DIVISION S-5—SOIL GENESIS, MORPHOLOGY,AND CLASSIFICATION

The Morphology and Genesis of Some Alpine Soils in British Columbia, Canada: I.Morphology, Classification, and Genesis1

J. I. SNEDDON, L. M. LAVKULICH, AND L. FARsxAD2

ABSTRACT

Five soils occurring in alpine regions of British Columbia,Canada, were described. The soils were found to have siltloam to loamy sand textures. Four of the soils met the mor-phological requirements of the Spodosol order. Dark surfacemineral horizons occurred at four sites; two of these qualifiedas umbric epipedons. Volcanic ash was found in the vicinity ofsome sites. The soils were classified into the USDA Compre-hensive System and the System of Soil Classification forCanada.

Additional Index Words: cryorthod, cryochrept, umbric epi-pedon.

A,PINE AREAS represent unique environments from aesthe-tic, wilderness, wildlife, grazing, watershed, and recrea-

tion points of view yet have received relatively littleattention by soil scientists.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the mor-phology and the genesis of some alpine soils from moun-tainous areas in British Columbia. Since relatively littlework has been carried out on these alpine soils, moredetailed information is necessary in order to classify thesoils meaningfully. This paper presents and relates themorphology of five selected soils from three alpine moun-tain locations in British Columbia to their environment,and attempts to classify the soils into the American andCanadian systems of soil classification.

A subsequent companion paper (14) presents physical,chemical, and mineralogical data.

ENVIRONMENT AND MORPHOLOGY OF THESOILS UNDER STUDY

Three study areas were selected in the Coast Mountains(Pacific Ranges) and the Interior Plateau of British Columbia(8), namely Fitzsimmons Ridge, the Camelsfoot Range, andYanks Peak. The areas represent three distinct types of alpineenvironments common to the Pacific Northwest.

Though much of the Province of British Columbia lies atelevations greater than 900 m (2), most of the long termmeteorological stations are situated below that elevation. Thuslimited meteorological data is available for alpine environ-ments. By extrapolation of the available data from the stationsclosest to the study areas, an estimate of the climatic regimeat each site can be made (see Table 1).

SNEDDON ET AL.: ALPINE SOILS IN CANADA: I. MORPHOLOGY, CLASSIFICATION AND GENESIS 101

Table 1—Climatic records of stations adjacent to the study areasPrecipitation

(mean annual)

Station

Camel sfootBig CreekBraelorneDog Creek AMohaYanks PeakBarkervilleDome CreekHorsefly LakeQuesnel AFitzslmmonsAlta LakePemberton

MeadowsGaribaldi

Lat

515150515052535352535050

5049

Ni

004451385353204523020207

2759

Long

122123122122122121121121121121122122

122123

W

110055151626350517315359

5608

Elevm

2,124945

1,0661,027

5491,7831,274

670788544

1,950648

222365

Rain-fall

19.639.821.723.1

57.549.750.334.9

81.7

67,6115.0

Snowfall

—cm ——

124.5259.1161.595.3

574.3261,1200.9190.5

635.0

264.7394.5

Total .

32.165.737.832.7

114.978.870.453.9

145.2

94.1154.5

TemperatureMean

Ann-ual

2.44.43.8t

1. 54,34.24.8

5.7

7.3T

Jan.

-10.4- 7 . 5- 9.0t

- 9.2- 9 . 2- 8 . 9- 9.5

- 4.3

- 5.1T

July••C ——

13,514.916.0t

12.416.215.116.6

14.9

20.9t

Absolute

Max.

393834t

36423341

34

38t

Mln.

-47-36-41t

-47-49-44-47

-31

-40t

Number of monthsAbove

10C

345t

2545

4

5t

BelowOC

545t

5555

3

3t

FluctOC*

543-

5-35

5

3-

Number ofyear's record

Temp,

25+10+10-

25+10+1025+

10

25+-

Precip.

25+25+10+25+

25+10+10-25+

10

25+25+

•Months with mean maximum temperatures above OC and mean minimum temperatures below OC. t Data missing.

