276
LOGICAL STRUCTURE THE OF “Beta” Version By William Thomas and David Kelley Working draft Copyright 1999 OBJECTIVISM

The Logical Structure of Objectivism

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This volume is a working draft, produced for the “Logical Structure ofObjectivism” course at the 1999 Institute for Objectivist Studies Summer Semi-nar.

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  • LOGICAL STRUCTURETHE

    OF

    Beta Version

    By William Thomas and David Kelley

    Working draftCopyright 1999

    O B J E C T I V I S M

  • TABLE OF CONTENTS

    Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i

    Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1T h e S y s t e m a t i c L e v e l o f U n d e r s t a n d i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2T h e S t r u c t u r e o f K n o w l e d g e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7I n d u c t i o n a n d D e d u c t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9C o n t e x t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12D i a g r a m m i n g t h e L o g i c a l S t r u c t u r e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14Notes ......................................................................................... 17

    Chapter 1: Knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19A x i o m s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19P e r c e p t i o n a s t h e B a s i s o f K n o w l e d g e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30K n o w l e d g e i s H i e r a r c h i c a l a n d C o n t e x t u a l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37R e a s o n a n d O b j e c t i v i t y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40E m o t i o n s a n d R e a s o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43Conclusion ................................................................................ 47Notes ......................................................................................... 48

    Chapter 2: Life and Needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51Life as the Ultimate Va l u e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51L i f e a n d H a p p i n e s s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60T h e B a s i c L o g i c a l S t r u c t u r e o f t h e O b j e c t i v i s t E t h i c s . . . . . 64C o n t e x t a n d E t h i c s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66N e e d s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68C a p a c i t i e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71F l o u r i s h i n g a n d S u r v i v a l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72Notes ......................................................................................... 76

    Chapter 3: Material Values and Reason . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

    T h e L o g i c a l S t r u c t u r e o f Va l u e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81T h e R o l e o f R e a s o n i n t h e L o g i c a l S t r u c t u r e o f t h e E t h i c s . . . . . . 84P r o d u c t i o n a n d L i f e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86R e a s o n a n d P r o d u c t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89U n i t - E c o n o m y a n d t h e N e e d f o r R e a s o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92T h i n k i n g i n P r i n c i p l e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

  • Conclusion ................................................................................ 99Notes ......................................................................................... 99

    Chapter 4: Spiritual and Social Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101The Cardinal Va l u e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101Reason as a Cardinal Va l u e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104Purpose as a Cardinal Va l u e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107Self as a Cardinal Va l u e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109Other Spiritual Va l u e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113E d u c a t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113C a r e e r . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115Philosophy as a Va l u e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116Art as a Va l u e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124Social Va l u e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129E c o n o m i c E x c h a n g e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129C o m m u n i c a t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130V i s i b i l i t y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130Conclusion .............................................................................. 134Notes ....................................................................................... 135

    Chapter 5: Virtues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139V i r t u e s a n d C h a r a c t e r . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139R a t i o n a l i t y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140V i r t u e s a n d R a t i o n a l i t y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142I n t e g r i t y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146I n t e g r i t y a n d P r i n c i p l e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147C h a r a c t e r a n d I n t e g r i t y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150Productiveness ........................................................................ 158P r o d u c t i v e W o r k a s O n e s C e n t r a l P u r p o s e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166P r o d u c t i v e n e s s , A c h i e v e m e n t , a n d R e s p o n s i b i l i t y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170Honesty ................................................................................... 173P r i d e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184Conclusion .............................................................................. 190Notes ....................................................................................... 191

    Chapter 6: Social Virtues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197A u t o n o m y : C o g n i t i v e I n d e p e n d e n c e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198J u s t i c e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204M o r a l J u d g m e n t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208T h e T r a d e r P r i n c i p l e ( I n t r o d u c t i o n ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215E l e m e n t s o f t h e T r a d e r P r i n c i p l e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216

  • Non-Self-Sacrifice .................................................................. 217E x i s t e n t i a l I n d e p e n d e n c e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221N o n - C o e r c i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228T h e T r a d e r P r i n c i p l e ( C o n c l u s i o n ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233B e n e v o l e n c e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236Notes ....................................................................................... 240

    Chapter 7: Freedom and Government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245F r e e d o m a n d R i g h t s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246P r o p e r t y R i g h t s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251G o v e r n m e n t a n d L a w . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254Limited Government ............................................................... 261Conclusion .............................................................................. 262Notes ....................................................................................... 263

    Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267F e e d b a c k L o o p s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267A F l o u r i s h i n g L i f e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268L i v i n g P r i n c i p l e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269N o t e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270

    List of Diagrams

    IntroductionL e v e l s o f U n d e r s t a n d i n g D i a g r a m . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3I n d u c t i o n a n d D e d u c t i o n D i a g r a m . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10Needs and Va l u e s D i a g r a m . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14N e e d s a n d A l l a h D i a g r a m . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

    Chapter 1: KnowledgeDiagram 1.1: The Axioms of A w a r e n e s s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20D i a g r a m 1 . 2 : T h e B a s i s o f K n o w l e d g e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31D i a g r a m 1 . 3 : H i e r a r c h y a n d C o n t e x t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38D i a g r a m 1 . 4 : K n o w l e d g e a n d R e a s o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41D i a g r a m 1 . 5 : R e a s o n a n d O b j e c t i v i t y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42D i a g r a m 1 . 6 : E m o t i o n s a n d R e a s o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

  • Chapter 2: Life and NeedsDiagram 2.1: Life and Va l u e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53D i a g r a m 2 . 2 : H a p p i n e s s a n d L i f e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61D i a g r a m 2 . 3 : T h e B a s i c L o g i c a l S t r u c t u r e o f t h e E t h i c s . . . . . . . . . . 65Diagram 2.4: Needs and Va l u e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70Diagram 2.5: Illustration of Ethics as if Based on Flourishing... 74

    Chapter 3: Material Values and ReasonD i a g r a m 3 . 1 : T h e L o g i c a l S t r u c t u r e o f Va l u e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82D i a g r a m 3 . 2 : P r o d u c t i o n a n d N e e d s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86D i a g r a m 3 . 3 : R e a s o n a n d P r o d u c t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91D i a g r a m 3 . 4 : U n i t E c o n o m y a n d R e a s o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94D i a g r a m 3 . 5 : P r i n c i p l e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

    Chapter 4: Spiritual ValuesDiagram 4.1: Cardinal Va l u e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102D i a g r a m 4 . 2 : C a r d i n a l Va l u e s a n d P h i l o s o p h y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117D i a g r a m 4 . 3 : C o n t e x t a n d P h i l o s o p h y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122D i a g r a m 4 . 4 : A r t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127D i a g r a m 4 . 5 : V i s i b i l i t y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131

    Chapter 5: VirtuesD i a g r a m 5 . 1 : R a t i o n a l i t y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142D i a g r a m 5 . 2 : P r i n c i p l e s a n d I n t e g r i t y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149Diagram 5.3: Character as a Va l u e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152D i a g r a m 5 . 4 : C h a r a c t e r a n d I n t e g r i t y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156D i a g r a m 5 . 5 : P r o d u c t i v e n e s s a n d M a t e r i a l Va l u e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161D i a g r a m 5 . 6 : P r o d u c t i v e W o r k a s O n e s C e n t r a l P u r p o s e . . 167D i a g r a m 5 . 7 : P r o d u c t i v e n e s s a n d R e s p o n s i b i l i t y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171D i a g r a m 5 . 8 : H o n e s t y a n d R a t i o n a l i t y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174D i a g r a m 5 . 9 : H o n e s t y a n d D e c e p t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178D i a g r a m 5 . 1 0 : P r i d e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186

    Chapter 6: Social VirtuesD i a g r a m 6 . 1 : C o g n i t i v e I n d e p e n d e n c e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201D i a g r a m 6 . 2 : J u s t i c e a n d R a t i o n a l i t y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205D i a g r a m 6 . 3 : M o r a l J u d g m e n t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209D i a g r a m 6 . 4 : T r a d e : N o n - S e l f - S a c r i f i c e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218D i a g r a m 6 . 5 : T r a d e : E x i s t e n t i a l I n d e p e n d e n c e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223D i a g r a m 6 . 6 : T r a d e : N o n - C o e r c i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229

  • D i a g r a m 6 . 7 : T r a d e r P r i n c i p l e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234D i a g r a m 6 . 8 : B e n e v o l e n c e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236

    Chapter 7: Freedom and GovernmentD i a g r a m 7 . 1 : F r e e d o m a n d R i g h t s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248D i a g r a m 7 . 2 : P r o p e r t y R i g h t s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253D i a g r a m 7 . 3 : G o v e r n m e n t a n d L a w . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257D i a g r a m 7 . 4 : G o v e r n m e n t a n d E f f e c t i v e n e s s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260D i a g r a m 7 . 5 : L i m i t e d G o v e r n m e n t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262

  • The Logical Structure

    of Objectivism

    B e t a Version

    By William Thomas and David Kelley

  • P r e f a c e t o t h e B e t a Ve r s i o n

    T h i s v o l u m e i s a w o r k i n g d r a f t , p r o d u c e d f o r t h e L o g i c a l S t r u c t u r e o f

    Objectivism course at the 1999 Institute for Objectivist Studies Summer Semi-

    nar. The purpose of the beta version is to provide the course participants with

    a t e x t b o o k , a n d t o a l l o w u s , t h e a u t h o r s , t o o b t a i n a w i d e r r e a d e r r e s p o n s e b e -

    f o r e w e d o o u r f i n a l r e v i s i o n s o n t h e f i r s t e d i t i o n . I n e f f e c t , w e a r e i n v i t i n g t h e

    c o u r s e p a r t i c i p a n t s t o c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e r e - w r i t i n g p r o c e s s .

    R e a d e r s m a y n o t i c e t h a t t h i s i s a r o u g h d o c u m e n t i n s e v e r a l r e s p e c t s .

    T h e e a r l i e r c h a p t e r s a r e m o r e p o l i s h e d t h a t t h e l a t e r o n e s . T h e n o t e s a r e s t i l l

    i n c o m p l e t e , a n d a l t h o u g h i t i s m e n t i o n e d a t s e v e r a l p o i n t s i n t h e t e x t , t h e r e i s a s

    y e t n o f o l d o u t d i a g r a m t o s h o w t h e e n t i r e p a t t e r n o f a r g u m e n t i n o n e p a g e .

