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The Last Full Measure of Devotion: Support Forces in Normandy

Army nurses with amphibious jeep, 1944. Army Signal Corps Photo. Courtesy Stolly.org.uk

By Michael Kern

Program Assistant, National History Day

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“A hero is no braver than an ordinary man, but he is braver five minutes longer.”

- Ralph Waldo Emerson

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What is National History Day?

National History Day is a non-profit organization which promotes history education for secondary and elementary education students. The program has grown into a national program since its humble beginnings in Cleveland, Ohio in 1974. Today over half a million students participate in National History Day each year, encouraged by thousands of dedicated teachers. Students select a historical topic related to a theme chosen each year. They conduct primary and secondary research on their chosen topic through libraries, archives, museums, historic sites, and interviews. Students analyze and interpret their sources before presenting their work in original papers, exhibits, documentaries, websites, or performances. Students enter their projects in contests held each spring at the local, state, and national level where they are evaluated by professional historians and educators. The program culminates in the Kenneth E. Behring National Contest, held on the campus of the University of Maryland at College Park each June.

In addition to discovering the wonderful world of the past, students learn valuable skills which are critical to future success, regardless of a student’s future field:

• Critical thinking and problem solving skills • Research and reading skills • Oral and written communication and presentation skills • Self-esteem and confidence • A sense of responsibility for and involvement in the democratic process

Participation in the National History Day contest leads to success in school and success after graduation. More than five million NHD students have gone on to successful careers in many fields, including business, law, and medicine. NHD helps students become more analytical thinkers and better communicators, even if they do not choose to pursue a career in history.

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What is the Normandy Scholars Institute?

Established in 2011, the Normandy Scholars Institute is a program which teaches high school students and teachers about D-Day and the fighting in Normandy during World War II. The program is a partnership between National History Day and The George Washington University made possible by the generosity of Albert H. Small. Mr. Small is a veteran of the U.S. Navy who served in Normandy during World War II. He is passionate about history education and wants to ensure that the sacrifices of World War II veterans are honored and remembered by America’s youth.

Each winter National History Day selects a group of teachers from across the country to participate in the program. Each teacher selects a student to work with during the institute. The teacher and student work as a team, learning side-by-side, making the institute a unique educational experience. Starting in spring, the team reads books on World War II and on D-Day, giving them a better understanding of the history and historical context of the campaign. Each student selects a soldier from their community who was killed during the war and who is buried at the Normandy American Cemetery and Memorial. The team works with a research mentor to learn about the life of their soldier. In June, the teams travel to Washington, DC for several days of program events before flying to France to visit the historical sites where the teams’ soldiers fought and died. The trip culminates with a trip to the American cemetery where the student reads a eulogy in front of their soldier’s grave. After returning to the United States, the students and teachers share their experience with others by making a website about their soldier and giving presentations at their schools.

In addition to getting to experience Normandy firsthand, students and teachers will:

• Learn the true cost of war and the meaning of freedom and sacrifice • Improve research and problem solving skills • Attain a deeper understanding of America’s participation in World War II • Establish relationships with peers and colleagues from across the country

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Table of Contents

Introduction………………………………………………………………………………..…….6

Division Organizations…………………………………………..................................................7

Anti-Aircraft Battalion…………………………………………..................................................10

Engineer Combat Battalion, Armored Engineer Battalion, or Airborne Engineer Battalion…....14

Medical Detachment, Medical Battalion, or Airborne Medical Company………………………18

Combat in Normandy………………………………………….....................................................24

Resources……………………………………………………………………...............................26

Bibliography………………………………………………………………..................................31

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Introduction

This guide covers U.S. support troops in Normandy. It should be a helpful reference for students who are researching a soldier from any of the units listed below. This guide discusses the organization, tactics, and combat experiences of the men and women in these units. Students may also find it useful to read sections from the guide which covers the ‘type’ of division of which their unit was a part. In other words, a student studying a soldier in an armored engineer battalion might find it useful to read part of the Armored Forces Guide as well.

• Anti-Aircraft Battalion • Engineer Combat Battalion, Armored Engineer Battalion, or Airborne Engineer Battalion • Medical Detachment, Medical Battalion, or Airborne Medical Company

Note: Students researching a soldier from an airborne anti-aircraft battalion should refer to the Airborne Guide instead of this guide. These battalions were organized, equipped, and operated in a very different manner than a normal anti-aircraft battalion, so they are included in the Airborne Guide instead.

AA Guns in Action, Herbert Maton Stoops Courtesy Center of Military History Art Collection

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Division Organizations

There were three types of U.S. Army divisions in Normandy: infantry, armored, and airborne. Each of these types of divisions would have had a medical, engineer combat, and anti-aircraft battalion. These battalions have been italicized in the lists below, to make them easier to find.1

Surgeon and aid men treat a casualty on Omaha Beach, June 6, 1944 Courtesy U.S. Army, The War against Germany: Europe and Adjacent Areas, page 83

Here is the organization of the infantry division. The division has a medical battalion and

an engineer combat battalion as organic units. The anti-aircraft battalion was attached to the division rather than being organic to it. The main fighting parts of the division were the three infantry regiments. They captured and defended territory and were supported by artillery, tanks, reconnaissance, maintenance, and supply troops:

1 Types of divisions in Normandy, Lone Sentry: Photos, Articles, & Research on the European Theater in World War II. “Campaigns of U.S. Army Divisions in Europe, North Africa, and Middle East.” Accessed November 11, 2011. http://www.lonesentry.com/usdivisions/campaigns.html.

