depending on the process used).


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Figure 5: Illustration of the stages of a simple composting process


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Figure 6: The composting process and typical by-products


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10. TYPICAL COSTS OF COMPOSTING FACILITIES

Table 16 provides an indicative value of common costs associated with operating a composting facility.

As there are a variety of composting processes available, the list will not be complete in all respects.

The rates below are from current Construction Contracts in an urban area being undertaken during

2013. Some rates have also been obtained from the Contractors Plant Hire Association (CPHA)

website32. Rates used have been applied to a 9-hour working day and 20 working-day month.

Table 16: Typical costing of items in a composting facility

Unit Costs Comment

Labour

Skilled Per hour R 139 Typical Contractor rates

Unskilled Per hour R 19 Typical Contractor rates

Manager Per hour R 245 Typical Contractor rates

Plant

Bakkie Per hour, hire R 56 Rent from a Contractor

Tipper Truck (10m3) Per hour, hire R 254 From CPHA database

Low Bed Truck Per hour, hire R 397 From CPHA database

Crane Lift Truck (4-6 ton) Per hour, hire R 278 From CPHA database

Tractor (4-6 ton) Per hour, hire R 123 From CPHA database

Compost Turner Per hour, hire R 500 From CPHA database

Excavator (20 ton) Per hour, hire R 331 From CPHA database

Skidsteer loader (Bobcat) Per hour, hire R 142 From CPHA database

Chipper Per hour, hire R 150 From CPHA database

Compressor (175 cfm) Per hour, hire R 53 From CPHA database

Air hoses (30m x 20mm) Per hour, hire R 9 From CPHA database

Waste Bins (numerous) Per hour, hire for all R 250 From CPHA database

Materials

Kraal Manure Typical monthly cost R 9,000 Estimated rate *

Plastic Bags Typical monthly cost R 25,000 Estimated rate *

Fertiliser Typical monthly cost R 5,000 Estimated rate *

Sundries Fuel per litre R 12 **

Communications Typical monthly cost R 5,000 Estimated rate *

32

http://www.cpha.co.za/


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Unit Costs Comment

Rent Typical monthly cost R 10,000 Estimated rate *

Electricity Typical monthly cost R 5,000 Estimated rate *

Water Typical monthly cost R 5,000 Estimated rate *

Maintenance Typical monthly cost R 20,000 Estimated rate *

Marketing Typical monthly cost R 5,000

Site Office Container Typical monthly cost R 2,000 Estimated rate *

Toilets to rent Typical monthly cost R 3,000 Estimated rate *

* - estimated rates are values from a typical, existing composting facility in South Africa using the

windrow-process.

** - means project specific.


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11. TYPICAL LAYOUTS OF A COMPOSTING FACILITY

Below is a generic guide towards deciding on a suitable layout for a composting facility. The ultimate

layout is obviously highly dependent on the process to be adopted, land use area, volume of feedstock,

topography, etc.

Activity 1: Plan and decide on the composting plant layout

A composting plant comprises of an operation area and a “green” buffer zone. The buffer

zone, formed by a belt of bushes and trees surrounding the operation area, improves the visual

appearance of the composting plant.

The operation area is divided into different zones. It contains space for waste unloading and

sorting, composting, maturing, sieving and bagging of the compost, including storage space for

compost and recyclables. These zones must be arranged so as to ensure efficient workflow of

the composting process. Additional space should be allocated for a caretaker’s office and

sanitary facilities for the workers.

Take into account that the final setup of the site is strongly dependent on the local conditions.

Table 17 can be used as a checklist when planning the area that may be required for a conventional

composting operation.


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Table 17: Checklist for determining possible site-area of operation

Operation: Area required:

Composting area:

Sorting area

Storage of rejects

Storage of recyclables

Composting pad

Maturation area

Screening and bagging area

Compost storage area

Facilities:

Office

Sanitary

Tool shed

Water Supply point

Vehicle movements, parking and

storage

Green buffer zone

TOTAL AREA REQUIRED

Activity 2: Plan the required key features

The following key features have to be considered during planning and construction regardless

of the type of composting scheme chosen:

o On-site water supply is a basic infrastructural requirement on a composting site. Since

it is used for hygienic purposes and for watering the compost heaps, a reliable water

supply should be ensured, such as a standpipe on the site.

o An additional water storage tank is, however, advisable if the water supply is not

continuous.

o A further useful feature is a rainwater harvesting system. The roof of the composting

shed and other facilities can be specially designed to collect rainwater from the

rooftops. During the rainy season, water can be collected in a tank to bridge water

shortages during the dry season. The storage volume is dependent on the length of

the dry season and on the daily water demand.