    T h e t e x t h a s n o t r e c e i v e d t h e m e t i c u l o u s p r o o f - r e a d i n g f o r t y p o g r a p h i c a l e r r o r s

    t h a t o n e e x p e c t s o f a b o o k p u b l i s h e d f o r s a l e . A l l t h e s e s h o r t c o m i n g s a r e t h e

    s i g n o f a w o r k - i n - p r o g r e s s . A s s u c h , t h i s b e t a v e r s i o n i s n o t f o r r e s a l e o r

    s c h o l a r l y c i t a t i o n . O f c o u r s e , a l l r i g h t s t o t h e t e x t a n d d i a g r a m s a r e r e s e r v e d .

    N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h i s v e r s i o n i s t h e p r o d u c t o f a t h o r o u g h c o m p o s i t i o n

    p r o c e s s , a n d i t i s e s s e n t i a l l y s o u n d . W e s t a n d b e h i n d t h e l o g i c o f t h e a r g u m e n t s

    a n d t h e a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s o f t h e e v i d e n c e o n w h i c h t h e y a r e b a s e d . A l t h o u g h w e

    a n t i c i p a t e f u r t h e r r e v i s i o n s b e f o r e p u b l i c a t i o n , w e e x p e c t t h e s e t o b e l a r g e l y

    s t y l i s t i c . T h e b e t a v e r s i o n i s h o m e c o o k i n g , b u t i t i s a n i n t e l l e c t u a l m e a l f o r

    a l l t h a t .

    B u t f i r s t , a w o r d o f t h a n k s : W e a r e e s p e c i a l l y g r a t e f u l f o r t h e c o m -

    ments and support we have received from Frank Bubb, Eyal Mozes, David Ross,

    R o g e r D o n w a y , a n d D o n a l d H e a t h , a n d a l s o f o r t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n s o f m a n y o t h -

    e r s . W e t h a n k t h e m f o r t h e i m p r o v e m e n t s t h a t h a v e r e s u l t e d f r o m t h e i r c o m -

    m e n t s , b u t , t o p r a c t i c e w h a t w e p r e a c h , w e t a k e f u l l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t h e f i n a l

    p r o d u c t .

    F e e l f r e e t o d i g i n .

    W i l l i a m T h o m a s a n d D a v i d K e l l e y

    J u n e 5 , 1 9 9 9

    i

  • INTRODUCTION

    P e o p l e w h o f i r s t r e a d a n Ay n R a n d n o v e l a r e l i k e l y t o b e s t r u c k b y t w o c h a r a c -

    t e r i s t i c s o f h e r w r i t i n g . T h e f i r s t i s i t s e v o c a t i v e p o w e r : R a n d d e s c r i b e s a s c e n e

    s o v i v i d l y t h a t , l a t e r , y o u r e m e m b e r i t a s i f y o u h a d l i v e d i t . T h i s a r t i s t r y c a n b e

    s e e n i n h e r a b i l i t y t o e x p r e s s a m o o d o r p e r s o n a l i t y i n a s i n g l e d e t a i l a n d h e r

    m e t h o d o f c a p t u r i n g a c o m p l e x i d e a i n a s t a r k , d r a m a t i c s y m b o l .

    B u t a n A y n R a n d n o v e l i s a l s o s t r i k i n g f o r t h e l o g i c a l p o w e r o f h e r

    i d e a s . R a n d s n a r r a t i v e s a r e h e r m e a n s o f p r e s e n t i n g a p h i l o s o p h y , a n d t h a t p h i -

    losophy comes across with the persuasive power of a locomotive barreling down

    a t r a c k . H e r i d e a s d r a w o n e i n w i t h t h e i r i r r e s i s t i b l e l o g i c : t h e w a y o n e i d e a

    l e a d s t o t h e n e x t ; t h e w a y t h e a n s w e r t o o n e q u e s t i o n l e a d s t o a n o t h e r q u e s t i o n

    t h a t i s a n s w e r e d i n t u r n ; t h e w a y i s s u e s t h a t a t f i r s t s e e m u n r e l a t e d a r e r e v e a l e d

    a s i n s t a n c e s o f a s i n g l e c o n c e p t ; t h e w a y e a c h e l e m e n t i n t h e p h i l o s o p h y d o v e -

    t a i l s w i t h e v e r y o t h e r .

    T h e r e a r e m a n y n o v e l i s t s w i t h t h e a b i l i t y t o w r i t e e v o c a t i v e , d r a m a t i c

    n a r r a t i v e s ; i t i s t h e s t r e n g t h o f t h e i d e a s w i t h i n t h e n a r r a t i v e t h a t m a k e s R a n d s

    n o v e l s s t a n d o u t . T h e i r e n d u r i n g p o p u l a r i t y a n d t h e i m p a c t t h e y h a v e h a d o n s o

    m a n y l i v e s r e s u l t f r o m b o t h h e r l i t e r a r y a b i l i t y a n d t h e l o g i c a l p o w e r o f h e r

    philosophy.

    T h e g o a l o f t h i s b o o k i s t o p l a c e t h a t l o g i c a l p o w e r w i t h i n y o u r g r a s p .

    To do this, we will lay out the structure of Objectivism, the basic anatomy of the

    s y s t e m . W e w i l l e x a m i n e t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s a m o n g i t s c e n t r a l i d e a s , f r o m t h e

    a x i o m s o f m e t a p h y s i c s a n d e p i s t e m o l o g y t o t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f p o l i t i c a l p h i l o s o -

    p h y , a n d t h e e v i d e n c e t h a t e a c h i d e a r e q u i r e s f o r i t s v a l i d a t i o n . T h i s a m o u n t s t o

    a n u n p r e c e d e n t e d e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e p o s i t i v e c o n t e n t o f O b j e c t i v i s m a s d i s -

    t i n c t f r o m c r i t i c i s m s o f c u l t u r a l t r e n d s o r o t h e r p h i l o s o p h i e s a t a h i g h l e v e l o f

    t h o r o u g h n e s s a n d p r e c i s i o n .

    O b j e c t i v i s m i s a t o p i c o n e c a n s t u d y a t m a n y d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s , f r o m t h e

    m o s t i n t r o d u c t o r y t o t h e m o s t a d v a n c e d . S o m e c r i t i c s d e s c r i b e O b j e c t i v i s m a s

    s i m p l e - m i n d e d , b u t t h e s u b t l e t y o f R a n d s i d e a s b e l i e s t h i s a s s e s s m e n t . I n f a c t ,

    t h e s e i d e a s a r e r e m a r k a b l e f o r t h e f r e s h a p p r o a c h t h e y b r i n g t o t h e t r a d i t i o n a l

    p r o b l e m s o f p h i l o s o p h y . T h e y o f f e r s o l u t i o n s w i t h t h e t e c h n i c a l s o p h i s t i c a t i o n

    to cut through tangles that have defied the great thinkers of history and continue

    t o b e d e v i l s c h o l a r s t o d a y . S o l v i n g t h e p r o b l e m o f u n i v e r s a l s , a n d b r i d g i n g t h e

    i s - o u g h t g a p , a r e n o t s i g n s o f a s i m p l e - m i n d e d s c h o o l o f t h o u g h t . O n t h e

    o t h e r h a n d , i t i s t r u e t h a t O b j e c t i v i s m i s i n t e l l i g i b l e t o n o n - i n t e l l e c t u a l s . B e -

    cause its principles are based in the facts of reality, they often have the appeal of

    c o m m o n s e n s e .

    I n t h i s b o o k , w e o b v i o u s l y c a n n o t l a y o u t t h e f u l l e x t e n t o f O b j e c t i v i s t

  • 2 / Introduction

    t h o u g h t i n a l l i t s c o m p l e x i t y , a d d r e s s i n g e v e r y t e c h n i c a l i s s u e , p u r s u i n g e v e r y

    derivative application, exploring every new topic that further research suggests.

    T h a t w o u l d b e f a r b e y o n d t h e s c o p e o f a n y o n e v o l u m e . B u t s u c h a n e x h a u s t i v e

    survey of the philosophy is not our aim. Rather, we seek to give you the philoso-

    p h y i n o v e r v i e w ; i f n o t i n o n e g l a n c e , t h e n i n o n e f l o w o f r e a s o n i n g . T h e f o l d -

    o u t d i a g r a m i n t h e f l y l e a f , w h i c h b e g i n s w i t h k n o w l e d g e a n d e n d s w i t h g o v e r n -

    m e n t , r e p r e s e n t s t h a t f l o w .

    On the other hand, as the complexity of the fold-out diagram indicates,

    t h i s i s n o t a n i n t r o d u c t i o n t o O b j e c t i v i s m . T o b e a b l e t o g r a s p t h e m a t e r i a l t h i s

    b o o k h a s t o o f f e r , y o u w i l l n e e d t o b e f a m i l i a r w i t h Ay n R a n d s e s s e n t i a l w r i t -

    i n g s . T h e s e i n c l u d e n o t o n l y R a n d s f i c t i o n e s p e c i a l l y The Fountainhead andAtlas Shrugged b u t a l s o t h e n o n f i c t i o n e s s a y s i n The Virtue of Selfishness ,a n d o t h e r e s s a y s s u c h a s W h a t i s C a p i t a l i s m ,

    1

    Philosophy , W h o N e e d s I t ?

    C a u s a l i t y v e r s u s D u t y ,

    2

    a n d T h e P s y c h o - E p i s t e m o l o g y o f A r t

    3

    i n o t h e r

    v o l u m e s . T h e s e w o r k s b y R a n d w i l l p r o v i d e t h e r e a d e r w i t h t h e n e c e s s a r y p r e -

    r e q u i s i t e : a f a m i l i a r i t y w i t h t h e c o r e i d e a s i n e a c h a r e a o f t h e p h i l o s o p h y , a n d

    w i t h t h e b a s i c w a y i n w h i c h t h e a r e a s r e l a t e , w i t h p o l i t i c s d e p e n d i n g o n e t h i c s ,

    which in turn depends on epistemology and metaphysics. We will analyze philo-

    sophical arguments using the simple diagramming technique presented in David

    K e l l e y s The Art of Reasoning. C h a p t e r 5 o f t h a t b o o k o f f e r s i n s t r u c t i o n i n b a s i ca r g u m e n t a n a l y s i s f o r t h o s e w h o a r e u n f a m i l i a r w i t h i t .