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• Infantry Division Headquarters o Signals Company o Military Police Platoon o Quartermaster Battalion o Ordinance Light Maintenance Company o Cavalry Reconnaissance Troop o Engineer Combat Battalion o Medical Battalion o Field Artillery Battalion (Medium) o 3x Field Artillery Battalion (Light) o 3x Infantry Regiments

• Likely Attachments to the infantry division:

o Tank Battalion o Tank Destroyer Battalion o Anti-Aircraft Battalion2

The armored division had an armored medical battalion and an armored engineer battalion as organic elements. Like the infantry division, the armored division did not have an organic anti-aircraft battalion. These units supported the armored regiments or battalions of the division, which used tanks to quickly capture territory:

• Armored Division Headquarters o Headquarters Company o Signals Company o Service Company o Ordnance Maintenance Battalion o Armored Medical Battalion o Cavalry Reconnaissance Battalion o Armored Engineer Battalion o 3x Armored Field Artillery Battalions o 2x Armored Regiments or 3x Armored Battalions o 1x Armored Infantry Regiment or 3x Armored Infantry Battalions

• Likely Attachments to the armored division:

o Tank Destroyer Battalion o Anti-Aircraft Battalion3

2 Infantry division organization, Andrew Mollo. The Armed Forces of World War II: Uniforms, insignia and organization. New York: Crown Publishers, 1981, 151 and Gary Kennedy. “The United States Infantry Division, mid 1943 to 1945,” Battalion Organization during the Second World War. Accessed October 11, 2011. http://www.bayonetstrength.150m.com/UnitedStates/Divisions/Inf%20Divs/united_states_infantry_division%20mid%201943%20to%201945.htm.

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Unlike the other two types of divisions, airborne divisions did have an organic airborne medical company, an airborne engineer battalion, and an airborne anti-aircraft battalion. These units had to be able to land by parachute or by glider, so they needed special training. They supported the parachute infantry regiments and the glider infantry regiment, which captured objectives behind enemy lines by surprise assault from the sky:

• Airborne Division Headquarters o Airborne Signal Company o Airborne Quartermaster Battalion o Airborne Ordinance Company o Military Police Platoon o Reconnaissance Platoon o Airborne Engineer Battalion o Airborne Anti-Aircraft Battalion o Airborne Medical Company o Parachute Maintenance Battalion o 1x or 2x Parachute Field Artillery Battalions (Light) o 2x Glider Field Artillery Battalions (Light) o 2x Parachute Infantry Regiments o 1x Glider Infantry Regiment

• Attachments to the division:

o Parachute Infantry Regiment o Glider Infantry Battalion o Tank Battalion4

3 Armored division organization, Gary Kennedy. “The United States Armored Division 1942 to 1943.” Battalion Organizations During the Second World War. Accessed October 25, 2011. http://www.bayonetstrength.150m.com/UnitedStates/Divisions/Armd%20Divs/united_states_armored_division%201943%20to%201943.htm, Gary Kennedy. “The United States Armored Division 1944 to 1945,” Battalion Organization During the Second World War.” Accessed October 25, 2011. http://www.bayonetstrength.150m.com/UnitedStates/Divisions/Armd%20Divs/united_states_armored_division%201944%20to%201945.htm, and Mollo, 151. 4 Airborne organization, Gary Kennedy. “The United States Airborne Division, 1943 to 1944,” Battalion Organization during the Second World War. Accessed October 18, 2011. http://www.bayonetstrength.150m.com/UnitedStates/Divisions/Abn%20Divs/united_states_airborne_division%201943%20to%201944.htm; and actual organization, 6 Juin 1944. “82nd Airborne Order of Battle.” Accessed October 19, 2011. http://www.6juin1944.com/assaut/aeropus/en_page.php?page=82; and 6 Juin 1944. “101st Airborne Order of Battle.” Accessed October 19, 2011. http://www.6juin1944.com/assaut/aeropus/en_page.php?page=101. and division attachments, Lone Sentry: Photographs, Documents, and Research on World War II. “Division Components.” Accessed October 19, 2011. http://www.lonesentry.com/usdivisions/components/index.html.

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Anti-Aircraft Battalion

Note: Students researching a soldier from an airborne anti-aircraft battalion should refer to the Airborne Guide instead of this guide. These battalions were organized, equipped, and operated in a very different manner than a normal anti-aircraft battalion, so they are included in the Airborne Guide rather than in this guide.

Anti-aircraft battalions were responsible for defending troops from German aircraft attack. Battalions were combined into anti-aircraft brigades, each of which had several anti-aircraft battalions. There were three different kinds of anti-aircraft battalions. The Anti-Aircraft Battalion (Automatic Weapons) was the most common. These battalions were equipped with light anti-aircraft guns towed by trucks and generally worked with infantry divisions. The Anti-Aircraft Battalion (Mobile) had heavy anti-aircraft guns towed by trucks and usually supported an infantry division. Lastly, the Anti-Aircraft Battalion (Automatic Weapons, Self-Propelled) was often attached to an armored division, but could be attached to an infantry division. These battalions had light anti-aircraft guns mounted on armored halftrack vehicles which allowed them to keep up with fast-moving tank units. Here is the organization of an Anti-Aircraft Battalion (Automatic Weapons):

• Anti-Aircraft Battalion (Automatic Weapons) (32 officers, 745 men) o Headquarters and Headquarters Battery (8 officers, 89 men) o Medical Detachment (3 officers, 17 men) o 4x Gun Batteries (each 6 officers, 164 men) 5

The headquarters battery provided for the command, communications, maintenance, and supply needs of the battalion. The medical detachment provided treatment for sick and injured soldiers. The gun battery was the basic unit in the battalion. These units did the fighting. Batteries were equipped and organized differently, depending on what type of battalion they belonged to:

• Anti-Aircraft Battalion (Automatic Weapons): Batteries were equipped with eight 40mm guns and five .50 caliber heavy machineguns. The battery was divided into two platoons, each with four 40mm guns and two machineguns. Each platoon had four gun sections,

5 Types of anti-aircraft units, War Department. Employment of Antiaircraft Artillery Guns, FM 44-4. June 1945. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1945 and War Department. Employment of Antiaircraft Artillery Automatic Weapons, FM 44-2. December 1944. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1944; and organization of Anti-Aircraft Battalion (AW), War Department. Antiaircraft Artillery Automatic Weapons Battalion, Mobile, T/O&E 44-25. 22 April 1944. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1944.