All three study areas were glaciated during the Pleistoceneand have been mantled by a veneer of locally derived driftover the underlying fractured bedrock. In the CamelsfootRange ice movement was minimal (18) and the bedrock mayhave been merely disrupted by the ice or fractured in a peri-glacial environment, the parent material derived essentially insitu. In the Camelsfoot Range and Fitzsimmons Ridge areaslocalized accumulations of volcanic ash were observed. No lo-calized deposits of ash were found at Yanks Peak.

The vegetation at the Camelsfoot Range appeared to be ofthe "arctic type" as the species composition showed arcticforms. Yanks Peak supports a subalpine type of vegetative com-munity, as does Fitzsimmons Ridge which is characterized bya wider range of species including grasses, sedges, forbs, andalpine fir with flagged and cushion krummholz life form.

Five soils were described representing the well- and moder-ately well-drained members within the study areas, using theterminology and procedures outlined by the USDA Soil SurveyManual (15) and the 7th Approximation (16).

The Fieldes and Perrot (7) saturated solution of NaF fieldtest as described by Brydon and Day (4), method A, wasused as an aid in distinguishing horizons high in amorphousaluminum hydroxides.

Site 1 Camelsfoot

The site was located at Latitude 51 "00.9' N, Longitude122° 11.1' W, in the Camelsfoot Range and 6-km west of Hog-back Mountain at an elevation of 2,124 m and on a 6% south-facing slope. The pedon is well-drained with medium runoff,moderately rapid permeability, and supports sedges (Carexspp.), lichens, mosses, shrubs (Cassiope mertensiana, Phyllo-doce empetriformis, Salix arctica, Salix nivalis) and forbs(Dryas octopetala, Lupinus lepidus var. lobii). The bedrockfragments in the pedon consist of sandstone and conglomerate.Although the region has been glaciated, glacial erosion wasslight and till rare. In the vicinity of this site and to the lee-ward of the ridge crest a paleosol was found beneath 30 cm ofvolcanic ash. Stones and flagstones constitute 20 to 30% ofthe surface.Hori- Depth,zon cmOl 0.6-0

All 0-6.3

A12 6.3-12.5

DescriptionLoose litter of fresh and partly decomposedvegetative partsVery dark brown (10YR 2/2 m), (10YR2.5/2 d) loamy sand; moderate coarse tovery fine granular; very friable; abundantfine and very fine roots; 35% angulargravels; clear wavy boundary; 5 to 7.5 cmthick; pH 4.6; NaF value 9.4Dark reddish-brown (5YR 2.5/2 m), (10YR3/2.5 d) sandy loam; moderate coarse tovery fine subangular blocky; breaking to finegranular; very friable; few medium and fine

to very fine roots; 45% angular gravels andsandstone fragments; abrupt wavy boundary;5 to 10 cm thick; pH 4.4; NaF value 10.4

B2ir 12.5-20 Dark yellowish-brown (10YR 4/4 m), (10YR4/3.5 d) sandy loam; weak coarse sub-angular blocky; very friable; very few fineand medium roots; 30 to 40% sandstonefragments and flagstones; clear wavy bound-ary; 7.5 to 10 cm thick; pH 4.4; NaF value10.8

B3 20-43 Light olive brown to olive yellow (2.5Y5.5/6 m), (2.5Y 6/4 d) loam; weak coarsesubangular blocky breaking to weak veryfine subangular blocky; very friable; 40 to80% sandstone fragments and flagstones;abrupt wavy boundary; 20 to 25 cm thick;pH 4.6; NaF value 10.5

R 43 + Shattered bedrock with many moderatelythick and thin coatings of silt and clay