    4

    I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e s e p r e r e q u i s i t e s , w e w i l l f r e q u e n t l y h a v e o c c a s i o n t o

    r e f e r t o o t h e r m a j o r w o r k s i n t h e O b j e c t i v i s t l i t e r a t u r e , i n c l u d i n g L e o n a r d

    Peikoffs survey Objectivism, the Philosophy of Ayn Rand, 5 Nathaniel Brandensw o r k o n t h e t h e o r y o f s e l f - e s t e e m

    6

    a n d D a v i d K e l l e y s m o n o g r a p h s Truth andToleration7 and Unrugged Individualism . 8 W e w i l l a l s o t o u c h o n c e r t a i n i s s u e st h a t h a v e a r i s e n i n t h e d e v e l o p i n g s c h o l a r s h i p o n O b j e c t i v i s m a n d r e l a t e d i d e a s .

    T h e r e a d e r w h o i s c u r i o u s t o p u r s u e t h e s e i s s u e s , o r o t h e r t e c h n i c a l a s p e c t s o f

    p h i l o s o p h y , w i l l f i n d c i t a t i o n s o f u s e f u l l i t e r a t u r e i n t h e n o t e s .

    The Systematic Level of UnderstandingT h e p u r p o s e o f t h i s b o o k i s t o d e e p e n y o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e s t r u c -

    t u r e o f O b j e c t i v i s m : h o w i t s p r i n c i p l e s f i t t o g e t h e r , a n d w h a t e v i d e n c e e a c h o f

    t h e m r e q u i r e s . W h e n y o u g r a s p t h e p h i l o s o p h y a t t h i s l e v e l , y o u w i l l h a v e a

    s y s t e m a t i c u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f i t .

    T h e s y s t e m a t i c l e v e l i s o n e o f t h r e e e s s e n t i a l l e v e l s a t w h i c h o n e c a n

    u n d e r s t a n d a s u b j e c t . T h i s a p p l i e s t o t h e g r a s p o f p h y s i c s a s m u c h a s t o p h i l o s o -

    p h y . T h e f i r s t l e v e l , i n o r d e r o f c o m p l e x i t y , i s a n intuitive r e s o n a n c e , b a s e d o nones subconscious integration of accumulated information and experience. This

    i s t h e l e v e l o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g t y p i c a l o f a f i r s t - t i m e r e a d e r o f R a n d s n o v e l s w h o

    r e s p o n d s w i t h a g u t r e a c t i o n t h a t t h e i d e a s a r e t r u e a n d i m p o r t a n t . I n

  • 3 /

    physics, the intuitive level is represented by our common-sense familiarity with

    g r a v i t y a n d m o m e n t u m

    T h e s e c o n d l e v e l i s systematic understanding, in which one can formu-l a t e t h e p r i n c i p l e s e x p l i c i t l y a n d r e l a t e t h e m l o g i c a l l y t o o t h e r p r i n c i p l e s a n d

    d a t a . I n p h y s i c s , t h i s i s t h e k i n d o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g o n e g a i n s f r o m a n i n t r o d u c -

    t o r y c o u r s e i n p h y s i c s , w h i c h e n a b l e s o n e t o s t a t e N e w t o n s l a w s o f m o t i o n ,

    Einsteins insights on the relationship between gravity and space-time, and their

    r e l a t i o n t o e v e r y d a y e x p e r i e n c e . I n r e g a r d t o O b j e c t i v i s m , t h e s y s t e m a t i c l e v e l

    g i v e s o n e t h e a b i l i t y t o g r a s p i t s p r i n c i p l e s e x p l i c i t l y , d i s t i n g u i s h i n g t h e e s s e n -

    t i a l f r o m t h e p e r i p h e r a l o n e s a n d u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e i r l o g i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s .

    T h e t h i r d a n d m o s t c o m p l e x l e v e l i s scholarly understanding, in whicho n e d e v e l o p s a n a p p r e c i a t i o n o f t h e t e c h n i c a l i s s u e s p e r t a i n i n g t o t h e f o r m u l a -

    t i o n a n d v a l i d a t i o n o f t h e m a t e r i a l . A t r a i n e d , p r o f e s s i o n a l p h y s i c i s t , f o r e x -

    ample, is knowledgeable about the form of mathematics that Einstein employed

    t o m o d e l R e l a t i v i t y, and is able to relate it to the standard manner of formulating

    N e w t o n s L a w s . S i m i l a r l y , a p h i l o s o p h e r s u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f O b j e c t i v i s m i n -

    c l u d e s a w e a l t h o f s c h o l a r l y k n o w l e d g e t h a t g o e s b e y o n d t h e s y s t e m a t i c l e v e l .

    E a c h o f t h e s e l e v e l s r e p r e s e n t s a d i s t i n c t w a y o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g a s e t o f

    ideas. What is the cognitive value of each of these levels? How thoroughly must

    o n e g r a s p a b o d y o f p r i n c i p l e s i n o r d e r t o b e s u r e o f t h e m ?

    The intuitive level is quite useful. With only an intuitive understanding

    The Systematic Level of Understanding

    Levels of Understanding

    Intuitive

    Systematic

    Scholarly

    U n r e f l e c t i v e a c c e p t a n c e

    o f a p r i n c i p l e , b a s e d o n

    the subconscious integra-

    tion of a mass of accumu-

    lated information and ex-

    perience.

    Ability to formulate prin-

    ciples explicitly and relate

    t h e m l o g i c a l l y t o o t h e r

    p r i n c i p l e s a n d d a t a .

    I s s u e s p e r t a i n i n g t o t h e

    f o r m u l a t i o n a n d v a l i d a -

    t i o n o f t h e p r i n c i p l e s .

    Physics: Common-senseexperience of gravity.

    Ability to state the law of

    gravity and its relation to

    other laws.

    Physicists knowledge of

    gravitational theory.

    Philosophy: Gut reac-tion to Rands novels.

    K n o w l e d g e o f c e n t r a l

    principles of Objectivism

    and their logical relation-

    ships.

    P h i l o s o p h e r s u n d e r -

    standing of Objectivism.

  • 4 / Introduction

    o f g r a v i t y , f o r i n s t a n c e , p r e - m o d e r n p e o p l e w e r e a b l e t o b u i l d b r i d g e s , s h o o t

    arrows, and undertake other tasks requiring knowledge of gravity. In fact, we all

    h a v e t o r e l y t o s o m e e x t e n t o n i n t u i t i v e u n d e r s t a n d i n g , b e c a u s e w e c a n t s t o p t o

    r e a s o n o u t e v e r y i s s u e a n d e v e r y e v e n t s i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r a l l o u r b e l i e f s , a t e v -

    e r y i n s t a n t . W h e n w e m e e t a s t r a n g e r , f o r e x a m p l e , w e h a v e t o r e l y o n o u r e x p e -

    rience of similar-seeming people to know how to act. In the short run, this knowl-

    edge is only available subconsciously: we dont have time to consciously inven-

    t o r y o u r p a s t e x p e r i e n c e b e f o r e w e d e c i d e w h e t h e r t o s m i l e a t s o m e o n e o r n o t .

    M o s t p e o p l e h o l d t h e i r f u n d a m e n t a l e t h i c a l a n d m e t a p h y s i c a l b e l i e f s

    a t t h e i n t u i t i v e l e v e l , a n d i t i s t o t h i s l e v e l o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h a t m o s t p o p u l a r

    p h i l o s o p h i e s a n d r e l i g i o n s a p p e a l . A n i d e a s e e m s i n t u i t i v e b e c a u s e i t r e s o n a t e s

    w i t h o u r e x p e r i e n c e a n d o u r s e n s e o f l i f e , a n d w e c a n t h e r e b y d e v e l o p a p r o -

    f o u n d , g u t s e n s e o f i t s t r u t h o r f a l s i t y , o f r i g h t a n d w r o n g . A n i n t u i t i v e g r a s p

    o f a n i d e a f e e l s s t r o n g , a n d i t r e l a t e s t o t h e f a c t s t h r o u g h o u r s u b c o n s c i o u s i n t e -

    g r a t i o n o f o u r o w n e x p e r i e n c e s . I t s s u b c o n s c i o u s , f e l t c h a r a c t e r i s t h e s o u r c e o f

    i t s e m o t i o n a l s t r e n g t h , b u t i s a l s o t h e s o u r c e o f i t s l i m i t a t i o n s .

    A f e l t o r i n t u i t i v e c e r t a i n t y i s n o t t h e s a m e a s r e a l , e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l

    c e r t a i n t y , t h e c e r t a i n t y o n e a c q u i r e s t h r o u g h c o n s c i o u s l y c o n s i d e r i n g t h e f a c t s .

    F o r e x a m p l e , t h e r e a r e m a n y p e o p l e t o w h o m i t s e e m s i n t u i t i v e l y o b v i o u s t h a t

    t h e g o v e r n m e n t s h o u l d t a k e s o m e m o n e y f r o m t h e r i c h a n d g i v e i t t o t h e p o o r .

    A n d t h e r e a r e a l s o q u i t e a f e w t o w h o m i t s e e m s i n t u i t i v e l y o b v i o u s t h a t i t i s

    s i n f u l l y s e l f - i n d u l g e n t t o h a v e s e x f o r t h e s a k e o f e n j o y m e n t , a n d n o t f o r t h e

    s a k e o f c o n c e i v i n g c h i l d r e n . I n f a c t , t h e r e a r e m a n y m o r e p e o p l e w i t h i n t u i t i v e

    b e l i e f s o f t h i s s o r t t h a n t h e r e a r e t h o s e w h o s y m p a t h i z e w i t h O b j e c t i v i s m .