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each with a 40mm gun. 40mm guns had a range of 5,500 yards and machineguns a range of 2,450 yards.

• Anti-Aircraft Battalion (Mobile): Batteries were equipped with four 90mm guns and four .50 caliber heavy machineguns. The battery had four gun sections, each with one 90mm gun. 90mm guns had a range of 13,400 yards. The machineguns had a range of 2,450 yards.

• Anti-Aircraft Battalion (Automatic Weapons, Self-Propelled): Batteries were equipped with four M15A1 halftracks and four M16 halftracks. The M15A1s were armed with a 37mm gun and two .50 caliber machineguns. The M16s had four .50 caliber machineguns. 37mm guns had a range of 5,500 yards; machineguns had a range of 2,450 yards. 6

The primary mission of anti-aircraft units was to protect American troops, equipment, and bases from attack by German aircraft. Each anti-aircraft battalion attached to a division was responsible for defending the air space over the division’s territory. To do this most effectively, the battalion’s batteries were usually spread out over the area to be defended. Batteries were located so that they were close enough to provide mutual support for each other – if a battery was attacked by bombers another battery was close enough to shoot at the bombers while they attacked. The battery’s men dug large holes several feet deep to protect and provide camouflage for their guns. Guns were usually sited in a circular pattern, to provide for defense from any direction. The guns were the primary weapon for shooting down planes; the machineguns provided close-range defense for the battery.

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Each battery had a radar set mounted on a trailer. The radar set tracked any aircraft flying within as many as 100,000 yards of the battery. Batteries communicated with each other by radio, so that all batteries were aware of each aircraft in the sky over their air space. Using radar allowed them to track airplanes near the battery without having to spot them by eye. It also allowed them to fire at airplanes they could not see – even at night, airplanes could be attacked using the data provided by the radar. Soldiers used binoculars to see if the airplane was Allied or German. Allied airplanes were painted with ‘invasion stripes’ before D-Day – bands of black and white stripes on the wings and fuselage – to make it easier for anti-aircraft troops to identify them. If the airplane was German, the soldiers prepared to open fire. Within ten seconds, soldiers used radar and other equipment to estimate the speed and altitude of the airplane. They gave this ranging data to the gun crews to help them aim their weapons. The crews opened fire on the enemy planes, firing as quickly as possible. Batteries tried to combine the fire of multiple guns

6 Roles of units in the battalion, War Department, Employment of Automatic Weapons, 1-6; and battalion weaponry, War Department, Antiaircraft AW Battalion, War Department. Antiaircraft Artillery Automatic Weapons Battery, Self-Propelled, T/O&E 44-77. 17 November, 1944. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1944, and War Department. Antiaircraft Artillery Battalion, Mobile, T/O&E 44-15. 17 November 1944. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1944. 7 Mission and battery positioning, War Department, Employment of Antiaircraft Artillery Guns, 14-19.

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on one target as much as possible, but it was most important that all of the German planes were being shot at (to throw off the pilot’s aim). The goal was to destroy or drive off the German planes before they got to their bomb release line (BRL), the spot where they could drop bombs on their target.8

M15A1 being unloaded from a landing craft during an invasion exercise Courtesy U.S. Army, The War against Germany: Europe and Adjacent Areas, page 64

In addition to their primary job of fighting airplanes, anti-aircraft troops performed other

missions on occasion. The guns could be used to destroy German tanks and small naval vessels. Batteries were sited near roadways or rivers which German vehicles might attempt to travel along. The 90mm gun was the most effective tank-killer in the American arsenal. In fact, tank destroyer units were armed with modified 3” and 90mm anti-aircraft guns! Batteries could also help infantry soldiers knock out bunkers and 90mm guns were sometimes used to perform artillery bombardments. Anti-aircraft troops could – and did – perform a number of vital duties during the war, though they seldom got credit for it.9

8 Radar and combat procedures, War Department, Employment of Antiaircraft Artillery Guns, 1-20. 9 Secondary missions, War Department, Employment of Antiaircraft Artillery AW, 9-11 and War Department, Employment of Antiaircraft Artillery Guns, 14-15.

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The battalion was commanded by a lieutenant colonel, with a major as his executive officer. The battalion commander and his staff ran the battalion’s Anti-Aircraft Operations Room (AAOR), the center which coordinated the fire and aircraft tracking activities of the batteries. Each battery was commanded by a captain, with a 1st lieutenant as his assistant. The battery commander directed the fire of his guns when they were firing. Gun crews numbered about five men and were commanded by a corporal, who also fired the gun.10

Each anti-aircraft battalion carried a unique number. Each battery within the battalion was lettered – A, B, C, or D.

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What was my soldier’s job?

This is a list of the different ranks of soldiers in the battalion, along with their most likely job. Further research should help determine exactly what role your soldier played in his unit.