Site 2 Yanks Peak

The site is located at Latitude 52°53' N, Longitude 12T26'W. in the Quesnel Highland 3.2 km north of Yanks Peak on asaddle between the headwaters of Little Snowshoe and AsterCreeks at an elevation of 1,783 m and on a 5% northeast-facingslope. The pedon is well-drained with medium runoff, moder-ately rapid permeability, and supports sedges (Carex spp.),rushes (Juncus spp.), mosses, grasses (Festuca spp., Muhlen-bergia sp.), and forbs (Anemone occidentalis, Arenaria lateri-flora, Hoplopappus sp., Pedicularis bracteosa, Ranunculusverecundus, Sibbaldia procumbens, Trollius laxus). The bed-rock and angular gravels in the pedon consist of black, fine-grained silty quartzite (metasiltstone) and black and dark greyphyllite and slate. The region has been glaciated and is coveredby a thin mantle of glacial till.

Hori- Depth,zon cm01

Al

B2

RC

4-0

0-15

15-38

38 +

DescriptionLitter of fresh and partly decomposed rootsand vegetative partsVery dark gray (N 3/ m), (N 4 / d ) verygravelly silt loam; weak fine subangularblocky to granular; friable; abundant fineand very fine roots; 50% gravel; clear wavyboundary; 15 to 20 cm thick; pH 4.0; NaFvalue 8.5Very dark gray (N 3 /m) , (10YR 4/1 d)very gravelly silt loam; moderate fine sub-angular blocky breaking to fine granular;friable; plentiful fine and very fine roots;57% gravel, clear wavy boundary; 20 to 25cm thick; pH 4.0; NaF value 8.7Very dark gray (N 3/ m), (5Y 3.5/1 d)very gravelly loam, dispersed through shat-tered bedrock; very few fine and very fineroots; pH 4.2; NaF value 8.8

102 SOIL SCI. SOC. AMER. PROC., VOL. 36, 1972

Site 3 Yanks PeakThe site was located in the same general location and ap-

proximately 45-m downslope of site 2 at an elevation of 1,783m and on a 10% northeast-facing slope. The pedon is well-drained with medium runoff, moderately rapid permeabilityand supports sedges (Carex spp.), rushes (Juncus spp.),mosses, and forbs (Caltha leptosepala, Hieracium spp., Seneciotriangularis, Sibbaldia procumbens, Valeriana sitchensis, Valer-lanetta locusta, Veratrum viride). The bedrock and angulargravels in the pedon consist of fissile gray sericitic and argil-laceous schists and vein quartz. The region has been glaciatedand is covered by a thin mantle of glacial till.Hori- Depth,zon cm Description01 2-0

A2

Litter of fresh and partly decomposed rootsand vegetative parts; pH 3.6

0-7.5 Gray to grayish-brown (10YR 5/1.5 m),(10YR 6/1.5 d) gravelly silt loam; moderatemedium to fine subangular blocky; friable;abundant fine and very fine roots; 30%gravel; abrupt wavy boundary; 5 to 10 cmthick; pH 3.6; NaF value 8.4

B2ir 7.5-18 Dark yellowish-brown (10YR 4/4 m), (10YR5.5/5 d) gravelly silt loam; moderate coarseplaty breaking to moderate coarse to finesubangular blocky; friable; plentiful fineand very fine roots; 26% gravel; clear wavyboundary; 7.5 to 12.5 cm thick; pH 3.9;NaF value 9.0

B3 18-50 Light olive brown (2.5Y 5/4 m), (2.5Y5.5/2 d) gravelly silt loam; moderate coarseto medium angular blocky breaking to finesubangular blocky; firm; few fine roots; 30%gravel; gradual wavy boundary; 30 to 38 cmthick; pH 4.2; NaF value 9.6

C 50+ Very dark gray (N 3/m), (5Y 5/1.5 d)very gravelly sandy loam; 58% gravel sizedschists; pH 4.4; NaF value 9.2

Site 4 FitzsimmonsThe site is located at Latitude 50° 02' N, Longitude 122° 51'