    T h e i n t u i t i v e l e v e l e n a b l e s u s t o r e a c t t o i d e a s , b u t r a r e l y t o i n i t i a t e

    new ones. Many people say that when they first read Ay n R a n d , t h e y r e c o g n i z e d

    h e r i d e a s a s s o m e t h i n g t h e y h a d a l w a y s b e l i e v e d b u t w e r e u n a b l e t o a r t i c u l a t e

    o n t h e i r o w n . B u t i t c a n n o t l i t e r a l l y b e t r u e t h a t t h e y h a d g r a s p e d t h e i d e a s

    b e f o r e t h e y r e a d R a n d : i f o n e c a n n o t f o r m u l a t e a n i d e a f o r o n e s e l f , t h e n i t c a n -

    n o t b e a g e n u i n e c o n v i c t i o n . A t t h e i n t u i t i v e l e v e l o n e c a n respond t o i d e a s :r e c o g n i z i n g s o m e a s a c c e p t a b l e , r e j e c t i n g o t h e r s . B u t t h e l i m i t a t i o n s o f t h i s

    l e v e l b e c o m e o b v i o u s a s s o o n a s o n e t r i e s t o e x p l a i n s o m e t h i n g t o s o m e o n e

    e l s e o r e v e n t o o n e s e l f .

    T h e s y s t e m a t i c l e v e l r e p r e s e n t s a f o r m o f k n o w l e d g e t h a t o v e r c o m e s

    t h e s e l i m i t a t i o n s . I t a l l o w s o n e n o t m e r e l y t o f e e l t h e t r u t h o f o n e s i d e a s , b u t t o

    demonstrate it. It allows one to see weaknesses in ones own beliefs, and formu-

    l a t e n e w i d e a s t o f i l l t h o s e g a p s . T h e s y s t e m a t i c l e v e l c o n s i s t s i n k n o w i n g h o w

    t o f o r m u l a t e p r i n c i p l e s a n d h o w t o r e l a t e t h e m l o g i c a l l y t o e a c h o t h e r a n d t h e

    f a c t s . T h i s g i v e s o n e t h e k n o w l e d g e o f why o n e b e l i e v e s w h a t o n e d o e s , a n dt h u s p r o v i d e s c e r t a i n t y n o t t h e f e l t c e r t a i n t y o f i n t u i t i o n , b u t t h e c o g n i t i v e

    c e r t a i n t y t h a t c o m e s f r o m proof.S y s t e m a t i c u n d e r s t a n d i n g i s a l s o i m p o r t a n t f o r a p p l y i n g o n e s i d e a s t o

  • 5 /

    d i f f e r e n t c o n t e x t s , a n d f o r r e s o l v i n g a p p a r e n t c o n f l i c t s a m o n g p r i n c i p l e s . W h e n

    it is not obvious how to apply a principle, or which principle to apply, one has to

    t h i n k t h e m a t t e r t h r o u g h . T h a t i s w h e n o n e n e e d s a b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h a n

    i n t u i t i o n p r o v i d e s . F o r i n s t a n c e , h o n e s t y i s a v i r t u e w i t h a g r e a t d e a l o f i n t u i t i v e

    support, as evidenced by the fact that many different ethical systems have advo-

    cated it. But how does the principle of honesty apply to a case in which one may

    h a r m o n e s e l f b y t e l l i n g t h e t r u t h ? T o k n o w w h a t t o d o i n s u c h a c a s e o n e n e e d s

    t o k n o w p r e c i s e l y w h a t t h i s v i r t u e r e q u i r e s a n d h o w i t s e r v e s o n e s v a l u e s . B u t

    t h i s i n t u r n r e q u i r e s a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f o n e s v a l u e s , a n d h o w t h e y r e l a t e t o

    o n e s v i r t u e s . I t i s o n l y a t t h e s y s t e m a t i c l e v e l t h a t o n e c a n f o r m u l a t e s u c h a n

    inquiry clearly.

    A s y s t e m a t i c u n d e r s t a n d i n g i s e s p e c i a l l y i m p o r t a n t t o s o m e o n e w h o

    w a n t s t o c o m m u n i c a t e i d e a s . T o e x p l a i n a b o d y o f p r i n c i p l e s l i k e O b j e c t i v i s m ,

    o n e n e e d s t o b e a b l e t o c o n v e y t h e p r i n c i p l e s a n d t h e r e a s o n i n g b e h i n d t h e m

    w i t h c l a r i t y a n d p r e c i s i o n . T o d e v e l o p t h o s e s k i l l s , o n e n e e d s a k i n d o f m e n t a l

    m a p o f t h e p r i n c i p l e s a n d a r g u m e n t s . B y w a y o f a n a l o g y , c o n s i d e r t h e p r o c e s s

    o f l e a r n i n g t o d r a w . A l l o f u s c a n r e c o g n i z e a h u m a n f o r m w h e n w e s e e o n e , b u t

    d r a w i n g i t i s m u c h h a r d e r . F o r t h a t , o n e n e e d s t o l e a r n t h e u n d e r l y i n g a n a t o m y .

    O n e m e a n s o f s p r e a d i n g i d e a s i s t h r o u g h p o l e m i c s . P o l e m i c a l a r g u -

    m e n t s seem s i m p l e a n d d i r e c t , b u t g o o d o n e s r e s t o n a d e e p e r f o u n d a t i o n o fthought. To be a successful polemicist, one needs to identify the essential issues

    a t s t a k e i n a d e b a t e , a n d t h e o n l y m e a n s o f d o i n g s o i s b y u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e

    l o g i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n t h e m . I n p o l i t i c a l a r g u m e n t s , f o r e x a m p l e , m a n y

    a d v o c a t e s o f l a i s s e z - f a i r e c a p i t a l i s m g e t h u n g u p o v e r d e t a i l s s u c h a s h o w t o

    f i n a n c e a g o v e r n m e n t i n a f r e e s o c i e t y , d e s p i t e t h e f a c t t h a t t h i s i s s u e i s p r e t t y

    f a r d o w n t h e l o g i c a l c h a i n . I m a g i n e y o u a r e d e b a t i n g t h e m e r i t s o f c a p i t a l i s m

    w i t h s o m e o n e a n d t h i s i s s u e c o m e s u p . I f t h i s i s y o u r o p p o n e n t s o n l y o b j e c t i o n

    t o c o m p l e t e , l a i s s e z - f a i r e c a p i t a l i s m , t h e n t h e a r g u m e n t i s w o n . I s y o u r o p p o -

    nent going to argue for the welfare state because he opposes taxation? Not likely.U s u a l l y , y o u w i l l f i n d t h a t y o u r o p p o n e n t h a s m u c h m o r e f u n d a m e n t a l o b j e c -

    t i o n s t o l a i s s e z - f a i r e : these a r e t h e i s s u e s y o u s h o u l d a d d r e s s . A s y s t e m a t i c u n -d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e p r i n c i p l e s i n v o l v e d w i l l a l l o w y o u t o f o r e s e e w h a t t h o s e i s -

    s u e s a r e a n d d i r e c t y o u r p o l e m i c s t o a d d r e s s i n g t h e m i n a c o n v i n c i n g m a n n e r .

    I n s h o r t , t o d e v e l o p a s o l i d , c o g n i t i v e c e r t a i n t y a b o u t o n e s p r i n c i p l e s ,

    t o b e a b l e t o a p p l y t h e m c o n f i d e n t l y t o v a r y i n g c i r c u m s t a n c e s , a n d t o b e a b l e t o

    communicate them effectively, one needs understand them systematically. That

    i s w h a t i s w h a t t h i s b o o k i s d e s i g n e d t o h e l p y o u a c h i e v e .

    T h e S c h o l a r l y l e v e l o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g i s s i m i l a r t o t h e s y s t e m a t i c i n i t s

    c o n c e p t u a l a n d l o g i c a l c h a r a c t e r . I n a s e n s e , i t i s t h e e x t e n s i o n o f s y s t e m a t i c

    u n d e r s t a n d i n g : a t s o m e p o i n t , a s o n e l e a r n s m o r e a n d m o r e a b o u t a s y s t e m o f

    i d e a s , t h e l e v e l o f d e t a i l a n d f o c u s o f o n e s t h i n k i n g a n d k n o w l e d g e b e c o m e

    scholarly. The difference between the two levels is quantitative, not qualitative,

    The Systematic Level of Understanding

  • 6 / Introduction

    y e t i t i s s i g n i f i c a n t .

    F o r e x a m p l e , m u c h s c h o l a r l y w o r k i n O b j e c t i v i s m i s f o c u s e d o n r e l a -

    t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n O b j e c t i v i s m a n d o t h e r p o s i t i o n s i n p h i l o s o p h y , b o t h h i s t o r i -

    cal and contemporary. While some appreciation of these details is important for

    o r d i n a r y p u r p o s e s , t h e y a r e u s u a l l y o f c o n c e r n t o p e o p l e w i t h a m o r e s p e c i a l -

    i z e d i n t e r e s t i n t h e m . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e t h e o r y o f a b s t r a c -

    tion, from Plato and Aristotle through the Medievals to the Moderns, is an inter-

    e s t i n g s t o r y , b u t i s o f t h e s a m e p r a c t i c a l i m p o r t a s t h e h i s t o r y o f s c i e n t i f i c t h e o -

    r i e s : i t i s n o t n e c e s s a r y t o a s o l i d u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f w h a t a b s t r a c t i o n a c t u a l l y i s .

    S c h o l a r l y w o r k a l s o t e n d s t o d e a l w i t h m o r e s u b t l e i s s u e s a b o u t e x a c t

    f o r m u l a t i o n s o f p r i n c i p l e s , a n d t h e l o g i c a l d e t a i l s o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s a m o n g

    t h e m . T h e s e a r e i m p o r t a n t i s s u e s , a n d a p h i l o s o p h y t h a t c a n n o t t r e a t t h e m s a t i s -

    f a c t o r i l y w i l l a l w a y s r e m a i n s u b j e c t t o r e f u t a t i o n . W e w i l l b e d i s c u s s i n g s o m e

    o f t h e d e v e l o p m e n t s i n t h e s c h o l a r l y l i t e r a t u r e o n O b j e c t i v i s m , e s p e c i a l l y t h o s e

    t h a t r a i s e a n i s s u e o f f o r m u l a t i o n o r j u s t i f i c a t i o n t h a t h a s s i g n i f i c a n t i m p l i c a -

    t i o n s f o r t h e r e s t o f t h e s y s t e m . H o w e v e r , m o s t i s s u e s o f f o r m u l a t i o n a n d i n t e r -

    p r e t a t i o n a t t h e s c h o l a r l y l e v e l a r e n o t v i t a l t o o n e s u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f , o r l e g i t i -

    m a t e c e r t a i n t y a b o u t , t h e m a i n p o i n t s o f t h e p h i l o s o p h y . T h e s c h o l a r s k n o w l -

    e d g e i s s i m p l y m o r e d e t a i l e d , t h o r o u g h a n d , a t t i m e s , e s o t e r i c .