Lt. Colonel: Commanded the battalion Major: Executive officer of the battalion or a staff officer Captain: Commanded a battery or was a staff officer 1st Lieutenant: Executive officer of a battery or platoon leader 2nd Lieutenant: Executive officer of a platoon or battery Master Sergeant: More experienced battalion senior NCO and a role model for the men 1st Sergeant: Senior NCO in the battalion and served as a role model for the men Tech Sergeant: More senior platoon NCO, or commanded maintenance, mess, or supply Staff Sergeant: Senior NCO in a platoon, or commander of maintenance, mess, or supply Sergeant: Commanded range finding team or battalion communications section Technician 4th Class: Gun crew, vehicle driver, mechanic, radio operator Corporal: Gunner and gun commander, or radar operator Technician 5th Class: Gun crew, vehicle driver, mechanic, radio operator PFC/Private: Gun crew, vehicle driver, mechanic, radio operator12

10 Jobs, War Department, Antiaircraft Artillery AW Battalion; and AAOR, War Department, Employment of Antiaircraft Artillery Guns, 18. 11 Nomenclature, War Department, Antiaircraft Artillery AW Battalion. 12 Jobs, War Department, Antiaircraft Artillery AW Battalion and War Department. Antiaircraft Artillery Automatic Weapons Battery, Mobile, T/O&E 44-27. 22 April 1944. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1944.

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Engineer Combat Battalion, Armored Engineer Battalion, or Airborne Engineer Battalion

Engineer Combat Battalions (ECB) performed a number of vital duties for the Army during the war. They were specialized troops with a high degree of technical training and specialized equipment. The engineers literally paved the way for victory during the war. When the Army got to Berlin at the end of the war, they did so through fields cleared of land mines, roads patched and cleared of obstacles, and bridges constructed by engineers. Each division had an organic engineer combat battalion. There were also independent engineer regiments, each with several battalions. The battalions of the units were split up and attached to divisions on an as-needed basis. There were also engineer bridging, depot, supply, gasoline, and other types of units. We will only consider the engineer combat battalion and its armored and airborne cousins in this section.13

An engineer battalion had a headquarters and service company, a medical detachment, and three engineer companies:

• Engineer Combat Battalion (29 officers, 605 men) o Headquarters and Service Company (12 officers, 104 men) o Medical Detachment (2 officers, 15 men) o 3x Engineer Companies (each 5 officers, 162 men) 14

The headquarters and service company provided for the command, communications, supply, maintenance, and medical evacuation needs of the battalion. The medical detachment cared for sick or wounded soldiers until they could be evacuated. The three engineer companies were the main units of the battalion. They carried out the missions that the battalion was tasked with performing for its division. Each company had a headquarters section and three platoons. Each platoon had one officer and forty-three men. The platoon was divided into three squads of thirteen men each, comprised of “carpenters, electricians, mechanics, riggers, demolition men, and truck drivers.” War correspondent Ernie Pyle wrote that

“practically every man in an engineering company had to double in half a dozen brasses. One day he’d be running a mine detector, next day he’d be a stonemason, next day a carpenter, and the day after a plain pick-and-shovel man. But unlike

13 Types of engineer units, War Department. Engineer Troops, FM 5-5. 11 October 1943. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1943, 48-186. 14 Organization, War Department. Engineer Combat Battalion, T/O&E 5-15 13 March 1944. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1944.

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the common laborer at home, he was picking and shoveling under fire about half the time.”15

Armored and airborne engineer battalions (both called AEBs) performed the same types of jobs which regular engineer battalions performed. They were organized very similarly to the engineer combat battalion. Armored Engineer battalions rode in armored M3 halftrack vehicles rather than the unarmored trucks which regular engineers used. Airborne engineer battalions had one company of parachute engineers and two companies of glider engineers. As their names imply, the companies got to the battlefield by different ways. Airborne engineers were transported in jeeps.16

We Clear the Way, Jan Wilhelm Schaikjer Courtesy Fort Belvoir Art Collection

Engineer battalions had specialized equipment to accomplish their missions, including

carpentry, demolition, mine clearing equipment, boats, tractors, and assault weapons like 15 ECB unit roles, War Department, Engineer Troops, 49-52; “carpenters, electricians,” War Department, Engineer Troops, 31; and “practically every man,” Ernie Pyle. Brave Men. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2001, 85. 16 Armored Engineer Battalion organization, War Department. The Armored Engineer Battalion, FM 17-45. 15 June 1944. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1944, 2; and Airborne Engineer Battalion, War Department, Engineer Troops, 74.

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flamethrowers. Soldiers were given training in a particular specialty and squads had a mix of men with different specialties so that they could perform any job required. Engineers were trained to fight as infantrymen, but infantry fighting was a last resort, because men with engineer skills were hard to find. Engineers performed a number of vital missions on a routine basis:

• Removing mine fields and booby traps • Laying mine fields and booby traps • River crossing operations and construction of temporary bridges • Repair and maintenance of roads and bridges • Reconnaissance to determine the location of obstacles and the condition of roads and

bridges • Providing protection for engineer work parties

On occasion, the engineers were also called upon to perform a number of other missions:

• Creating and installing road signs in rear areas • Construction of permanent bridges and new roads • Construction of landing fields for the division’s artillery spotting airplanes • Defense of mine fields and road blocks • Combat as infantrymen • Building bunkers and other defensive structures • Finding and destroying German tanks • Advising the division commander on technical issues • Supplying engineer tools and materials to other units when needed • Maintaining the division’s water supply by finding sources and building wells • Making maps • Inspecting and advising units on camouflage17

On D-Day, teams of engineers and Naval Combat Demolition Units landed on the beaches a few minutes before the first assault waves. Together, the soldiers and sailors formed Gap Assault Teams, responsible for destroying beach obstacles to create gaps for tanks to move through. The soldiers and sailors worked together to accomplish their mission and succeeded in opening several gaps through the beach defenses on D-Day. They did this in spite of very heavy enemy fire, particularly at Omaha Beach. The gap assault teams suffered over 40% casualties on D-Day.