W on the Fitzsimmons Ridge and 0.8-km east of Singing Passand 4.4-km northeast of Overlord Mountain at an elevation of1,950 m and on a 20% south southwest-facing slope. The pe-don is moderately well-drained with medium runoff, moder-ately rapid permeability and supports sedges (Carex spp.),rushes (Juncus spp.), mosses, grass (Phleum alpinum) andforbs (Antennaria spp., Arenaria sp., Potentilla villosa, Sileneparryii, Sibbaldia procumbens, Valeriana sitchensis.) The bed-rock and angular and subangular gravels in the pedon consistof phaneritic fine to medium grained gabbros and quartz dio-rites. Glacial drift mantles the bedrock which is exposed or isclose to the surface over most of the area.Hori- Depth,zon cm DescriptionOl 0.6-0 Litter of fresh and partly decomposed vege-

tative remainsAl 0-12.5 Dark brown to brown (10YR 4/3 m), (10YR

4.5/2 d) gravelly loam; strong medium tofine subangular blocky breaking to finegranular; friable; abundant fine and veryfine roots; 26% angular gravel and stones;clear wavy boundary; 10 to 14 cm thick;pH 4.0; NaF value 9.3

B2ir 12.5-30 Dark yellowish-brown (10YR 3.5/4 m),(10YR 4/3.5 d) gravelly sandy loam; strongcoarse to fine subangular blocky; friable;abundant fine and very fine roots; 31%angular gravel and stones; clear wavy bound-ary; 17 to 20 cm thick; pH 4.4; NaF value11.2

B3 30-44 Dark yellowish-brown (10YR 4/4 m), (2.5Y5/4 d) gravelly sandy loam; strong coarse tofine subangular blocky; friable; plentiful fine

and very fine roots; 46% angular gravel andstones; abrupt wavy boundary; 12 to 16 cmthick; pH 4.5; NaF value 11.1

C 44+ Grayish-brown to olive brown (2.5Y 4.5/3m), (5Y 6.3/5 d) very gravelly sandy loam;common, medium, prominent, brownish-yel-low and yellowish-brown (10YR 6/8 and5/8 m) mottles; coarse angular pseudoblocky; firm; very few fine roots; 63%angular gravel; pH 4.6; NaF value 10.8

Site 5 Fitzsimmons

The site is located in the same general location on the oppo-site side of a small knoll from site 4 at an elevation of 1,950 mand on a 6 to 8% north northeast-facing slope. The pedon iswell-drained with medium runoff, moderately rapid permea-bility and supports sedges (Carex spp.), rushes (Juncus spp.),mosses, grass (Poa arctica), lichens, forbs (Anemone occiden-talis, Antennaria umbrinella, Arenaria sp., Erigeron sp., Luetkeapectinata, Sibbaldia procumbens, Solorina crocea), and treespecies (Abies lasiocarpa) with krummholz form. The bedrockand angular to subangular gravels in the pedon consist ofphaneritic fine to medium grained quartz diorites gneisses andgranites.

Hori- Depth,zon cm DescriptionOl 0.6-0

Al 0-10

Litter of fresh and partly decomposed vege-tative remainsDark brown (7.5YR 3.5/2 m), (10YR 4/2.5d) gravelly loam; moderate coarse to finesubangular blocky; very friable; abundantfine and very fine roots; 33% angulargravel; abrupt wavy boundary; 8 to 12 cmthick; pH 4.0; NaF value 9.9

B2ir 10-21.5 Brown to dark brown (7.5YR 4/3 m), 10YR5/5 d) gravelly sandy loam; moderate coarseto fine angular blocky and moderate finesubangular blocky; friable; plentiful, fine andvery fine roots; 40% angular gravel; clearwavy boundary; 8 to 12 cm thick; pH 4.6;NaF value 11.1

B3 21.5-36 Light olive brown (2.5Y 5/4 m), (5Y6/3 d) very gravelly sandy loam; moderatecoarse to fine angular blocky and subangularblocky; friable; few fine and very fine roots;60% angular gravel; abrupt wavy boundary;10 to 16 cm thick; pH 4.8; NaF value 10.9

C 36 + Olive (5Y 4.5/3 m), (5Y 6/3 d) verygravelly sandy loam; coarse angular pseudoblocky; moist firm; very few fine roots; 57%angular gravel; pH 4.9; NaF value 10.6

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Air movement observations were not available for anyof the study areas. Windswept areas are locally more sub-ject to arid conditions due to redistribution of snow anddessication. From observations made in the field, site 1 inthe Camelsfoot Range is locally more arid than the othertwo areas.

