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© The Middle Stone Age, symbolic material
culture and the origins of language
Christopher Henshilwood1,2 & Benoit Dubreuil31.Institute for Archaeology, History, Culture & Religion, University of Bergen, Norway
2.Institute for Human Evolution, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South
Africa
3.Department of Philosophy, Université du Québec à Montréal
2
ORIGIN OF ALLORIGIN OF ALL
HOMO SAPIENSHOMO SAPIENS
LIES IN AFRICALIES IN AFRICA
200, 000 yr +
3
Omo Omo 1 & 21 & 2
195 ka195 ka
••Found by RichardFound by Richard
LeakeyLeakey’’s team ins team in
19671967
••Now re-datedNow re-dated
Omo KibishOmo Kibish
4
H. sapiens H. sapiens idaltuidaltu
160 ka160 ka
• Found in Herto,
Ethiopia by Tim White
and team
• Two adults and a child
5
c. 35 000 yrs ?c. 35 000 yrs ?
Into southern AsiaInto southern Asia
c. 65 c. 65 –– 60 000 yrs 60 000 yrs
25
6
THE SYMBOLIC EXPLOSIONTHE SYMBOLIC EXPLOSION
IN EUROPE c. 35 kaIN EUROPE c. 35 ka
7
This behavioral breakthrough (in Europe) isThis behavioral breakthrough (in Europe) isthought by some to correspond to increasedthought by some to correspond to increasedcognitive sophistication, the manipulation ofcognitive sophistication, the manipulation ofsymbols, symbols, and the origin of languageand the origin of language
(e.g., White, 1982; Mellars & Stringer, 1989; Diamond, 1992; Byers, 1994; Mithen,1994, 1996; Klein, 1995; but see Kay et al., 1998)
We believe that the model of the We believe that the model of the ‘‘‘‘humanhumanrevolutionrevolution’’’’ is fatally flawed is fatally flawed
McBrearty & Brooks, 2000
The Revolution that WasnThe Revolution that Wasn’’tt
The
MIDDLE STONE
AGE
In Africa
c. 280 – 30 ka
Apollo 11Apollo 11
Hollow RockHollow Rock
Peers CavePeers CaveBlombosBlombos
SibuduSibudu
STILL BAY SITESSTILL BAY SITES
x 5x 5
c. 77 - 71 kac. 77 - 71 ka
300 km
Diepkloof RSDiepkloof RS Recent OSL dating
Jacobs et al 2008 Science
SIBUDU DIEPKLOOF ROCK SHELTER
BLOMBOS CAVE APOLLO 11
STILL BAY SITES
Foliate bifacial
points (hafting)Henshilwood et al, 2001. JHE
Rigaud et al 2006. PaleovolWadley 2007 JHE
Villa et al 2008 JHE
Some SBSome SB All SBAll SBStill Bay c. 77 Still Bay c. 77 –– 71 ka 71 ka
(Symbolic?) Material Culture (Symbolic?) Material Culture
End & circular scrapersHenshilwood et al, 2001. JHE
Ochre processing & useHenshilwood et al, 2001. JHE
Henshilwood et al 2009 JHE
Wadley 2007 JHE
Exotic (non-local) raw
material useHenshilwood et al, 2001. JHE
Wadley 2007 JHE
Villa et al 2008 JHE
Still Bay c. 77 Still Bay c. 77 –– 71 ka 71 ka
Bone toolsHenshilwood et al 2002 JHE
d’Errico & Henshilwood. 2007 JHE
Shell beads
Symbolic Material Culture?Symbolic Material Culture?