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17 Equipment and jobs, War Department, Engineer Combat Battalion; and missions, War Department, Engineer Troops, 52-53.

18 Gap Assault Teams and D-Day beach operations, Headquarters, Task Force 122. “Report on Naval Combat Demolition Units in Operation ‘Neptune’ as part of Task Force 122,” 19 July 1944.

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Battalions were commanded by a lieutenant colonel, with a major as an executive officer. Companies were commanded by captains, with a 1st lieutenant as executive officer. Platoons were commanded by 1st lieutenants and squads were lead by sergeants. The battalion carried a unique number, with companies being lettered A, B, and C. Platoons and squads were numbered.19

What was my soldier’s job?

This is a list of the different ranks of soldiers in the battalion, along with their most likely job. Further research should help determine exactly what role your soldier played in his unit.

Lt. Colonel: Commanded the battalion Major: Executive officer of the battalion or a staff officer Captain: Commanded a company or was a staff officer 1st Lieutenant: Executive officer of a company or platoon leader 2nd Lieutenant: Platoon leader Master Sergeant: Most senior NOC in the battalion and role model for the men 1st Sergeant: Most senior NCO in a company and role model for the men Tech Sergeant: More senior platoon NCO, or commanded maintenance, mess, or supply Staff Sergeant: Senior NCO in a platoon, or commander of maintenance, mess, or supply Sergeant: Squad leader or mechanic Technician 4th Class: Engineer, truck driver, or tractor driver Corporal: Assistant squad leader or company clerk Technician 5th Class: Engineer, truck driver, tractor driver PFC/Private: Engineer, truck driver, tractor driver20

19 Nomenclature, War Department, Engineer Combat Battalion. 20 Jobs, War Department, Engineer Combat Battalion and War Department. Engineer Combat Company (Troop), T/O&E 5-17 13 March 1944. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1944.

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Medical Detachment, Medical Battalion, and Airborne Medical Company

The men and women of the Army Medical Corps risked their lives to save wounded soldiers. By May 1945, over 700,000 battle and non-battle casualties in Europe had been treated by 254,000 men and women in 315 hospitals. Almost without exception, Army medical soldiers were courageous, dedicated people who worked tirelessly to minimize the tragedy of the war. The medical corps provided treatment and evacuation services for soldiers from the front line to the home front. The medical system was divided into five different echelons:

• 1st Echelon: Treatment at the front line by company aid men and evacuation to the battalion aid station.

• 2nd Echelon: Evacuation to a casualty collecting station, then the casualty clearing station. • 3rd Echelon: Evacuation to a field hospital behind the front line in France. • 4th Echelon: Evacuation to a general hospital in the United Kingdom. • 5th Echelon: If necessary, transportation to a general hospital in the United States21

The Medical Detachment

Treatment at the first echelon was handled by a unit’s medical detachment. Each regiment or independent battalion (field artillery, tank destroyer, anti-aircraft, etc.) in the Army had a medical detachment. A medical corps field manual described the qualities necessary for a medical detachment soldier:

“The basic qualities desirable in a soldier of a unit medical detachment are no different than those desirable in combat soldiers. He should be courageous because he must accompany his unit into the first line of combat. He should be endowed with a high order of physical fitness because he often labors longer hours than does the soldier of other arms and services. He should be strong because he often bears heavy burdens for long distances. He should be resourceful because he often works without close supervision and with scant means. He should be intelligent because he must learn a new art, and upon how thoroughly he learns it may depend the lives of other soldiers.”22

21 Statistics, The Stars & Stripes. That Men Might Live!: The Story of the Medical Service – ETO. Paris: The Stars & Stripes, 1945, 4; and echelons, War Department. Mobile Units of the Medical Department, FM 8-5. January 12, 1942. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1944, 9-10. 22 “The basic qualities,” War Department, Mobile Units, 33-34.

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Combat medics were usually among the most popular and most highly respected men in a combat battalion. Universally known as ‘’doc,’ the combat medic shared the same hardships and dangers as his combat soldier comrades, but did not receive combat pay or special combat badges like the combat soldiers. Medics were non-combatants – in theory they were protected from being targeted by the Geneva Convention. They had a red cross in a white circle painted on their helmets and they wore red cross arm bands to identify themselves to American and German troops. In practice, German soldiers usually respected the laws of war and did not shoot medics – but not always. Medics did not carry weapons. Here is the organization of an infantry regiment medical detachment:

• Medical Detachment (10 officers, 126 men) o Headquarters Section (4 officers, 30 men) o 3x Battalion Sections (each 2 officers, 32 men)23

Soldiers treat wounded comrades at a battalion aid station Courtesy Stolly.org.uk

The battalion sections each provided medical care for an infantry battalion. Twelve men

served as company aid men, one for each platoon in the battalion. Another twelve men served as litter team members (two men per team). The two officers and the other eight men worked in the 23 Combat medics, John C. McManus. The Deadly Brotherhood: The American Combat Soldier in World War II. New York: Ballantine Books, 1998, 156-168; and organization of infantry regiment medical detachment, War Department. Medical Detachment, Infantry Regiment, T/O&E 7-11. 26 February 1944. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1944.