Soil temperature patterns at high altitudes are relativelycomplex (11, 13). Windswept conditions prevailing atsite 1 in the Camelsfoot Range cause the soil to freeze inwinter and warm fairly rapidly in the spring and summermonths. The soil temperature pattern, it is assumed, cor-responds to and follows fairly closely, the mean monthlyair temperature pattern. The Yanks Peak and FitzsimmonsRidge sites occur in less windswept areas and are coveredby considerable depths of snow. In the winter months themean soil temperatures will remain relatively warmer thanthe corresponding air temperatures. The mean soil tem-

SNEDDON ET AL.: ALPINE SOILS IN CANADA: I. MORPHOLOGY, CLASSIFICATION AND GENESIS 103

peratures in the spring and early summer months willremain relatively cooler than the corresponding mean airtemperatures because of the duration of the snow pack.Again mean annual soil temperatures may correspond tothe mean air temperature; however, the patterns of monthlymeans may differ quite markedly.

By extrapolation of the data in Table 1 and assuming alapse rate of 2C per 310 m of elevation, the mean air tem-perature for the warmest month would be less than 10Cand the mean annual air temperature would be less thanOC at all sites. The absence of permafrost in the vicinity ofand at the sample sites suggests that the mean annual airtemperatures are between OC and 3.9C (3).

In both the northern and southern hemispheres theupper limit of the timberline is found to closely parallelthe mean monthly 10C isotherm for the warmestmonth (6, 17). In addition, local factors such as windpattern, avalanche conditions, fire and grazing history maymodify the position of the timberline. If alpine environ-ments are considered to be those existing above the timber-line then the soils in this study can be considered as alpinesoils.

Considering the top 18 cm of the soils, the morphologyand field observations indicate that soils 1 and 2 haveumbric epipedons. At sites 4 and 5 the soils have most ofthe characteristics associated with umbric epipedons, justfailing to meet the color requirements. The surface mineralhorizon at site 3 was albic. At sites 1, 3, 4, and 5 spodichorizons were present. At sites 1, 4, and 5 organic matterwas considered to be masking the expression of color inthe spodic horizons. The NaF test supported this assump-tion, indicating that the greatest accumulations of amor-phous aluminum hydroxide were occurring in these spodichorizons. At site 2 the morphological evidence suggestedthe presence of a cambic horizon.

The NaF test was used only to indicate relative concen-trations of amorphous A1(OH)X and not as a criterionfor spodic horizon designation. Volcanic ash in the vicini-ties of sites 1, 4, and 5, though not detected by hand lensin the profiles, may have influenced the determinations.

The fine earth fraction of these soils had low contentsof clay and textures ranging from loamy sands to silt loams.This suggests that there was limited comminution of rockmaterials in the glacial drift and that subsequent physicalweathering has been active in the reduction of particlesizes, while chemical weathering has resulted in the limitedproduction of secondary minerals. Only at site 1 was thereany indication of fine particle movement where the shat-tered bedrock below the B horizon was coated with siltand clay.

Coarse fragments form a considerable volume of thesesoils and tend to increase with depth. Variation within thepedons was considered to be inherent in the parent material.

The relatively coarse textures and subangular blockystructures indicated that the permeability of these soils wasmoderately rapid and their generally friable consistencereflected low contents of clay.

The acid reaction at each of the sites reflected the pre-cipitation regime and leaching environment of these soils.

All of the soils were located above the timberline though

isolated conifers and conifers with flagged and cushionkrummholz lifeform occurred in the vicinity of the sites atYanks Peak and Fitzsimmons Ridge, respectively. Theseconifers may be considered as hardy vagrants or indicatorsof more favourable climatic or edaphic conditions (17).