Some SBSome SB All SBAll SB
Afrolittorina africana
d’Errico et al 2008. JAS
Nassarius kraussianus
Henshilwood et al 2004 Science
Abstract engravings
Henshilwood et al 2002 Science
Henshilwood et al 2009 JHE
Still Bay c. 77 Still Bay c. 77 –– 71 ka 71 ka
Hunting technologyHunting technology
Hafted bifacial points Hafted bone tools
Still Bay c. 77 Still Bay c. 77 –– 71 ka 71 ka
SubsistenceSubsistence
Henshilwood et al 2001 JAS
APAPPOCPOC
AAAAHAAHAA
B1CB1C
KLPKLP
KKHKKH
DRSDRS
MONMON
KRKRPPPPNBCNBC
BPBPPARPAR HPHP
OAKOAKHRHR
WKWK
KPKP
HRSHRS
SIBSIB
UMHUMHRCCRCC SEHSEH MOSMOS
HASHAS
NTNTMLKMLK
BCBC
CHCH
LIMPOPO
VAAL
ORANGE
HOWIESONS POORTHOWIESONS POORT
SITESSITES
x 30x 30
c. 65 - 59 kac. 65 - 59 ka
300 km
Recent OSL dating
Jacobs et al 2008 Science
SIBUDU KLASIES RIVER
KLEIN KLIPHUISAPOLLO 11
HOWIESONS POORT SITES
Backed segmentsWurz & Lombard 2007JAH
Wurz 2000 PhDWadley 2007 JHE
Lombard & Clark 2008 BAR
Some HPSome HP All HPAll HPHowiesons Poort c. 65 Howiesons Poort c. 65 –– 60 ka 60 ka
(Symbolic?) Material Culture (Symbolic?) Material Culture
End & circular scrapersWurz 2000 PhD
Ochre processing & useHenshilwood 2008 SAAB
Wadley 2007 JHE
Exotic raw material useHenshilwood et al, 2001. JHE
Wadley 2007 JHE
Villa et al 2008 JHE
Bone toolsBackwell 2007 JAS
Engraved bone
d’Errico & Henshilwood. 2007. JHE
Symbolic Material Culture?Symbolic Material Culture?
Some HPSome HP All HPAll HP
Abstract engravings
(Ostrich egg shell)
Rigaud et al 2006 Paleovol
Howiesons Poort c. 65 Howiesons Poort c. 65 –– 60 ka 60 ka
Lombard & Pargeter 2008 JAS
Howiesons Poort c. 65 Howiesons Poort c. 65 –– 60 ka 60 ka
Hunting technologyHunting technology
Bone tipped spear
Bow & arrow?
Howiesons Poort c. 65 Howiesons Poort c. 65 –– 60 ka 60 ka
SubsistenceSubsistence
Clark & Plug 2008 JHE
ARID
TROPICAL
RAINFORESTS
TROPICAL
SAVANNAH
ARID
MEDITERRANEAN
Lake Bosumtwi
Lake Tanganyika
Lake Malawi
North African sites (Aterian)
– up to 100 ka or more
Still Bay &
Howiesons Poort
MEDITERRANEAN
What is
the link
between
North &
South?
22
BEYOND 78 000 YEARS
IS THERE EARLIER
EVIDENCE FOR
SYMBOLIC MATERIAL
CULTURE?
Cape AgulhasCape Agulhas
Blombos
Cave
CapeCape
TownTown
Western CapeWestern Cape
South AfricaSouth Africa
Atlantic oceanAtlantic ocean
Indian OceanIndian Ocean
De Hoop
Nature Reserve
24
Blombos Blombos CaveCave
Blombos Cave Blombos Cave –– Ages for occupations Ages for occupationsAges
Still Bay
M1 & M2
M3M3
Phases
Henshilwood et al, 2004, Science
Jacobs et al. 2003. Journal of Human Evolution
Jacobs et al 2006. JHE
Blombos Cave Blombos Cave –– M3 Phase: 100 ka + M3 Phase: 100 ka +
Patella barbara
OchreOchre
Ochre grinder
Ochre layer
110 ka
100 ka
100 ka
upper grindstoneupper grindstone
Ochre crayonOchre crayon
Layer CILayer CI
Blombos Cave Blombos Cave –– M3 Phase: c. 100 ka + M3 Phase: c. 100 ka +
Henshilwood, d’Errico & Watts (2009) JHE
Blombos Cave, Phase M3, layer CI, ca 99,000 BPBlombos Cave Blombos Cave –– M3 Phase: c. 100 ka + M3 Phase: c. 100 ka +
Layer CILayer CI
Henshilwood, d’Errico & Watts (2009) JHE
Blombos Cave Blombos Cave –– M3 Phase: c. 100 ka + M3 Phase: c. 100 ka +
Fan shape
Henshilwood, d’Errico & Watts (2009) JHE
Layer CI
Continuity or discontinuity?Continuity or discontinuity?