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battalion aid station. Wounded men at the front line were treated by a company aid man. In combat, the aid man found a safe place along the front line to hide until he was needed. When the cry ‘medic!’ echoed through the air, he jumped out of his hole, ran across open ground full of bullets and shell fragments, and knelt down next to the wounded man. The medic had very limited means of treatment at his disposal, which frustrated many aid men who had to confront the broken bodies of wounded soldiers first hand and hear their pleas for help. After locating the wound, the aid man ripped open a packet of sulfonamide (‘sulfa’) powder and sprinkled it on the wound to help sterilize it. Then the aid man wrapped the wound in a bandage, applied a tourniquet to stop hemorrhaging, or splinted a broken limb, as necessary. He could also administer a dose of morphine to control pain, if absolutely necessary. Once the soldier was treated, he was evacuated to the battalion aid station. If he could walk, the casualty found his own way. If he could not walk, he was carried to an aid station by a litter team or by the medic himself.24

The battalion aid station was run by two surgeons and a team of enlisted men. The station often consisted of no more than a few litters and a chest of medical supplies under a tree. A medical field manual described the operation of a battalion aid station:

“The casualty is examined and necessary first aid treatment given either to enable him to return at once to duty or to prepare him for further evacuation. Such treatment is limited to the arresting of hemorrhage, immobilization of fractures, sterilization of wounds (so far as practicable under the conditions), application of sterile dressings to prevent further infection, and the administration of sera and other necessary preventative or palliative medication. If possible, the patient is sheltered from the elements and given a hot drink to relieve exhaustion and prevent or control shock.”25

Wounded soldiers were ‘triaged’ at the aid station. Seriously wounded soldiers were treated by the doctors and medics until they were deemed stable enough for evacuation to a casualty collecting station. Soldiers without life-threatening wounds were treated next and returned to duty when possible. Those who were too seriously injured to be saved were given medication for pain and made as comfortable as possible. When they died, they were carried to the morgue, a spot of ground out of sight of the wounded soldiers. Soldiers at the battalion aid station filled out an emergency medical treatment record (EMT) for each man which was pinned to the soldier’s uniform so it would not get lost. Men who were stable enough to be transported 24 Organization, War Department, Medical Detachment; combat medics and techniques, McManus, 156-168; and evacuation to battalion aid station, War Department, Mobile Units, 41-42. 25 “The casualty is,” War Department, Mobile Units, 42.

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were readied for evacuation to a casualty collecting station. Once a soldier was evacuated to a casualty collecting station, he entered the care of the division’s medical battalion.26

The Medical Battalion and Airborne Medical Company

The medical battalion provided second echelon medical care for sick and wounded soldiers. The objective of the medical battalion was to get seriously wounded soldiers out of the combat zone to a field hospital in a safe area. Here is the organization of the medical battalion:

• Medical Battalion (35 officers, 470 men) o Headquarters Detachment (10 officers, 44 men) o Clearing Company (12 officers, 120 men) o 3x Collecting Companies (each 5 officers, 102 men)

Company Headquarters (1 officer, 17 men) Station Platoon (3 officers, 14 men)

• Collecting Station Section • Liaison Section

Collecting Platoon (1 officer, 79 men) • Bearer Section • Ambulance Section27

Each collecting company was assigned to one of the division’s regiments. The collecting company ran the regiment’s casualty collecting station and kept the battalion aid stations stocked with medical supplies. Wounded soldiers arrived at the collecting station by walking or by being carried on litters by the company’s bearer section. The collecting station itself consisted of two tents. One tent was for walking wounded and the other was for litter cases. The station had two surgeons and a small staff of enlisted soldiers assisted them and kept records. The patients were triaged once again and given any further treatment needed before being evacuated. The company’s ambulance section transported the wounded soldiers to the medical battalion’s casualty clearing station.

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The casualty clearing station was run by the battalion’s clearing company. The clearing station had two surgeons, a physician, and a dentist. The station consisted of at least eight tents, with additional tents being erected to hold patients as needed. Upon arrival from one of the collecting companies, patients were triaged and sent for treatment in the appropriate area of the

26 Operations, War Department, Mobile Units, 41-42. 27 Organization, War Department. Medical Battalion, Infantry Division, T/O&E 8-15. April 1, 1942. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1942 and War Department, Mobile Units, 46. 28 Collecting company operations, War Department, Mobile Units, 62-73.

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clearing station. Soldiers who could be evacuated were moved to the evacuation area. Others were treated until they were stable enough to be evacuated.29

Night Shift, Joseph Hirsch Courtesy Center of Military History Art Collection

The airborne medical company operated in the same way as a normal battalion but the

airborne medics were expected to do more with less. At 20 officers and 195 men, the company was only half the size of the medical battalion, with each medical platoon in the company being assigned to a regiment in the division. Each man in the medical company often had to treat many more casualties than his counterpart in the medical battalion had to treat. To make matters worse, the medical company often could not evacuate casualties to a field hospital. Cut-off from the rest of the Army after an airborne drop, the medics did not have contact with third-echelon medical support. They had to treat wounded airborne troops the best they could, with the limited means available.30

29 Clearing company, War Department, Mobile Units, 73-84.

30 Airborne Medical Company, Headquarters, 101st Airborne Division. “Organization and Function of Airborne Medical Company in Combat.” Undated. Record Group 407, National Archives, College Park, MD; and manpower, Headquarters, 101st Airborne Division, “Airborne Medical,” 2.