    The focus of this book is the positive content of Objectivism: the claims

    i t m a k e s a b o u t r e a l i t y , h u m a n n a t u r e , v a l u e s , a n d s o c i e t y . T h e o t h e r s y s t e m a t i c

    s u r v e y s o f O b j e c t i v i s m n o t a b l y N a t h a n i e l B r a n d e n s a n d L e o n a r d P e i k o f f s

    t a p e d l e c t u r e c o u r s e s , P e i k o f f s t e x t Objectivism , a n d o f c o u r s e , Ay n R a n d so w n s u m m a r y i n J o h n G a l t s s p e e c h i n Atlas Shrugged a l l p l a c e a s u b s t a n t i a la m o u n t o f e m p h a s i s o n c r i t i c i z i n g c o n t e m p o r a r y c u l t u r e a n d n o n - O b j e c t i v i s t

    p h i l o s o p h i c a l v i e w p o i n t s . F o r e x a m p l e , o n l y t h e f i r s t t h i r d o f G a l t s s p e e c h i s

    d e v o t e d t o l a y i n g o u t R a n d s p h i l o s o p h y . T h e o t h e r t w o - t h i r d s a m o u n t s t o a n

    extended critique of the altruist-collectivist axis in Western thought. In the other

    s u r v e y s , t h i s c r i t i q u e i s a d m i x e d l i b e r a l l y i n t o t h e b o d y o f t h e e x p o s i t i o n .

    T h e p r e s e n t w o r k d i f f e r s f r o m t h e s e i n b e i n g d e v o t e d t o t h e p o s i t i v e

    c o n t e n t o f O b j e c t i v i s m . T h e O b j e c t i v i s t c r i t i q u e o f m y s t i c i s m a n d a l t r u i s m , a n d

    o f t h e i r d e l e t e r i o u s i m p a c t o n W e s t e r n c u l t u r e , o r t h e e n u m e r a t i o n o f t h e f a i l -

    i n g s o f t h e m i x e d e c o n o m y , a r e w o r t h y p o l e m i c a l t o p i c s , b u t o u t s i d e t h e s c o p e

    o f t h i s b o o k . W e w i l l t o u c h o n s u c h c r i t i q u e s o n l y t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t t h e y a r e

    r e q u i r e d e i t h e r t o g r a s p o r v a l i d a t e t h e p o s i t i v e c o n t e n t o f t h e p h i l o s o p h y . W i t h

    a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h a t c o n t e n t , o f c o u r s e , y o u w i l l b e b e t t e r p l a c e d t o g r a s p

    a n d a p p r e c i a t e t h e O b j e c t i v i s t c r i t i q u e o f o t h e r v i e w p o i n t s .

    A n o t h e r d i f f e r e n c e f r o m p r e v i o u s s y s t e m a t i c s u r v e y s i s o u r m e t h o d i -

    c a l e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e e s s e n t i a l i d e a s o f O b j e c t i v i s m . B y a n a l y z i n g t h e a r g u -

    m e n t f o r e a c h p r i n c i p l e , a n d c a l l i n g a t t e n t i o n t o e a c h p l a c e w h e r e f r e s h i n d u c -

    t i v e e v i d e n c e i s r e q u i r e d , w e g i v e t h e s t u d e n t o f O b j e c t i v i s m u n p r e c e d e n t e d

    a c c e s s t o t h e l o g i c o f t h e p h i l o s o p h y . T h i s e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e p h i l o s o p h y i s a s

  • 7 /

    m u c h c o n c e r n e d t o t e a c h why i t h a s t h e s t r u c t u r e i t d o e s a s t o c o n v e y what t h a ts t r u c t u r e i s .

    A t t i m e s t h i s h a s r e q u i r e d s o m e c h a n g e s i n f o r m u l a t i o n f r o m t h o s e

    u s e d i n t h e s u r v e y s m e n t i o n e d a b o v e , o r f r o m A y n R a n d s o w n w r i t i n g s . B e -

    s i d e s s t y l i s t i c d i f f e r e n c e s , t h e r e a r e c a s e s i n w h i c h a c a r e f u l e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e

    n a t u r e o f a n a r g u m e n t o r p o s i t i o n h a s p o i n t e d u p t h e n e e d f o r c l a r i f i c a t i o n o r a

    m o r e s u b s t a n t i a l c h a n g e . W e h a v e m a d e s u c h a l t e r a t i o n s o n l y w h e n t h e l o g i c a l

    s t r u c t u r e o f t h e p h i l o s o p h y h a s d e m a n d e d i t a n d w e h a v e n o t e d a n d e x p l a i n e d

    t h e c h a n g e i n a n y c a s e w h e r e o u r f o r m u l a t i o n d i f f e r s s i g n i f i c a n t l y f r o m t h e p r e -

    v i o u s O b j e c t i v i s t l i t e r a t u r e .

    B e c a u s e o u r s u b j e c t i s t h e c o r e t h e s e s o f O b j e c t i v i s m , t h e c o n t e n t o f

    this book is derived from the existing literature on the philosophy. Although our

    i n t e g r a t i o n o f t h e m a t e r i a l i s n e w , w e h a v e a v o i d e d o f f e r i n g u n t r i e d r e s e a r c h i n

    t h i s w o r k . A n y f o r m u l a t i o n w e p r e s e n t i s d e r i v e d f r o m l i t e r a t u r e t h a t b e e n s u b -

    j e c t e d t o c r i t i c i s m a n d a n a l y s i s b y k n o w l e d g e a b l e s c h o l a r s . W e h a v e , h o w e v e r ,

    e n d e a v o r e d t o e x p r e s s t h e p h i l o s o p h y i n o u r o w n w o r d s . W e i n c l u d e q u o t a t i o n s

    f r o m Ay n R a n d s o w n w r i t i n g s t o a l l o w t h e r e a d e r t o c o m p a r e t h e s u b s t a n c e o f

    o u r p r e s e n t a t i o n w i t h t h e s u b s t a n c e o f h e r s , d e s p i t e t h e d i f f e r e n c e s i n f o c u s a n d

    t o n e .

    The Structure of KnowledgeB e f o r e w e c o n s i d e r t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h i s p h i l o s o p h y , w e w o u l d d o w e l l

    t o f i r s t u n d e r s t a n d w h y a n y p h i l o s o p h y h a s a s t r u c t u r e . T o s e e w h y , w e n e e d t o

    c o n s i d e r s o m e b a s i c f a c t s a b o u t h u m a n k n o w l e d g e .

    Epistemology is the branch of philosophy concerned with the nature of

    k n o w l e d g e a n d t h e m e t h o d s o f v a l i d a t i n g i t , t h a t i s , o f i d e n t i f y i n g i t s f a c t u a l

    basis. Epistemology has a double importance for us in understanding the logical

    s t r u c t u r e o f O b j e c t i v i s m . O n t h e o n e h a n d , r e a s o n i s p a r t o f t h e c o n t e n t o f h u -

    m a n n a t u r e , a n d t h e r e f o r e h a s s i g n i f i c a n t m o r a l a n d p o l i t i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s . A l l

    o f t h e e t h i c a l a n d p o l i t i c a l c o n c l u s i o n s o f O b j e c t i v i s m a r e b a s e d o n t h i s f a c t .

    B e c a u s e e p i s t e m o l o g y t e l l s u s w h a t r e a s o n i s , h o w i t o p e r a t e s , a n d w h a t t h e

    d i f f e r e n t f e a t u r e s o f k n o w l e d g e a r e , i t f o r m s p a r t o f t h e b o d y o f t h e p h i l o s o p h y .

    I t w i l l t h u s b e o n e o f t h e t o p i c s w e t u r n t o i n C h a p t e r 1 , a n d t h e d i a g r a m s t h e r e

    w i l l s h o w t h e l o g i c a l s t r u c t u r e o f t h e O b j e c t i v i s t e p i s t e m o l o g y .

    B u t t h i s b o d y o f k n o w l e d g e i s a l s o r e l e v a n t t o o u r method o f u n d e r -s t a n d i n g t h e s t r u c t u r e o f O b j e c t i v i s m , i n c l u d i n g t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f e p i s t e m o l o g y

    i t s e l f t h a t w e w i l l a n a l y z e i n C h a p t e r 1 . E p i s t e m o l o g y e x p l a i n s w h y k n o w l e d g e

    h a s a s t r u c t u r e , a n d w h a t t h e b a s i c s t a n d a r d s o f l o g i c a r e . S o t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e

    d i a g r a m m i n g m e t h o d w e w i l l b e u s i n g i n t h i s b o o k , w e n e e d t o d i s c u s s c e r t a i n

    a s p e c t s o f e p i s t e m o l o g y h e r e a t t h e o u t s e t .

    T h e p r i n c i p l e s p r e s e n t e d i n t h e d i a g r a m s i d e n t i f y f a c t s , s u c h a s r e a -

    The Structure of Knowledge

  • 8 / Introduction

    son is volitional, or, to live, human beings must deliberately exert the effort to

    p u r s u e c o n s c i o u s l y c h o s e n v a l u e s . A p r i n c i p l e i s a p r o p o s i t i o n t h a t i d e n t i f i e s

    a n e s s e n t i a l o r s i g n i f i c a n t f a c t . A p r o p o s i t i o n i s a c o m p l e t e t h o u g h t , u s u a l l y

    e x p r e s s e d a s a s e n t e n c e . J u s t a s s e n t e n c e s a r e m a d e o f w o r d s , t h e p r o p o s i t i o n

    t h a t a s e n t e n c e e x p r e s s e s i s c o m p o s e d o f t h e c o n c e p t s t o w h i c h i t s w o r d s c o r r e -

    s p o n d . O u r c o n c e p t s a r e o u r i d e a s o f c a t e g o r i e s o r t y p e s o f t h i n g s a n d t h e i r

    a t t r i b u t e s , a c t i o n s , a n d r e l a t i o n s h i p s . C o n c e p t s a l l o w u s t o g r a s p g e n e r a l f a c t s

    a b o u t t h e w o r l d , c o v e r i n g t h e w h o l e r a n g e f r o m t h e p h y s i c a l o b j e c t s t h a t a c h i l d

    f i r s t l e a r n s a b o u t m i l k , b a l l , d o g , e t c . t o a b s t r a c t i d e a s s u c h a s c o s i n e o r

    justice that we derive by complex chains of reasoning. Because concepts are the

    b u i l d i n g - b l o c k s o f t h i s l e v e l o f a w a r e n e s s , w e c a l l t h e k n o w l e d g e t h a t e m p l o y s

    t h e m c o n c e p t u a l k n o w l e d g e .