Spodosols have been observed in numerous alpine andsubalpine communities in association with krummholz andgrasses, sedges, reeds, forbs, and mosses (1, 9, 10, 19).

A combination of sedges, reeds, forbs and mosses, (inaddition, grasses at sites 2, 4, and 5) made up the groundcover at all of the sites and would be expected to contrib-ute organic debris to the surface volume of the pedonresulting in the development of a dark surface Al horizon.

The soils were classified according to the 7th Approxi-mation (16), and the Canadian System (5) of soil classi-fication as follows:

Site 1 Camelsfoot Lithic Cryorthod

Site 2 Yanks Peak Lithic Cryumbrept

Site 3 Yanks Peak Typic Cryorthod

Site 4 Fitzsimmons Typic Cryorthod

Site 5 Fitzsimmons Typic Cryorthod

Lithic MiniHumo-Ferric PodzolLithic AlpineDystric BrunisolOrthic Humo-FerricPodzolMini Humo-FerricPodzolMini Humo-FerricPodzol

Soil leaching has taken place at each of the sites andspodic horizons have developed at sites 1, 3, 4, and 5 anda cambic horizon has developed at site 2.

Umbric epipedons have developed at sites 1 and 2 anddark surface mineral horizons have developed at sites 4and 5 (which are not quite umbric by definition) from theaccumulation and decomposition of the cyclic growth ofgrasses, sedges, and forbs of alpine and subalpine commu-nities. Soils with dark surface horizons and associated withvolcanic ash have been recorded in similar environmentsin Alaska (12) and southern British Columbia (A. L. VanRyswyk. 1969. Forest and alpine soils of south centralBritish Columbia. Ph.D. Thesis. Washington State Uni-versity, Pullman) suggesting that the surface mineral hori-zons at sites 1, 4, and 5 may have developed with some ofthe characteristics of Ando soils.

Laboratory analyses (14) confirmed the field classifica-tions and horizon nomenclatures by the criteria set forthin the 7th Approximation (16) and the System of SoilClassification for Canada (5).

The soils in the areas of this study have developed inrelatively shallow glacial drift, in some cases bedrock waswithin 50 cm of the surface, and in cryic environments.

Site 3 had a morphology more typical of an environmentcharacterized by the presence of heath or conifers, suggest-ing a recent change in vegetative cover. The pedon at site2 represents a soil which, under the present pedo-environ-ment, would be expected to develop a morphology similarto that at sites 1, 4, and 5. However, with a change invegetation to heath or krummholz conifers, the soil wouldbe expected to develop a morphology similar to that ofsite 3.

In summary, the fine earth fractions of the soils werefound to fall into the coarse loamy textural range and have

104 SOIL SCI. SOC. AMER. PROC., VOL. 36, 1972

coarse fragments of not less than 25%, that generally in-creased with depth. The subangular blocky structures andfriable consistencies reflected the low clay contents andmoderately rapid permeability of these soils.

The cryic temperatures associated with the study areashave had a limiting effect on the biological breakdown oforganic matter with the result that under a vegetative coverof sedges, grasses, forbs, and mosses, dark surface mineralhorizons have developed at four of the sites. At the remain-ing site an albic surface mineral horizon was found, reflect-ing a previous heath or possible coniferous vegetative cover.

Volcanic ash in the vicinity of two of the three studyareas suggests that these dark surface mineral horizonsmay have some Ando characteristics.

Extensive leaching of these soils has resulted in thedepletion of bases, an acid pH, the mobilization and trans-location of sesquioxides, (as indicated by soil color and theNaF field test) and the formation of spodic horizons atfour of the sites and a cambic horizon at one site.

Soils in areas with high lime parent materials or areasof low precipitation and limited or negligible leaching anda similar vegetative cover, lacking coniferous trees, wouldbe expected to develop mollic epipedons. This situationon high lime parent materials has been encountered inBritish Columbia.