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Once soldiers were evacuated from the casualty clearing station, they left the care of their division. Soldiers were moved to a field hospital for evacuation out of the combat zone. Troops were evacuated to the United Kingdom aboard a Landing Ship, Tank (LST), which could be equipped to hold about two hundred litters. Upon arrival in the United Kingdom, soldiers were admitted to a general hospital for further treatment and recuperation. Most soldiers stayed at the general hospital until they were reassigned to a new unit for further duty. Severely wounded soldiers would travel back to a general hospital in the United States aboard a hospital ship. 101st Airborne soldier James Simms remembered his relief at being evacuated out of the combat zone: “I was about to step through the door into an entirely different world, one that has always brought back warm memories. I was about to leave a world that was cold and mean, where men had to be brutal to survive. I was about to enter a warm, kind world where a smile was ever ready and the touch gentle.”31

Medical battalions and airborne medical companies carried unique numbers. Companies were lettered and airborne medical company platoons were numbered.

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What was my soldier’s job?

This is a list of the different ranks of soldiers in the battalion, along with their most likely job. Further research should help determine exactly what role your soldier played in his unit.

Lt. Colonel: Doctor - Commanded the battalion Major: Doctor - Exec. of battalion, staff officer, or commander of med. detach. Captain: Doctor - Commanded a company or battalion section, or staff officer 1st Lieutenant: Doctor, or head of supply or maintenance section Master Sergeant: More senior NCO in battalion or detachment and assistant to doctor 1st Sergeant: Senior NCO in detachment or company and assistant to doctor Tech Sergeant: More senior NCO in company and assistant to doctor Staff Sergeant: Senior NCO in battalion aid section and assistant to doctor Technician 3rd Class: Company aid man, litter bearer, ambulance driver, clerk Sergeant: Medical assistant to doctor Technician 4th Class: Company aid man, litter bearer, ambulance driver, clerk Corporal: Medical assistant to doctor Technician 5th Class: Company aid man, litter bearer, ambulance driver, clerk PFC/Private: Company aid man, litter bearer, ambulance driver, clerk33

31 Echelon III-V medical operations, War Department, Mobile Units, 9-10; LST evacuation, The Stars & Stripes, That Men Might Live!, 8-9; “I was about,” James Simms quoted in McManus, 168. 32 Nomenclature, War Department, Medical Battalion. 33 Jobs, War Department, Medical Battalion and War Department, Medical Detachment.

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Combat In Normandy

Note: Students researching a company aid man may wish to read the section in the guide their soldier was attached to, to get a better sense of his living conditions. E.g., a company aid man in an infantry regiment had the same daily routine and living conditions as the infantry, so refer to the infantry guide for further details.

Even though anti-aircraft, engineer, and medical soldiers did not live on the front line like the infantry soldiers did, they were never very far from the front. These soldiers lived and worked within a mile or so of the front line, because it was their job to support the men at the front. Anti-aircraft soldiers spent most of their time living in the gun pit where their gun was dug in. Some men were always on duty – scanning the skies for targets. Half of the unit rested while the other half was on alert. Engineer squads dug foxholes to sleep in at night – six foot deep holes large enough for two or three men. Half of the men stood watch while the other half rested. During the day time, engineers were usually out of their foxholes doing something – repairing roads, inspecting bridges, removing land mines, etc. They had no protection while working under these conditions, but smart soldiers always had a hole, ditch, or other area of protection in mind which they could dash to at a moment’s notice. Medical personnel worked whenever wounded soldiers arrived at their station, which was almost constantly. Men worked beyond exhaustion, caught a few minutes’ sleep, and then returned to work. This routine continued day and night, week after exhausting week. Because they lived so close to the front line, medical, engineer, and anti-aircraft soldiers were occasionally subjected to artillery and mortar bombardments. German bomber attacks were a constant threat as well.34

While resting, men slept, read or wrote letters, talked to comrades, or ate. Men learned to eat, drink, and sleep whenever they got a chance, because they never knew when they would have the next opportunity. Soldiers only got about three hours of sleep a night. They were woken up constantly by the need to take their turn as a guard, by the never-ending pounding of artillery, or the need to work. Conditions just behind the front line were better than they were at the front, but they were still primitive and uncomfortable. Hygiene was better than at the front, but was still poor. Men bathed only occasionally, usually using muddy water from a puddle. Occasionally, soldiers got the luxury of taking a shower in a portable shower facility. They were almost always exhausted, dirty, and hungry when living near the front line.

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34 Operations, War Department, Employment of Antiaircraft Artillery Guns, War Department, Engineer Troops, and War Department, Mobile Units.

35 Sleep, McManus, 269; and hygiene, McManus, 76-78 and John Ellis. The Sharp End: The Fighting Man in World War II. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1980, 185.

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Soldiers had hot meals delivered to them by their company mess sergeant, who brought up pots of food in a jeep at night. Soldiers behind the front line usually had hot food delivered to them. If they did not, they lived off of Army rations like combat soldiers ate. These came in four different varieties. The most common for support soldiers was the 10 in 1 ration. The 10 in 1 ration came packaged in a large cardboard box and contained enough assorted foods for ten men to eat. It was particularly prized because it provided soldiers with some variety, instead of the bland food which came in the other two options, K rations and C rations. K rations came in a small cardboard box marked B, L, or D (for Breakfast, Lunch, or Dinner). Denis Huston of the 99th Infantry Division described the contents of the D box K ration: “The D box included a can of hash or some other mixture of food not readily identifiable by sight, smell, or taste, a candy bar, four cigarettes, sugar, Nescafe, and crackers or hardtack.” C rations were similar, but packaged in two metal cans. One can held food which the soldier cooked over a small stove he took out of his pack, and the other held assorted powdered drinks, coffee, crackers, cigarettes, sugar, candy, and toilet paper. The soldiers were also issued with D rations, which were very hard chocolate bars. They were intended for use in an emergency and a soldier could get a day’s calories from consuming only three or four of them. The D ration was bitter in taste and many soldiers became nauseous after eating an entire bar. Soldiers usually used their bayonets to shave a few scrapings of the bar (it was too hard to break with bare hands) into their canteens to make a chocolate drink.36

The soldier’s world became very small – just the other guys in the squad, the hole or medical tent he lived in, and the field and hedgerows surrounding his home. They lived on rumors and wild stories, hoped that everyday brought a letter from home, and – if they dared – dreamed of the day when the war would end and they could all go home. His comrades – whether he liked them or not – became his family. If a soldier got a package from home, he shared its contents with the rest of the group. Outsiders were treated with cold indifference until they proved themselves worthy of being admitted to the group.

