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Prof. Dr. Adnan Diler
Mugla University, Turkey
Eurolog Symposium in Tunis, April 2012
The Message and the Role of Cultural Heritage: Common Heritage or
Common Disaster Cultural heritage is the total of the physical and intangible values that we are responsible
for conveying to future generations. This includes historical, social, spiritual or religious,
symbolic, natural, economic and research values.
Cultural heritage is identified with the material values in the field of archaeology. In this
context, the roles of archaeology and cultural heritage are identical1. The light that
archaeology sheds on the past helps us understand the realities of life today and plays an
important role in the foundation of a better world.
The elements of cultural heritage are always enriched by the artistic and cultural
influences of the neighbors. That’s why even when societies had fights with each other
and sometimes destroyed each other, their arts remained friendly and became richer.
This is the reason why cultural heritage is considered as the shared heritage of all nations
of the world.
When we look at the archaeological material of different regions and different
civilizations, we can see that starting from Neolithic Period until today they display
common artistic characteristics.
Unfortunately in the past, archaeological material and the research conducted on
archaeological material were used in the service of political gains such as utopian ideas,
missionary purposes, colonialism and the division of people2. There are many examples of
the use of archaeology in the service of totalitarian dictatorship. Archaeology is also a
powerful weapon in the ideological struggle3.
1 Archaeology in many western and other countries has long been association with the heritage and its
management. Cultural Heritage is also very important value because it provides, meaning and dignity to
human lives. It also legitimizes territorial and intellectual ownership and its critical factor in the formilation
of social factor (cf. H. Silverman-D.F. Ruggles (eds.). in: Cultural Heritage and Human Rights (2007) p.VI f.
2 As known archaeology has been put to overt political use. In 1914 Sir L. Woolley, and T.E. Lawrence
provided “innocent” archaeological camouflage for a British military survey of the Turkish - controlled Sinai
peninsula. Archaeology can be a powerful weapon in ideological struggles that have real consequences for
people. Regarding to use of archaeolgy in the service totalitarian dictotarship. As Mcquire pointed out
following the Greek War of independence (1821- 1832) the new Greek state cleansed the Athenian Acropolis
of an Armenian cemetery, Muslim buildings and Medival Structures. See R.H.McGuire, Archaeology as Political
2
Action (2008) p. 26.
3 The critique of archaeology as a political tool has often focused on how nationalist movements have used
and manipulated it to create nationalism. And nationalism is often rests on the idea of a golden age
ethnic and lingustic uniformity and promotes a culture that is supposedly stil connected to that past
Mcquire supra note p. 2, 22 f.
3
In regions such as Egypt and Mesopotamia where high culture was born and developed,
and also house the majority of the world petroleum reserves, the extreme right political
views or imperialistic policies caused great damage to the cultural heritage4.
The tendency of some archaeologists within the framework of archaeology to steer away
from the real meaning of cultural heritage as the product of shared cultures, to strive to
find the most important and initial discovery, and to connect the cultural and historical
data always with an ethnic culture is not in harmony with the meaning of archaeological
heritage.
Examples of this can be found in the research and publications with the idea of
Pananatolianism that locates the roots of Western civilizations in Anatolian civilizations.
This idea was formed as a reaction to the Panhellenistic ideas that locate the roots of
European civilization within Renaissance and Greek culture.
Archaeological sites not only carry the footprints of the past into the present but also give
us messages about how to use nature in the ancient periods and today. They also contain
naturally preserved areas in their vicinities. That’s why protecting the archaeological
heritage also means preservation of nature (fig .1). Archaeological sites play a substantial
role in the general education of cultural and natural heritage. The profession of
archaeology plays an important role in carrying the message of how to use these areas in
our present society.
If cultural heritage is not interpreted correctly and continue to be seen as the furniture of
ever developing mass tourism or modern buildings, the danger of destruction and
eventual disappearance of these values are eminent (fig.2,3). The loss of archaeological
heritage means the loss of knowledge (fig.4).
The definition, function, dating, story of the sites and the archaeological material that is
becoming richer with different cultural influences of the cultural heritage are, of course,
very important. However the proper documentation, preservation and dissemination of
these messages have the utmost priority today.