Symbolically mediated behaviours in the StillSymbolically mediated behaviours in the Still
Bay and Howiesons Poort Industries of southernBay and Howiesons Poort Industries of southern
Africa Africa –– and before and after and before and after
100 ka +
What can we infer about language
evolution from the archaeological record ?
?
32
What can we infer about language
evolution from the archaeological record ?
Three problems:
• the archaeological record is scarce
• archaeology provides merely indirect evidence
• competing views exist about what language is
33
Is there a language faculty ?
What does it consist in ?
What is specific to language ?
What features of language canbe explained by more generalfeatures of human brain,cognition, and culture?
34
A large part of language must be explain
in connection with social cognition
Two social-cognitive abilities:
• The ability to share the attention with others and toengage in joint projects at the foundation of languageacquisition.
• Higher theory of mind and perspective taking explainmuch peculiarity of langage development later in infancy.
The implications for the evolution of language will
depend on how much of language you think that
social cognition explains.
35
Archaeology reveals something about
the evolution of social cognition
?Social
cognition
Nonhuman primates can understand the “intentions” of others
(they understand that actions are directed by goals).
36
Social cognition is sophisticated in
nonhuman primates
37
Social categorisation is also
sophisticated…
38
Social categorisation is also
sophisticated…
39
Social categorisation is also
sophisticated…
40
Social categorisation is also
sophisticated…
Nonhuman primates do not engage as spontaneouslyin joint attention and shared intentionality as humanchildren.
• This is due to a motivational difference and, maybe, acognitive difference.
• They may be incapable of understanding that others’goal-directed actions are directed at their attentionalstates.
41
But, there are differences between humans
and nonhuman primates…
Nonhuman primates have problems understanding
complex mental states and perspective taking.
“When baboons cross from one island to another at the peak of the
flood, they typically choose the shortest and shallowest route. If the
flood is large, however, they are often forced to wade or swim for
hundreds of meters. Young infants are carried ventrally and can be
completely submerged for several minutes. Several years before we
began our study, we were told, Sylvia’s [a female baboon] baby had
drowned on a long crossing. [..] [Sylvia] acted as if she believed that,
as long as her head was above water, everyone else’s head must be
above water too.” (Cheney and Seyfarth 2007)
42
But, there are differences between humans
and nonhuman primates…
Human children only develop an explicit
understanding of complex mental states around 4-5
years of age.
43
But, there are differences between humans
and nonhuman primates…
These changes must have had an important impact on human
behavior and on the social organization.
Can they explain the transition to modern Homo sapiens?
44
Human evolution coincided with major
changes in social cognition
??
Shared intentionality is not
only at the foundation of
language, but also of
cooperation.
We find evidence of
increased cooperation
long before the evolution of modern Homo sapiens.
45
Archaic humans already had sophisticated
social cognition. How do we know?
?
Large-game hunting in itself implies cooperation
And it only makes sense only in a context of
extensive meat sharing
46
Evidence of large-game hunting in Homo
heidelbergensis (700-300 kyr)
Homo heidelbergensis presents strong evidence of a
modern-like organisation of life history, including
prolonged infancy.