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o Rainwater can be used for the composting process, for cleaning and washing of the

composting plant and for watering of the green belt.

o Windrow and box composting operations should be undertaken under a roof to protect

the compost piles from excessive rain and sun. Simple light structures with vertical

steel angles, mild steel pipes or wood or bamboo poles can be used to support the

roof.

o Since compost requires oxygen for decomposition, the cover must be permeable to

air33.

o The sorting area consists of a sealed concrete surface where waste is sorted into

organics, inorganic recyclables and ‘rejects’. The sealed surface facilitates cleaning

after sorting is completed. Since the waste delivered may be high in moisture, the area

should be slightly sloped (1%) to avoid leachate ponding. A drainage system collects

leachate and cleaning water to be reused for watering composting windrows.

o The storage areas for rejects and recyclables should be roofed and possibly enclosed

to prevent roaming animals from entering the site. The area has to be accessible to

trucks, as the rejects have to be collected frequently. A covered container for rejects,

easily picked up and replaced by a truck, is a good alternative to a storage room. The

necessary storage volume is determined by the collection frequency.

o Each plant should have a lockable office equipped with basic furniture to allow the

supervisor to keep the monitoring and accounting records. It also provides a sheltered

area for breaks and for storing personal belongings. Sanitary installations, such as

toilets and washing facilities are essential. After handling waste and compost, the

workers should wash and change their clothes before leaving the workplace. Small

equipment, such as sieves, shovels and rakes, should be stored in the tool shed. Such

facilities require approximately 40 m2, and all should be roofed and fitted with lockable

doors for security reasons.

Useful additional composting plant features34

Kiosk: A small, square-shaped structure with a light roof can be set up within the premises of a

composting plant. The kiosk can be used as a sales and display point for compost products or

potted plants raised on compost. A kiosk can help promote organic farming and agricultural

use of compost to visitors of the site.

33 This is not applicable for in-vessel composting. 34 Enayetullah, I., et al., 2006: 53- 54


Page 69 of 80

Organic farming demonstration site: If sufficient land and staff are available, a small plot inside

the composting plant can be used as a demonstration unit for organic farming or as a nursery

for pot plants. The core idea is to encourage the owner of the composting plant to maintain, as

far as possible, the facility clean and green. A clean and pleasant environment near a

composting plant can change negative perceptions of waste treatment and the use of compost

can be directly demonstrated to visitors. Furthermore, a nursery creates an additional source

of income.

Wastewater reuse system: A significant amount of wastewater is generated during composting

and the cleaning of the facility. Instead of discharging the wastewater into drains, the

wastewater can be reused for new compost piles to maintain the moisture balance and

enhance the decomposition process. Wastewater from the drainage system can be collected

in a small covered storage tank below ground level. By mixing this wastewater with fresh water

from the pipes or rainwater tank, scarce water resources can be extended and conservation

promoted.

Energy efficient lighting system: If the compost plant is connected to the electricity grid, an

energy-efficient lighting system should be fitted to set a good example of energy conservation

and to reduce operational costs in the long term. The possibility of solar or other renewable

energy alternatives should also be investigated.

The following diagrams (Figure 7 - Figure 10) illustrate typical layouts of composting operations

(GDACE, 2009).


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Figure 7: Processing facilities P1: Composting - chip & stockpile only Guideline Schematics


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Figure 8: Processing facilities P2: Composting - small-scale windrows without screening Guideline Schematics


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Figure 9: Processing facilities P3: Composting - large-scale windrows with screening Guideline Schematics


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Figure 10: Processing facility P4: Waste-to-compost facility Guideline Schematics


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Figure 11 and Figure 12 also provide typical site layouts for certain composting operations35.