The region we are focusing on as our case area is Caria; an area that has housed human
settlements since the Neolithic Period. The cultural identity of the region is composed of
the people of Anatolia and the neighboring peoples that immigrated here through Aegean
4 In the past the archaeological datas were used as propaganda material for nationalistic ideas or racial
superiority. In 2003 looting of Iraq Museum in Bağdat attracted widespread attention in the world. In
2001 the Taliban blew up the colossal Buddha statues in act of cultural iconoclasm, political assertion and
religious indignation. Despite the fact that in 1954 UNESCO passed the Hague Convention for the
protection of cultural property in the event of armed conflict “ destruction of property belonging to any
people whatsover means damage of cultural heritage of mankind”, the Balkan and the Gulf Wars in Iraq ,
Syria as shown the Hague Convention has not been respected.
4
Sea5. This can be defined by the elements that make a civilization such as, language,
belief, living and burial traditions (fig.5). The concrete data that reflects on other
materials of art and architecture can be seen in structures of sanctuaries, graves, pottery
and plastic arts. The Lelegian identity that forms the Karian civilization is a common
product of the cultures in Anatolia and the cultures located in the west of Aegean. The
survivals of the witnesses of this shared culture create opportunities for dialogue with
neighboring cultures in terms of common projects of arts and culture.
All of the regions in Anatolia have had human settlements starting from the Neolithic
period. In the areas where mountains, rivers and seas create natural borders, there were
different civilizations in different times. However, almost all of these settlements were
rural or agricultural.
Agriculture was a tradition that the ancient societies sustained together with the cult of
death and god. The fact that in many regions the agricultural production techniques
continued without change until today can be explained as the result of cultural continuity.
The economic lives of the high cultures of human history both in the eastern and western
cultures depended entirely upon agriculture6. This phenomenon is the reason why the
worshipping rituals are closely connected to agricultural production. An example of this is
reflected in the representation of King Warpalavas in front of God Tarhundas with wheat
and grapes that symbolize fertility and production (fig.6)7.
The cities of Termera and Pedasa on the Bodrum peninsula in Caria (fig.7) will be used as
samples for the message of archaeological heritage and the importance of this in human
and natural preservation here:
The areas and the message it carries
The cultural heritage value of the area, the opportunities for intercultural dialogue
will be discussed.
Today, human beings created artificial borders for settlements. Natural borders are the
mountains, seas, deep valleys and rivers. Unfortunately the ancient cities and
5
This Cretan/Lelegian link supports the information found in literary sources, stating that “The Lelegians who
were the ancestors of the Carians first lived on the Aegean islands, were under the rule of Minos and later
with the help of the Cretans they migrated to the Anatolian mainland”. See Herodotus I, 171; Strabo 12.8.5
(573)
6 As has been emphasized, agriculture was one of the greatest importance for the Greek poleis as roughly 80%
of the inhabitance in a nornal Greek polis were peasant farmers and majority lived in the country. See H.
Lohmann, “Agriculture and Country Life in Classical Attica” in: B. Wells (ed.) Agriculture in Ancient Greece
(Stockholm 1992)30.
7 E:Akurgal, Anadolu Kültür Tarihi, Ankara 1997, Fig.132.
4
archaeological heritage are understood holistically by people other than archaeologists
and only the areas inside the city walls can be observed. However, the areas surrounded
by the fortification walls make only %5 of the whole population. Outside these borders,
there is a large area where the real city life is seen with agricultural, necropolis and other
structures8.
Settlements are just like organisms; they are born, they grow, expand and slowly shrink
and die. This is both the adaptation and the transformation process of the settlement.
This process usually takes thousands of years however we perceive this as a single picture
frame in its latest form. It is not possible to view this picture as if rewinding a film. That is
why we encounter problems in interpreting the characteristics that make and develop a
city as a whole. Regardless of their scales, settlements always have a center with
administrative and religious structures and growth always happens from this center to
outside.
In both coastal and inland settlements in the Ancient Caria, the economy depended on
agriculture. This is why the agricultural structures and terraces as well as the graves are
the dominant remains of the territoriums. Territoriums should be analyzed in a holistic
manner in order to understand the settlement model, identification, and message of the
city.