    B y i d e n t i f y i n g f a c t s i n t h e f o r m o f p r o p o s i t i o n s , w e h a v e a n o p e n -

    ended means of understanding reality. We can express any fact as a proposition;

    w e c a n e v e n e x p r e s s p r o p o s i t i o n s f o r i m a g i n a r y s i t u a t i o n s , f a c t s t h a t d o n o t

    e x i s t , s u c h a s I o w n a w i n g e d p i g . T h e c o n c e p t u a l l e v e l o f a w a r e n e s s t h u s

    c o v e r s t h e w h o l e r a n g e o f k n o w l e d g e , f r o m a c h i l d s f i r s t w o r d s t o t h e m o s t

    c o m p l e x t h e o r e t i c a l s t r u c t u r e s o f t h e a r t s a n d s c i e n c e s .

    B u t t h e c o n c e p t u a l l e v e l i s n o t o u r d i r e c t m e a n s o f b e i n g a w a r e o f t h e

    w o r l d . O u r c o n c e p t s a r e f o r m e d o n t h e b a s i s o f t h e a w a r e n e s s w e a t t a i n t h r o u g h

    p e r c e p t i o n . P e r c e p t i o n i s t h e i n t e g r a t e d , a u t o m a t i c a w a r e n e s s o f t h i n g s t h a t w e

    r e c e i v e t h r o u g h o u r s e n s e s . W e d o n o t h a v e a n y d i r e c t m e a n s o f g r a s p i n g c a t -

    e g o r i e s s u c h a s m a n o r a b s t r a c t a t t r i b u t e s s u c h b e a u t y , e x c e p t b y d e r i v i n g

    t h e m f r o m t h e d a t a o f p e r c e p t i o n . A n d w h a t w e a r e a w a r e o f b y p e r c e p t i o n a r e

    p a r t i c u l a r t h i n g s : this m a n , that b e a u t i f u l s t a t u e . T h i s m e a n s t h a t a l l o u r k n o w l -e d g e m u s t b e d e r i v e d b y v a r i o u s p r o c e s s e s o f i n t e g r a t i o n f r o m p e r c e p t u a l d a t a .

    T h e s e p r o c e s s e s i n c l u d e :

    F o r m i n g c o n c e p t s b a s e d o n r e l e v a n t d i m e n s i o n s o f r e l a t i v e s i m i l a r i t ya m o n g p a r t i c u l a r s : e . g . t r e e , s q u a r e , e t c .

    G e n e r a l i z i n g f r o m o b s e r v a t i o n : e . g . D o g s b a r k . D r a w i n g i n f e r e n c e s f r o m w h a t w e a l r e a d y k n o w : e . g . B e c a u s e t h ec a r s h a v e t h e i r w i p e r s o n , I c a n t e l l t h a t i t i s r a i n i n g o u t s i d e .

    Weighing evidence to draw conclusions about facts we cannot directlyo b s e r v e : e . g . t h e p r o c e s s o f d e t e r m i n i n g g u i l t i n a c r i m i n a l t r i a l .

    C o m i n g u p w i t h t h e o r i e s a n d h y p o t h e s e s a n d t e s t i n g t h e m b y e x p e r i -m e n t : e . g . t h e p r o c e s s o f s c i e n t i f i c r e s e a r c h .

    T h e d i a g r a m s i n t h i s b o o k c a n a b s t r a c t l y s u m m a r i z e t h e e s s e n t i a l r e -

    s u l t s o f t h e s e p r o c e s s e s ; t h e y c a n t s u b s t i t u t e f o r t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f t h e m . T h i s

    m e a n s t h a t a s y o u p r o c e e d t h r o u g h t h e b o o k , y o u s h o u l d a c t i v e l y e n g a g e t h e

    d i a g r a m s , a n d n o t a c c e p t t h e m p a s s i v e l y .

    B e c a u s e t h e c o n c e p t u a l l e v e l i s d e r i v e d f r o m p e r c e p t u a l a w a r e n e s s , i t

    i s hierarchical . T h e v a s t a m o u n t o f i n f o r m a t i o n w e p o s s e s s m a y f e e l a s i f i t i s

  • 9 /

    o n t h e s a m e l e v e l , b u t i t i s n o t . F o r i n s t a n c e , c o n s i d e r t h e w a y y o u t h i n k o f t w o

    d i f f e r e n t f a c t s : 1 ) Y o u a r e l o o k i n g a t a b o o k . 2 ) Yo u a r e l i v i n g i n a d e m o c r a t i c

    country. Both facts are obvious to you, but they are established quite differently.

    Yo u c a n see t h a t t h e b o o k i s a b o o k ; y o u c a n n o t s e e w h e t h e r y o u r c o u n t r y i sd e m o c r a t i c . Yo u c a n s e e w h a t a b o o k i s , y o u c a n n o t s e e w h a t a d e m o c r a c y i s .

    T h e c o n c e p t o f a b o o k i s m o r e c o n c r e t e t h a n t h e c o n c e p t o f d e m o c r a c y .

    All knowledge traces back to perception, but some knowledge is closer

    t o t h e p e r c e p t u a l b a s e a n d s o m e i s f a r t h e r a w a y . F o r i n s t a n c e , i f w e m e e t a

    w o m a n , w e c a n t e l l s i m p l y f r o m h e r p h y s i c a l a p p e a r a n c e t h a t s h e i s a w o m a n ,

    a n d n o t , s a y , a s t o n e . B u t h o w w o u l d w e t e l l i f s h e i s a good w o m a n , o r a n e v i lo n e ? W e w o u l d n e e d a p r i o r c r i t e r i o n o f g o o d a n d e v i l , a c r i t e r i o n o f v a l u e .

    G o o d n e s s a n d e v i l a r e n o t e v i d e n t i n a p e r s o n s a p p e a r a n c e , t h e w a y , s a y , h a i r

    c o l o r i s . A p e r s o n s m o r a l c h a r a c t e r i s a p s y c h o l o g i c a l f a c t a b o u t h i m ; w e m u s t

    i n f e r p s y c h o l o g i c a l f a c t s f r o m o b s e r v a b l e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s l i k e h o w a p e r s o n a c t s

    o r w h a t h e s a y s . A s t h i s e x a m p l e s h o w s , t h e j u d g m e n t t h a t a t h i n g i s a h u m a n

    b e i n g i s m u c h m o r e d i r e c t a n d b a s i c t h a n a j u d g m e n t a b o u t a p e r s o n s m o r a l

    c h a r a c t e r . I n f a c t , t h e o n e p r e c e d e s t h e o t h e r : o n e h a s t o i d e n t i f y a s u b j e c t a s a

    p e r s o n b e f o r e m o r a l j u d g m e n t b e c o m e s r e l e v a n t .

    T h e h i e r a r c h i c a l c h a r a c t e r o f k n o w l e d g e m e a n s t h a t i t h a s a s t r u c t u r e .

    I n t h i s s e n s e , k n o w l e d g e i s l i k e a t a l l b u i l d i n g , w i t h s o m e i t e m s i n t h e f o u n d a -

    t i o n , a n d o t h e r s b u i l t u p f r o m t h e f o u n d a t i o n . A n d j u s t a s a s k y s c r a p e r h a s a

    s t e e l f r a m e , a b o d y o f k n o w l e d g e h a s a n e s s e n t i a l s t r u c t u r e .

    Induction and DeductionThe logical processes by which we build up the structure of our knowl-

    e d g e a r e o f t w o b r o a d t y p e s , w h i c h l o g i c i a n s c a l l induction a n d deduction . A l -t h o u g h a t e c h n i c a l d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e s e t w o p r o c e s s e s c o u l d f i l l a b o o k i n i t s e l f ,

    u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e i r r o l e i n t h e s t r u c t u r e o f O b j e c t i v i s m r e q u i r e s o n l y t h a t w e

    d i f f e r e n t i a t e t h e m o n t h e b a s i s o f e s s e n t i a l s .

    I n d u c t i o n i s t h e p r o c e s s o f d r a w i n g g e n e r a l c o n c l u s i o n s f r o m t h e o b -

    s e r v a t i o n o f p a r t i c u l a r c a s e s . F o r i n s t a n c e , w e n o t i c e t h a t a l l p e o p l e a g e a n d d i e ,

    t h a t t h e i r b o d i e s a r e f r a g i l e a n d c a n b e f a t a l l y d a m a g e d . W e g e n e r a l i z e t h i s

    o b s e r v a t i o n a s : A l l p e o p l e a r e m o r t a l . D e d u c t i o n i s t h e p r o c e s s o f d r a w i n g o u t

    t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e g e n e r a l k n o w l e d g e w e a l r e a d y p o s s e s s , u s u a l l y b y a p -

    p l y i n g g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s t o s p e c i f i c i n s t a n c e s o f a t y p e . C o n t i n u i n g o u r e x a m p l e ,

    e a c h o f u s k n o w s t h a t w e w i l l d i e s o m e d a y b y d e d u c i n g i t f r o m t h e f a c t t h a t a l l

    h u m a n b e i n g s a r e m o r t a l .