Figure 11: Typical windrow composting system

35

Decentralised Composting for cities of low- and middle- income countries, 2006


Page 75 of 80

Figure 12: Box composting (cross section)


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12. USEFUL CONTACT NUMBERS

National Department of Environmental Affairs

Head Office: Physical Address DEA call centre number

315 cnr Pretorius & Lilian Ngoyi Street (previously Van Der Walt Street)

027 861 112 468

Fedsure Forum Building DEA call centre e-mail

North Tower [email protected]

Pretoria 0001

www.environment.gov.za

Postal Address Switch board Number

Private Bag X447 027 123 103 911

Pretoria Hotline for tip-offs to report

0001 Environmental Crimes: 0800 205 005

KwaZulu Natal Province:

Department of Agriculture, Environmental Affairs and Rural Development

Private Bag X9059 Tel: 033 355 9100

Pietermaritzburg Fax: 033 355 9122

3200 www.kzndae.gov.za

Limpopo Province:

Department of Economic Development, Environment & Tourism

20 Hans van Rensburg Street / 19 Biccard Street Tel: 015 293 8300

Polokwane Fax: 015 293 8319

7000 E-mail: [email protected]

www.ledet.gov.za

Mpumalanga Province:

Department of Economic Development, Environment and Tourism

No. 4 Riverside Government Complex Building

First floor Government Boulevard Tel: 013 766 4004

Nelspruit Fax: 013 766 4614

1200 www.mpumalanga.gov.za

Northern Cape Province:

Department of Environmental Affairs and Nature Conservation

Department of Environment and Nature Conservation: (Head Office)

Department of Environment and Nature Conservation

Metlife Towers Building/Post Office Building Sasko Building

T-Floor and 1st Floor Long Street 90

Private Bag X6120 Private Bag X6102

Tel: 053 807 7300 Kimberley 8301

Fax: 053 807 7328 Tel: 053 807 7430

denc.ncpg.gov.za Fax: 053 831 3530

mailto:[email protected]

http://www.environment.gov.za/

http://agriculture.kzntl.gov.za/

http://www.kzndae.gov.za/

http://www.ledet.gov.za/


http://www.ledet.gov.za/

http://www.mpumalanga.gov.za/dedet

http://www.mpumalanga.gov.za/

http://denc.ncpg.gov.za/


Page 77 of 80

North West Province:

Department of Economic Development, Environment, Conservation and Tourism

Development House (NWDC Building)

Cnr Provident St & University Dr

Mmabatho Tel: 018 387 7700

2735 www.nwpg.gov.za

Eastern Cape Province:

Department of Economic Development and Environmental Affairs

Physical Address Postal Address

Beacon Hill P/Bag X0054

Hockley Close Bhisho

King Williams Town SOUTH AFRICA

5605 5605

Tel: +27 (0) 43 605 7000 www.dedea.gov.za

Western Cape Province:

Department of Environmental Affairs and Development Planning

142 Long Street Tel: 0860 142 142

Cape Town Fax: 021 483 7216

8000 E-mail: [email protected]

www.capegateway.gov.za

http://www.nwpg.gov.za/Economic%20Dev.%20&%20Tourism/Default.asp

http://www.nwpg.gov.za/

http://www.dedea.gov.za/Pages/Default.aspx

http://www.dedea.gov.za/

http://www.capegateway.gov.za/eng/yourgovernment/gsc/406



Page 78 of 80

13. USEFUL READING

Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, 2012. Regulations Regarding Fertilizers,

Fertilizers, Farm Feeds, Agricultural Remedies and Stock Remedies Act, 1947, GNR 732, 2012

BSI, 2011. PAS 100:2011 Specification for composted materials, UK : British Standards Institution.

Department of Environment and Conservation (NSW), 2004. Environmental Guidelines: Composting

And Related Organics Processing Facilities, Sydney: Department of Environment and Conservation

(NSW).

Diaz,l., Savage G., Eggerth L., Golueke C., 1993: Composting and Recycling Municipal Solid

Waste.

Du Plessis, R., 2010. Establishment of Composting Facilities on Landfill Sites , Pretoria: University

of South Africa.