Ancient city territoriums were composed of agricultural terraces, presses and farm houses
scattered over a large area. Even though they seem disjointed, in fact they were all related
to each other. The situation and the location of these remains yield important information
on how these agricultural areas were used by the ancient people. The agricultural terraces
on the sloped hills were built to prevent landslide and provide more water to the plant
roots.
Aside from these functions, agricultural terraces are the most important remains that
form the rural landscape and identity. The agricultural terraces, agricultural structures
and presses reflect the rural identity of the population. In antiquity the remains of
agricultural production and necropolis within the city territoriums are not considered as
destruction of nature but the contribution of human beings to nature.
We learn the first and most important information about the location of Termera from
Strabo9. He says that the city was founded around the Scandaria Cape across from the
Cos Island. According to this, some of the researchers think that it is Aspat Hill on the
8 A.Diler, Olive oil and Wine Production of the Halikarnassos Peninsula in Karia, in: Ü.Aydınoğlu-A.K.Şenol (Eds.)
Olive Oil and Wine Production in Anatolia During Antiquity, International Symposium Proceedings 06-08
Nowember 2008, Mersin, Turkey 2010, 138 f.
9 Strabo, Geographika XIV,II, 18
5
shore across from Cos Island, and others interpret the remains of Asarlık Hill that is 3km
to the north as Termera10. Now let’s take a look at this area: Our case settlement Termera is located on the high hill 3 km inland. The city is surrounded
by fortification walls (fig.8,). The best preserved section of the city walls is on the east
side where the entrance gate is located (fig.9).
On top of the acropolis hill, apart from the rock cut cistern, there are various building
terraces on the upper slopes that run down towards the south Buildings such as
residential structures are situated on the upper slopes going down towards the south and
southwest.
The technique of the fortification walls and the Mycenean traditional form of the
monumental gate show that Asarlık can be dated back to the Archaic Period. On the
settlement territorium (fig.10), on the 2 km long sloped lands starting from the east side
of the walls towards the north, there are farm houses (fig.11) of various scales, mandras,
presses (fig.12) and different types of monumental graves (fig.14,15).
The remains, scattered in a 2 km radius, for the Termera territorium are agricultural
terraces (Fig.10,13). There are also farm houses of different sizes, threshing areas water
wells, wine and oil presses. The necropolis structures are the platform graves and tumuli
widespread in the whole area from the early Iron Age. So we can say that the area was
used as a necropolis and agricultural area according to the topography.
The stone tumuli (tombs) are located overlooking the whole land in the territorium
(fig.14). The platform burials as the oldest grave remains of the settlement give us the
best information about the expansion direction of the territorium. They start 500 m
southeast of the Acropolis hill and are seen on the 2 km long area on the flats and slopes
of the valley, going down South to Aspat Hill. These graves that were used throughout the
early Iron Age are composed of cremation chests, built inside rectangular stone platforms
(fig.15).
We definitely knew the name of the settlement located on the Aspat hill in the Byzantine
period: Strobilos (fig16,17). Strobilos is mentioned quite frequently in Byzantine sources
from the 8th to the 13th centuries and became one of the most important trade and
military bases of the Anatolian shore11.
10 Acccording to Paton-Myres and Bean, Termera is fixed certainly at Asarlık Cf.W.R.Paton-J.L.Myres,
“Researches in Caria”, JHS 9, 1897,1897,46.G.E.Bean- J.M.Cook “The Carian Cost III” BSA 52, 1957,88
11 C. Foss, “Strobilos and Related Sites”, AS, 38(1988), p.148-173.; “March 8 Theophylactus, Bishop of
Nicomedia” S. V. Bulgakov, Handbook for Church Servers, 2nd ed., 1274 pp. (Kharkov, 1900), p. 105.; L.Ryden,
“The Andreas Salos Apocalypse”, DOP, 28(1974), p.197-261.; R. Lyden, “The Date of Life of Andreas Salos” in:
“The Life of Andreas Salos and the Hebrew Vision of Daniel”, DOP, 32(1978), p. 127-155.; S.Viryonis,The
6
The remains that survived until today generally belong to the Byzantine period
settlements. The city is protected by an external and internal fortification wall system.