    S i n c e o u r k n o w l e d g e i s h i e r a r c h i c a l , r e s t i n g o n t h e b a s e o f p e r c e p t u a l

    o b s e r v a t i o n o f c o n c r e t e t h i n g s i n o u r e n v i r o n m e n t , i t w o u l d o b v i o u s l y b e i m -

    p o s s i b l e f o r u s t o b u i l d u p o u r k n o w l e d g e b y d e d u c t i v e i n f e r e n c e a l o n e . W h e r e

    w o u l d w e g e t t h e g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s o n w h i c h d e d u c t i o n d e p e n d s ? F o r t h o s e g e n -

    Induction and Deduction

  • 1 0 / Introduction

    e r a l i z a t i o n s w e n e e d i n d u c t i v e i n f e r e n c e . A b o v e t h e l e v e l o f p e r c e p t i o n , a l l o f

    o u r k n o w l e d g e d e p e n d s i n o n e w a y o r a n o t h e r o n i n d u c t i o n . I n a s e n s e , i n d u c -

    t i o n i s l i k e e a r n i n g m o n e y : i t i s t h e p r o c e s s o f a c q u i r i n g n e w i n f o r m a t i o n . D e -

    d u c t i o n i s l i k e s p e n d i n g m o n e y , b e c a u s e i t a l l o w s o n e t o g e t t h e m o s t o u t o f

    o n e s s t o r e o f i n d u c t i v e i n f o r m a t i o n . I n m o s t c a s e s , o u r c o n c l u s i o n s d e p e n d o n

    b o t h i n d u c t i v e a n d d e d u c t i v e p r o c e d u r e s u s e d i n c o m b i n a t i o n , j u s t a s w e n o r -

    mally obtain economic goods by a combination of earning and spending money.

    A p o i n t o f p a r t i c u l a r i m p o r t a n c e i s t h a t t h e r e c a n b e i n d u c t i v e s u p p o r t a t a n y

    l e v e l i n t h e s t r u c t u r e o f o u r k n o w l e d g e .

    To understand this point, lets look at the example of the effects of rent

    c o n t r o l s . E c o n o m i s t s k n o w t h a t r e n t c o n t r o l s l e a d t o s h o r t a g e s o f h o u s i n g . T h e

    r e a s o n i n g t h a t l e a d s t o t h i s c o n c l u s i o n i s s k e t c h e d o u t i n t h e c h a r t I n d u c t i o n

    a n d D e d u c t i o n b e l o w :

    A n e c o n o m i s t deduces t h a t r e n t c o n t r o l s l e a d t o s h o r t a g e s f r o m t h em o r e g e n e r a l p o i n t t h a t price controls on any commodity lead to shortagesof that commodity. T h i s p r i n c i p l e i s i n t u r n a d e d u c t i o n f r o m t h e a b s t r a c t lawof supply and demand , w h i c h s u m m a r i z e s i n t e r a c t i o n i n a n y m a r k e t p l a c e .

    T h e d o w n w a r d l i n k s b e t w e e n t h e g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s a r e d e d u c t i v e , b u t

    inductive e v i d e n c e c a n e n t e r a t e v e r y p o i n t . O n t h e f i r s t l e v e l , t h e l a w o f s u p p l ya n d d e m a n d h a s i t s b a s i s i n v e r y a b s t r a c t g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s : t h a t p e o p l e h a v e p r e f -

    e r e n c e s , t h a t t h e y t r a d e i n g o o d s , t h a t g o o d s a r e s c a r c e ( i . e . , t h a t n o t a l l w a n t s

    Induction and Deduction

    Inductive Basis Generalization( 1 )

    L a w o f S u p p l y a n d D e m a n du

    Y

    Y( 2 )

    P r i c e c o n t r o l s o n a n y c o m m o d -

    i t y c a u s e s h o r t a g e s o f t h a t c o m -

    modity.

    Price controls on sugar,

    l u m b e r , o i l , e t c .

    u

    ( 3 )

    Rent controls cause housing

    shortages.

    E f f e c t s o f r e n t s c o n t r o l s

    in New York City, Santa

    Monica, Ca., Cambridge,

    M a s s . , e t c .

    u

    H u m a n p r e f e r e n c e s , f a c t

    of scarcity, money, trade

    e t c .

  • 1 1 /

    c a n b e f u l f i l l e d ) , t h a t p e o p l e t r a d e t h r o u g h t h e m e d i u m o f m o n e y , a n d t h a t m a r -

    k e t s e s t a b l i s h c o m m o n p r i c e s f o r g o o d s . N o t i c e t h a t i f n e i t h e r t h i s i n d u c t i v e

    b a s i s n o r t h a t a t t h e o t h e r l e v e l s e x i s t e d , t h e n t h e g e n e r a l p r i n c i p l e w o u l d n o t b e

    b a s e d o n f a c t s ; i t w o u l d b e a n arbitrary a s s e r t i o n . T h i s i s a n i n s t a n c e o f t h ep r i n c i p l e t h a t a n y i t e m o f k n o w l e d g e m u s t b e b a s e d o n i n d u c t i v e e v i d e n c e a t

    some l e v e l .T h e g e n e r a l p r i n c i p l e r e g a r d i n g t h e e f f e c t o f p r i c e c o n t r o l s , a t t h e s e c -

    o n d l e v e l o f t h e c h a r t , h a s i t s o w n i n d u c t i v e b a s i s i n t h e o b s e r v a t i o n o f c o m -

    m o d i t y m a r k e t s . W h e n t h e p r i n c i p l e h a s b e e n d e r i v e d b y d e d u c t i o n , t h i s i n d u c -

    tive basis provides a source of independent confirmation. Any meaningful propo-

    s i t i o n , e v e n o n e t h a t w e h a v e e s t a b l i s h e d d e d u c t i v e l y , a s s e r t s s o m e f a c t a b o u t

    r e a l i t y . I f i t i s t r u e , t h e n t h e f a c t t h a t i t a s s e r t s e x i s t s a n d w e c a n c o n f i r m t h e f a c t

    i n d u c t i v e l y . T h i s m e a n s t h a t a n y t r u e p r i n c i p l e t h a t w e h a v e e s t a b l i s h e d d e d u c -

    t i v e l y s h o u l d a l s o h a v e i n d e p e n d e n t i n d u c t i v e s u p p o r t .

    I n d u c t i v e e v i d e n c e p l a y s a s i m i l a r c o n f i r m i n g r o l e a t t h e t h i r d l e v e l o f

    t h e c h a r t . T h e i n d u c t i v e s u p p o r t f o r t h e p r i n c i p l e t h a t r e n t c o n t r o l s l e a d t o h o u s -

    i n g s h o r t a g e s i s f o u n d i n t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f v a r i o u s c i t i e s w i t h r e n t c o n t r o l p o l i -

    c i e s . I n t h e U . S . i n r e c e n t d e c a d e s , t h e s e c i t i e s h a v e i n c l u d e d N e w Yo r k C i t y ;

    S a n t a M o n i c a , C a l i f o r n i a ; a n d C a m b r i d g e , M a s s a c h u s e t t s .

    Thus deduction and induction could not function apart from each other.

    U n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e w o r l d i n t e r m s o f g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s a l l o w s u s i n t e g r a t e l a r g e

    a m o u n t s o f i n f o r m a t i o n i n a c o m p a c t f o r m . I n d u c t i o n i s t h e p r o c e s s o f f o r m i n g

    g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s f r o m t h e d a t a w e a r e a w a r e o f , b u t o u r g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s w o u l d b e

    u s e l e s s i f w e f a i l e d t o e m p l o y d e d u c t i o n t o a p p l y t h e m t o p a r t i c u l a r c a s e s . F u r -

    t h e r m o r e , d e d u c t i o n a n d i n d u c t i o n m u s t b e e m p l o y e d t o g e t h e r i f w e w a n t o u r

    t h i n k i n g t o b e r o b u s t a g a i n s t e r r o r . I n d u c t i v e c o n f i r m a t i o n i s n o t a l w a y s n e c e s -

    s a r y t o e s t a b l i s h t h e t r u t h o f a p r o p o s i t i o n : a c o n c l u s i o n t h a t o n e h a s c o r r e c t l y

    d e d u c e d f r o m t r u e p r e m i s e s i s i t s e l f t r u e . H o w e v e r , w h e n w e d e d u c e f r o m a

    b r o a d a b s t r a c t i o n , s u c h a s t h e f i r s t l e v e l i n t h e c h a r t , t o a m o r e c o n c r e t e p r i n -

    c i p l e , s u c h a s t h e t h i r d l e v e l , t h e r e i s a d a n g e r t h a t s o m e t h i n g e s s e n t i a l t o t h e

    m o r e c o n c r e t e c a s e m a y h a v e b e e n l e f t o u t .

    S o m e t h i n g i s essential i f i t i s a f u n d a m e n t a l c a u s e o f w h a t w e s e e k t oexplain, a cause that explains many other effects. When we abstract from a wide

    r a n g e o f d a t a , a s w h e n w e f o r m p r i n c i p l e s t h a t a p p l y t o all m a r k e t s , w e m u s ti g n o r e m a n y d e t a i l s , s u c h a s w h e t h e r t h e p r o d u c t s i n t h e m a r k e t a r e d u r a b l e ,

    w h e t h e r t h e r e a r e m a n y c o m p a r a b l e s u b s t i t u t e s f o r a g i v e n p r o d u c t , w h e t h e r

    i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t p r i c e s a n d o f f e r s i s w e l l - d i s t r i b u t e d , w h e t h e r t h e r e a r e m a n y

    b u y e r s a n d s e l l e r s , a n d s o o n . T h e r e i s a d a n g e r t h a t o n e o f t h o s e d e t a i l s m a y b e

    s i g n i f i c a n t i n a m a n n e r t h a t i s n o t o b v i o u s . B y l o o k i n g f o r d i r e c t i n d u c t i v e e v i -

    d e n c e o f t h e c o n c l u s i o n s w e d e d u c e f r o m o u r g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s , w e c a n c h e c k t o

    m a k e s u r e n o t h i n g h a s b e e n o v e r l o o k e d o r i n c o r r e c t l y i n t e g r a t e d .