Ekelund, L. & Nystrom, K., 2007. Composting of municipal waste in South Africa – sustainability

aspects, Uppsala University: Uppsala (Sweden).

Enayetullah, I., Rothenberger, S., Maqsood Sinha, A. H. M. & Zurbrügg, C., 2006. UNESCAP -

Decentralised Composting for Cities of low- and Middle - Income Countries - A Users’ Manual.

Bangladesh: Waste Concern.

Moodley, L., 2010. Garden Refuse Composting as Part of an Integrated Zero Waste Strategy for

South African Municipalities , Durban: University of Kwa-Zulu Natal.

Sustainability Victoria , 2009. Guide to Best Practice for Organics Recovery. Victoria, Australia: s.n.


Page 79 of 80

14. REFERENCES

Bonhotal, J. (No date). Marketing Compost: On & Off Farms. Retrieved 2013, from Cornell Waste

Management Institute: http://cwmi.css.cornell.edu [Accessed: 21 January 2013].

Clean Washington Centre. 1997. Will Composting Work for Us? A Decision Guide for Managers of

Businesses, Institutions, Campuses, and Other Facilities. [Online]. Available:

http://www.cwc.org/organics/organic_htms/cm976rpt.htm [Accessed: 1 November 2012].

Cornell Waste Management Institute. (2004). Compost Fact Sheet #1: Marketing Compost and Meeting

Consumer Needs. http://cwmi.css.cornell.edu [Accessed 21 January 2013].

Department of Environmental Affairs. May 201236. Draft National Waste Information Baseline Report.

Department of Environmental Affairs, Pretoria.

Department of Agriculture. 1998. Fertilizers, Farm Feeds, Agricultural Remedies and Stock Remedies

Act (No. 49 of 1996). Pretoria.

Department of Environmental Affairs. 1998. National Environmental Management Act (No. 107 of

1998). Department of Environmental Affairs, Pretoria.

Department of Environmental Affairs. 1998. National Environmental Management: Waste Act (No. 59 of

2008). Department of Environmental Affairs, Pretoria.

Department of Environmental Affairs. 1998. National Environmental Management: Air Quality Act (No.

39 of 2004). Department of Environmental Affairs, Pretoria.

Department of Environmental Affairs and Development Planning. 2011. National Waste Management

Strategy, Pretoria.

Department of Environmental Affairs and Development Planning. 2011. Draft Waste Classification and

Management Regulations, Notice 435 of 2011. Pretoria.

36

A more-recent version of this report and study is available, but has not yet been adopted. See footnote number 17.


Page 80 of 80

Department of Environmental Affairs and Development Planning. 2012. National Waste Information

Regulations, Notice 625 of 2012. Pretoria.

Department of Environment and Conservation (NSW), 2004. Environmental Guidelines: Composting

And Related Organics Processing Facilities, Sydney: Department of Environment and Conservation

(NSW).

Department of Water Affairs. March 2006. Guidelines for the Utilisation and Disposal of Wastewater

Sludge. Volume 1: Selection of Management Options. TT 261/06. Pretoria.





Duprey, C. (2010). Making Your Compost Product Work for You! Compost Sales and Marketing.

Enayetullah, I., Rothenberger, S., Maqsood Sinha, A. H. M. & Zurbrügg, C., 2006. UNESCAP -

Decentralised Composting for Cities of low- and Middle - Income Countries - A Users’ Manual.

Bangladesh: Waste Concern.

Gauteng Department of Agriculture, Conservation and Environment. March 2009. General waste

management facility standards, draft standards.

Kohrell, M., & Wells, P. (no date). Compost Markets and. Fox River Valley, United States of America.

Northeast Recycling Company, Inc. (no date). Retrieved 2013, from Northeast Recycling Company:

www.nerc.org [Accessed: 21 January 2013].

Sustainable Victoria, 2009. Guide to Best Practice for Organics Recovery, Victoria, Australia.

http://www.cpha.co.za/ [Accessed: 30 January 2013].

Documents

THE NATIONAL ORGANIC WASTE COMPOSTING STRATEGY - South African Waste …sawic.environment.gov.za/documents/1825.pdf · · 2013-02-05The National Organic Waste Composting Strategy