These city walls have more than one phase, and the main part that is standing now is from
the middle Byzantine and Turkish periods.
The large area around Aspat Hill is ornamented also with agricultural terraces, ancient
farm houses, and presses also reflect the landscape and identity of the settlement in the
Ancient Period like Termera (fig.18).
When we observe the different agricultural and necropolis remains situated on Termera
territorium, we can see that their direction of expansion is towards the south in the
direction of Aspat. The reason for this is that the topography is suitable for both platform
burials and farm houses. And also the blocks used in both the terrace walls and the
building of the platform burials are seen extensively in this area.
Organically connected remains of graves and agricultural structures of Termera extend
600m in the direction of Aspat Hill to the north. The early Iron Age Lelegian compounds,
tower and platform burial show that the land use border or the territorium border of
Termera reached close to Aspat That is why we can claim that the compounds built in the
Lelegian tradition on Tuzla Cape next to the shore (fig.19) and on Zeytinli Hill near
Strabilos (Aspat) were built by the people living in Termera, and Aspat was the harbor of
Asarlık’s Termera city.
The settlement territorium of Aspat that extended towards the north starting from the
Roman and Byzantine Period spread towards Zeytinli Hill. Agricultural activities, oil and
wine production in this territorium continued until the 18th century AD.
As a result, in the light of Termera and Aspat settlement model (fig.20), we may say that
the main type of structures like stone tumuli and platform burials show the influences
of structures from neighboring cultures and have a common Aegean character. Our
Decline of Medieval Hellenism in Asia Minor and the Process of Islamization From the Eleventh through the
Fifteenth Century, London, 1971.; The Life of Lazaros of Mt. Galesion-An Eleventh Century Pillar of Saint,
Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, Washington, D.C. p.81.; K. M. Setton, “Raids of the Muslims
on the Raids of the Muslims in the Eagen in the Night and Tenth Centuries and their Alleged Occupation of
Athens”, AJA, 58(1954), p.318.; G.C.Miles, “Byzantium and the Arabs: Relations Crete and Eagen Area”
DOP18(1964), p.1-32.; R.J.H. Jenkins, “The Chronological Accuracy of the “Logothete” for the Years AD.867-
913”, DOP 19(1965), p.89-112.; “Chrustodoulos: Rule, Testament and Codicil of Christodoulos for the
Monastery of St. John the Theologian on Patmos”, Byzantine Monastic Foundation Documents,
(trans.PatriciaKarlin-Hayter), Washington D.C. 2000, p. 564,565, 581,582.; Evliya Çelebi Seyahatnamesi
(Anadolu, Suriye, Hicaz), Volume 9. , İstanbul 1935.
7
excavations and researches show that the Carians created a civilization with a new
synthesis of the Aegean on one side, Anatolia on the east and Mediterranean on the
other side. And the Carian civilization is formed with the contribution of neighboring
common culture12. The survival of the witnesses of this shared culture create
opportunities today for dialogue with neighboring cultures13 and also create a high
quality cultural heritage tourism projects beyond the ideological, strategic and territorial
for dialog of neighbors as well.
As a result we must say that the role of archaeology is to define the meaning and the
borders of the remains situated in and around the city, and to convey their message to the
society.
Prof.Dr.Adnan DİLER Muğla
University Department of
Archaeology TR-Muğla
12
History has witnessed the movements of large numbers of pepole over vast territories. The coastal cities
of Karia as Halikarnassos was presumably Dorian in origine and was founded by settlers from ancient
Troizen. They had political, cultural, and ethnic ties to Lelegian and island peoples of Crete and Minoan
(D.Magie, Roman Rule in Asia Minor, To the end of the Third Century After Chris, tPrinceton New Jersey, 1950,
54 n.4). According to the Herodotos ( I.171 ), Carians were living in the Islands under the name of Lelegians.