    O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , a c c u r a t e a b s t r a c t i o n s , c o n n e c t e d b y d e d u c t i v e i n -

    Induction and Deduction

  • 1 2 / Introduction

    f e r e n c e s , c a n p u t a n e n o r m o u s a m o u n t o f i n f o r m a t i o n a t o u r d i s p o s a l i n a c o n -

    crete form. In the case of rent controls, the deductive relation to economic theory

    a l l o w s u s t o b r i n g t h e w h o l e g a m u t o f e c o n o m i c e x p e r i e n c e t o b e a r o n t h e q u e s -

    t i o n a t h a n d . F o r i n s t a n c e , t h e r e m a y b e o n l y t h r e e o r f o u r c i t i e s a t a n y o n e t i m e

    t h a t h a v e r e n t c o n t r o l r e g u l a t i o n s , a n d t h e s e m a y d i f f e r i n d e t a i l s o m u c h t h a t i t

    i s d i f f i c u l t t o i n d u c t i v e l y d e t e r m i n e t h e c o r r e c t g e n e r a l i z a t i o n t h a t o n e s h o u l d

    d r a w f r o m t h e l i m i t e d e v i d e n c e . M o r e a b s t r a c t p r i n c i p l e s , s u c h a s t h o s e a t l e v -

    e l s ( 1 ) a n d ( 2 ) i n t h e c h a r t , w h i c h a r e l i n k e d d e d u c t i v e l y t o t h e t o p i c a t h a n d ,

    s e r v e a s a t r e m e n d o u s d a t a - g a t h e r i n g s y s t e m , a k i n d o f c o g n i t i v e l e n s , t h a t f o -

    c u s e s d i s t a n t l i g h t o n t h e s u b j e c t .

    W e w i l l h a v e m a n y o p p o r t u n i t i e s t o s e e t h e s a m e p a t t e r n i n o u r a n a l y -

    s i s o f t h e l o g i c a l s t r u c t u r e o f O b j e c t i v i s m . T o t a k e o n e o f m a n y e x a m p l e s t h a t

    w e w i l l e x p l o r e i n d e t a i l l a t e r o n , t h e p o l i t i c a l p r i n c i p l e t h a t m a n n e e d s f r e e d o m

    i n o r d e r t o l i v e s u c c e s s f u l l y f o l l o w s , t h r o u g h a c h a i n o f d e d u c t i v e i n f e r e n c e s

    a n d n e w i n d u c t i v e g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s , f r o m t h e f a c t t h a t r e a s o n i s m a n s b a s i c t o o l

    o f s u r v i v a l . T h i s c o n c l u s i o n a b o u t f r e e d o m i s c o n f i r m e d i n d u c t i v e l y b y h i s t o r i -

    c a l e v i d e n c e a b o u t h u m a n w e l l - b e i n g i n f r e e s o c i e t i e s a s o p p o s e d t o u n f r e e

    o n e s . T h i s i n d u c t i v e s u p p o r t c o n f i r m s t h e d e d u c t i v e d e r i v a t i o n , a s s u r i n g u s t h a t

    o u r r e a s o n i n g h a s c o n f o r m e d t o t h e f a c t s . T h e d e d u c t i v e s u p p o r t a s s u r e s u s t h a t

    w e h a v e i n t e r p r e t e d t h e h i s t o r i c a l e v i d e n c e c o r r e c t l y , t h a t w e h a v e e x t r a c t e d t h e

    e s s e n t i a l g e n e r a l i z a t i o n t o b e d r a w n f r o m t h e e n o r m o u s m a s s o f c o n c r e t e f a c t s .

    ContextA c o m m o n s o u r c e o f e r r o r i n g e n e r a l i z a t i o n i s a f a i l u r e t o b a s e o n e s

    c o n c l u s i o n s i n t h e f u l l c o n t e x t o f e v i d e n c e . O u r k n o w l e d g e i s contextual i nv i r t u e o f i t s h i e r a r c h i c a l n a t u r e . I t d o e s n o t c o n s i s t i n i s o l a t e d b i t s o f d a t a , e a c h

    w i t h i t s o w n , s e l f - c o n t a i n e d m e a n i n g , e a c h w i t h i t s o w n s e p a r a t e r e l a t i o n s h i p t o

    r e a l i t y . T h e m e a n i n g o f a n y c o n c l u s i o n , a n d i t s r e l a t i o n s h i p t o r e a l i t y i . e . i t s

    t r u t h o r f a l s i t y d e p e n d s o n i t s r e l a t i o n s h i p t o t h e n e t w o r k o f o t h e r k n o w l e d g e

    by which we derived it. Hierarchical knowledge is contextual because each item

    o f k n o w l e d g e i s g r o u n d e d i n s o m e p a r t i c u l a r e v i d e n c e , i n t h e a w a r e n e s s o f c e r -

    t a i n t y p e s o f t h i n g s , a c e r t a i n r a n g e o f e x p e r i e n c e . I n t h i s s e n s e , t h e c o n t e x t o f

    k n o w l e d g e i s l i k e t h e d i f f e r e n t p l a c e s t h a t t h e p y l o n s o f a b u i l d i n g s f o u n d a t i o n

    c o m e t o e a r t h : t h e s t r u c t u r e d e p e n d s o n m a n y s o u r c e s o f s u p p o r t c o m i n g t o -

    g e t h e r . A s t h e s u p p o r t c h a n g e s , t h e s u p e r s t r u c t u r e o f k n o w l e d g e m a y c h a n g e a s

    well.

    T h e m e a n i n g o f a p r i n c i p l e , i n t h e O b j e c t i v i s t v i e w , i s d e t e r m i n e d b y

    t r a c i n g t h e p r o c e s s b y w h i c h i t c o n n e c t s t o r e a l i t y . T h i s m e a n s , a m o n g o t h e r

    things, establishing the context that a person integrates by means of concepts. A

    f a i l u r e t o a t t e n d t o t h i s i s o n e r e a s o n w h y p e o p l e d i s c u s s i n g a b s t r a c t i d e a s o f t e n

    t a l k p a s t e a c h o t h e r : t h e y a r e u s i n g t h e s a m e w o r d s , b u t t h e y d o n t mean t h e

  • 1 3 /

    same things. Imagine having an argument of about capitalism with a Marxist: to

    a M a r x i s t , c a p i t a l i s m i s a n y s y s t e m c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y s o m e p r i v a t e c o n t r o l o v e r

    c a p i t a l . T o a n O b j e c t i v i s t , c a p i t a l i s m i s a l a i s s e r - f a i r e s y s t e m . T o a M a r x i s t ,

    S w e d e n i s a c a p i t a l i s t c o u n t r y ; t o t h e O b j e c t i v i s t , i t i s a m i x e d e c o n o m y , w i t h

    characteristics of both capitalism and socialism. Of course, the truth is not what-e v e r o n e w a n t s i t t o b e , b u t t h e t r u t h o f o n e s p r i n c i p l e s d e p e n d s o n t h e m e a n i n g

    o f o n e s t e r m s , b e c a u s e i t i s t h a t m e a n i n g t o w h i c h t h e f a c t s o f r e a l i t y e i t h e r d o

    o r d o n o t c o r r e s p o n d .

    T h i s e x a m p l e a l s o i l l u s t r a t e s t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f a t t e n d i n g t o t h e f u l l

    c o n t e x t t h a t l i e s b e h i n d a n a b s t r a c t i d e a . I n t h e c a s e o f t h e c o n c e p t o f c a p i t a l -

    i s m , c l a s s i c a l l i b e r a l s a n d e c o n o m i c t h e o r i s t s e m p h a s i z e t h e b a s i s o f m a r k e t

    i n t e r a c t i o n i n p r o p e r t y r i g h t s a n d f r e e d o m o f c o n t r a c t . I t i s c o m m o n , h o w e v e r ,

    f o r p e o p l e t o i g n o r e t h e e f f e c t s o f r e g u l a t i o n a n d s t a t e i n t e r v e n t i o n i n c h a r a c t e r -

    i z i n g a b u s i n e s s a s p r i v a t e a n d a s y s t e m a s C a p i t a l i s t . T h i s l e a d s t o a n o d d

    d i s j u n c t i o n b e t w e e n e c o n o m i c t h e o r y , w h i c h f o c u s e s o n f i r m s w i t h f u l l c o n t r o l

    over their choices, and the reality of most Capitalist systems, in which a firms

    range of choice is quite delimited by regulations on wages and benefits, product

    c a t e g o r i e s , p r o d u c t i o n m e t h o d s , p r i c e s , a n d s o o n . T h e d i s j u n c t i o n e x i s t s b e -

    c a u s e m a n y f a i l t o a t t e n d t o t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e c o n t e x t o f e c o n o m i c

    t h e o r y a n d t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e p o p u l a r n o t i o n o f C a p i t a l i s m .

    T h e c o n t e x t u a l n a t u r e o f k n o w l e d g e i s a l s o s i g n i f i c a n t b e c a u s e o n e s

    c o n t e x t o f k n o w l e d g e c h a n g e s o v e r t i m e . A s i n d i v i d u a l s w e b e c o m e a w a r e o f

    n e w e v i d e n c e a n d f a c t s . E v e n t h e c o g n i t i v e c o n t e x t o f s o c i e t y a s w h o l e e x p a n d s

    w i t h e x p l o r a t i o n a n d n e w s c i e n t i f i c d i s c o v e r i e s . A s o n e s c o n t e x t c h a n g e s , t h e

    m e a n i n g o f o n e s p r i n c i p l e s c a n c h a n g e a s w e l l . F o r i n s t a n c e , i n t h e 1 8 t h c e n -

    t u r y, g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s a b o u t f i s h i n t e g r a t e d i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t a l l c r e a t u r e s t h a t

    s w a m , i n c l u d i n g w h a l e s a n d p o r p o i s e s . T h i s c a t e g o r i z a t i o n w a s n o t a m i s t a k e :

    t h e r e a r e v a l i d r e a s o n s f o r r e g a r d i n g s w i m m i n g c r e a t u r e s w i t h f i n s a s s i m i l a r .

    H o w e v e r , b y t h e 2 0 t h c e n t u r y , m a r i n e b i o l o g y w a s b e t t e r u n d e r s t o o d , a n d t h e

    t e r m f i s h c a m e t o b e a p p l i e d t o a m o r e n a r r o w c l a s s o f a n i m a l s . T h e o l d

    k n o w l e d g e a b o u t f i s h w a s n o t f a l s e ; i t i s s t i l l t r u e i n t e r m s o f a q u a t i c c r e a -

    t u r e s . B u t n o w w e h a