Modern organisation of life history depends on cooperative
breeding and on important intergenerational transfers.
Brain size, body size, and dental development in Homo
heidelbergensis are getting close to what they are in
Homo sapiens.
47
Evidence of cooperative breeding in
Homo heidelbergensis (700-300 kyr)
Robson and Kaplan (PNAS, 2002)48
Evidence of cooperative breeding in
Homo heidelbergensis (700-300 kyr)
It is almost impossible to imagine how hominins
could cooperate to such an extent without being
capable of shared intentionality.
49
Evidence of cooperative breeding in
Homo heidelbergensis (700-300 kyr)
The evolution of Homo sapiens might havecoincided the evolution of higher theory of mind
Archaic humans might not have had the
same socio-cognitive abilities as modern
humans
!
Personal ornaments have nostraightforward utilitarian use.
They are typically used tosignal social statuses.
What does it imply at thecognitive level?
What does personal ornamentation tells us
about social cognition?
Neither are they “superordinate” categories—categories ofcategories—which too might implicate executivefunctions. So, although the Blombos beads implycategory formation process, they did not, we believe,require executive functions and enhanced workingmemory.” (Coolidge and Wynn 2009)
“The kinds of social categories impliedby the Blombos beads (I belong togroup A, as opposed to group B, withwhom we exchange spouses; groupC with whom we fight; group D whoare occasional but unreliable allies,etc.) are not abstract, and do notcombine elements from distinctcategories.
What does personal ornamentation tells us
about social cognition?
Nonhuman primates are already
capable of complex social
categorisation.
Earlier members of the genus
Homo were also certainly
capable of it.
Still, neither made use of personal
ornaments
Personal ornamentation implies more than
category formation
Group
C
Group
B
Group
A
Individuals do not only need to
categorize group membership.
Individuals also need to know
that other individuals
recognize the use of symbolic
markers as an indication of
group membership.
What is missing for personal ornaments to
become relevant?
Group
B
Group
A
One needs to make sure that
one’s representation of group
membership coincides with the
representation of others.
One needs higher theory of mind
to recognize that the meanings
of symbols are shared.
This task goes beyond simple social
categorisation
Malafouris (2008: 406) argues that Blombos beads
provide stronger evidence of “self-awareness”
than of symbolism.
Wynn and Coolidge (2007: 88) argue that, at a
minimum, personal ornaments indicate the
presence of “theory of mind” and of a capacity to
pay attention to one’s appearance and personal
identity.
Symbolism or concern for one’s
appearance?
For Coolidge and Wynn (2009: 242) “Blombos
beads […] did not […] require executive functions
and enhanced working memory.”
By contrast, we think that being concerned with
one’s appearance implies the highest level of
theory of mind and is highly demanding in terms
of executive functions and working memory.
Symbolism or concern for one’s
appearance?
Apes do not use artefacts to “improve their
appearance.
There is no real evidence of a concern for
appearance before modern Homo sapiens.
Young human children care little about how they
look.
Symbolism or concern for one’s
appearance?
Being concerned with one’s appearance implies
higher theory of mind.
One way to know that is to think of those human
beings which are the most concerned by their
appearance.
Who are they…?
Symbolism or concern for one’s
appearance?
…teenagers!
Symbolism or concern for one’s
appearance?
Social intelligence in
humans develops
late into
adolescence.
It is closely related to
the maturation of the
executive functions
of the brain.
Symbolism or concern for one’s
appearance?
Gogtay et al. (PNAS, 2002)
A concern for one’s appearance is good evidence
of higher theory of mind and social cognition.
Higher theory of mind is good evidence in favor of
executive functions and working memory in
general.
It is also good evidence of language...
Conclusion
AcknowledgmentsAcknowledgments
Claire LefebvreClaire Lefebvre
Institut Institut des sciences des sciences cognitivescognitives
Université du Québec à MontréalUniversité du Québec à Montréal