Later with the help of Cretans they became part of the mainland see, Strobon XII 8.5. Lelegians who were
the oldest people settled in Anatolian Aegean. According to our reserches Lelegian Civilization is a civilization
in Anatolia created by the native people and the people coming from the Islands. This civilization was creted
with in the unique nature and topography of the Peninsula . It is unique in its settlement style, architecture as
well as life and burial tradidition.
13 Termera offers some oppurtunity to make high qualty heritage tourism, based on ancient lanscape and
agricultural identity of the areas that supports sustainable preservation of the archaeological sites. A
project, which is being conducted with the support of TUBITAK in Aspat is an agro-tourism project aiming to
protect and sustain the historical, natural and cultural assets and potential of Aspat (Strobilos) and its
surrounding area on the Bodrum Peninsula. Aspat, with its archaeological, natural and ecological assets, is an
important coastal settlement. The Caria region is one of the oldest regions of the world in terms of olive, fig
and vine cultivation. The cultural methods used in growing and processing of these plants are amongst the
oldest known to man. These methods, which will be brought to light by the archaeological findings, could
subsequently be implemented as alternatives to current conventional methods and be useful in
environmentally friendly sustainable agriculture such as organic farming. Within the context of the project,
expert scientists will conduct research into the changes in cultural heritage, the flora and fauna, the coastal
area, the inland area, and the stream (azmak) in order to implement preventive measures designed to save
these assets, especially the native species. For Aspat TUBİTAK project see www.aspatarkeotar.com.
8
List of the Figures
Fig.1: The performance of the nature in the orchestra of Sedir Island theatre.
Fig.2: Rock cut tomb under the thread of modern construction.
Fig.3: Uncontrolled visitor impact on the archaeological heritage. Fig.4:
Illegal excavation vandalism in the Hecatomnos tomb in Mylasa. Fig.5:
Carian inscription and rock cut tombs from Kaunos.
Fig.6: Neo Hittite relief from Ivriz showing the God Tarhundas handing grapes and wheat. Fig.7: Map of Caria and Halikarnassos Peninsula.
Fig.8: Aerial view from Termera.
Fig.9: City wall and main gate of Termera. Fig.10: Map showing the remains of Termera and Aspat (Strobilos).
Fig.11: Aerial view showing the farm hause and platform burials in Termera.
Fig.12: Press weight, press bed and crushing basin from Termera.
Fig.13: Agricultural terraces in the acropolis and territorium of Termera. Fig.14: Stone tumulus tomb from Termera.
Fig.15: Farm hause and platform burial in Termera.
Fig.16: Map showing the remains of Aspat.
Fig.17: Aspat Hill. Fig.18: Oil press installation and farm hause in Aspat.
Fig.19: Compound farm hause and agricultural terraces close to Aspat Hill.
Fig.20: Aerial view showing the land use of Termera and Aspat.
9
Fig.1:The performance of the nature in the orchestra of Sedir Island theatre.
Fig.2: Rock cut tomb under the thread of modern construction.
10
Fig. 3: Uncontrolled visitor impact on the archaeological Heritage.
Fig.4: Illegal excavation Vandalism in the Hecatomnos tomb in Mylasa.
11
Fig.5: Carian inscription and rock cut tombs from Kaunos.
Fig.6: Neo Hittite relief from Ivriz, showing the God Tarhundas handing grapes and wheat.
12
Fig.7: Map of Caria and Halikarnassos Peninsula
Fig.8 : Aerial view from Termera.
13
Fig.9: City wall and main gate of Termera.
Fig.10: Map showing the remains of Termera and Aspat( Strobilos).
14
Fig.11: Aerial view showing the farm hause and platform burials in Termera
Fig.12: Press weight, press bed and crushing basin from Termera
15
Fig.13: Agricultural terraces in the acropolis and territorium of Termera
Fig.14: Stone tumulus tomb from Termera
16
Fig.15: Farm hause and platform burial in Termera.
Fig.16: Map showing the remains of Aspat.
17
Fig.17. Aspat Hill.
Fig.18: Oil press installation and farm hause in Aspat .
18
Fig.19: Compound farm hause and agricultural terraces close to Aspat Hill.
Fig.20: Aerial view showing the land use of Termera and Aspat.