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Anti-aircraft Artillery uniform patch 36 Rations, McManus, 16-30; and “the D box included,” Denis Huston quoted in McManus, 24. 37 Attitudes, McManus, 237-305.

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Resources

Books

The best book about the American combat soldier in World War II is probably The Deadly Brotherhood: The American Combat Soldier in WWII by John C. McManus. McManus’s two books on Normandy – The Americans at D-Day: American Combat Experience at the Normandy Invasion and The Americans at Normandy: The Summer of 1944, the American War from the Normandy Beaches to Falaise – are also worth reading. They are both filled with personal stories and the words of the veterans themselves. The Sharp End by John Ellis is also excellent, but is more general, as it considers American, British, and Commonwealth soldiers. Army cartoonist Bill Mauldin’s memoir Up Front! is an excellent book and should be read by anyone wanting a better understanding of the daily life and attitudes of the American soldier during the war. The book is also graced with dozens of Mauldin’s cartoons, making it an enjoyable read. The best book on the psychological aspects of war is probably The Anatomy of Courage: The Classic WWI Account of the Psychological Effects of War, by Lord Moran. Charles Wilson, Lord Moran, was a battalion surgeon in the British Army during WWI. His account of life in the trenches, his own work as a surgeon, and the psychological toll of combat is fascinating.

Most divisions which fought in Normandy have been the subject of book-length unit histories. The best place to find what books have been written about your unit and division is WorldCat, the international library database. WorldCat also lists libraries in your area where the book is available, making it quite handy for research: http://www.worldcat.org

Online Resources

The U.S. Army’s Center of Military History has published a series of excellent books on World War II, including From Utah Beach to Cherbourg, Omaha Beachhead, Cross Channel Attack, and Breakout and Pursuit. Some of the archival resources on their website may also prove useful: http://www.history.army.mil/html/bookshelves/resmat/ww2eamet.html

Lone Sentry: Photographs, Documents, and Research on World War II is a true gem of a resource. Most useful are the ‘GI Series’ of booklets. These are short histories published by divisions just after the war. Also, note the GI Stories on the medical corps and on the engineers. The “U.S. Divisions” section at the bottom of the home page has links to pages listing detailed information about each unit. The website also has numerous articles, training manuals and intelligence bulletins which provide interesting primary sources for various topics: http://www.lonesentry.com/

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American D-Day has a number of useful documents, including primary source documents relating to the 1st and 29th Infantry Divisions: http://www.americandday.org/

6 Juin 1944 also has useful documents, oral histories, maps, and photographs for both the Utah and Omaha Beach assaults: http://www.6juin1944.com/assaut/en_index.html

The Veterans History Project at the Library of Congress’s website is a great place to find oral histories of veterans from your soldier’s unit. Check the relevant boxes and search for the regiment or battalion for which you are looking: http://www.loc.gov/vets/

Antiaircraft Command: Preserving the history of U.S. Army Antiaircraft Artillery of World War II has useful information on the weapons and equipment used by AA troops and unit histories of many anti-aircraft battalions: http://www.antiaircraft.org/index.htm

WW2 U.S. Medical Research Centre has excellent information on all facets of the medical corps in WWII, including histories, pictures and descriptions of equipment, and details on the organization of units: http://med-dept.com/index.php

These are only a selection of the many websites with WWII information available. It is a good idea to type your soldier’s name or his unit into a search engine and see what you can find!

Images and artwork

http://www.history.army.mil/html/reference/Normandy/pictures.html

http://www.history.army.mil/art/Posters/WWII/WW2.htm

http://www.history.army.mil/html/artphoto/pripos/pripos.html

http://www.history.navy.mil/photos/events/wwii-eur/normandy/nor3.htm

http://www.history.navy.mil/ac/d-day/exdday/exdday.htm

http://www.stolly.org.uk/ETO/

http://www.theatlantic.com/infocus/ww2.html

http://www.archives.gov/research/military/ww2/photos/#aviation

http://www.archives.gov/research/african-americans/ww2-pictures/

http://www.archive.org/ (NOTE: Has many WWII-era newsreels and documentaries)

Archival Sources

The National Archives has a handy brochure on researching WWII soldiers: http://www.archives.gov/research/military/ww2/ww2-participation.pdf

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The American Battle Monuments Commission’s (ABMC) website allows you to search for soldiers by name, by state, or by unit here: http://www.abmc.gov/search/wwii.php

If your soldier was an enlisted man or NCO, the first step in researching him is to find his enlistment record. The enlistment record lists some basic information about the soldier – marital status, age, race, height, year of birth, selectee or volunteer, etc. They are available online at the National Archives’s website. The best way to search is by using the soldier’s service number (S/N). ABMC’s listing for that soldier will give you his service number. If you do not have the soldier’s service number, try searching for his name instead. Most of the records are here:

http://aad.archives.gov/aad/fielded-search.jsp?dt=893&cat=WR26&tf=F&bc=,sl

If you don’t find the soldier, try here:

http://aad.archives.gov/aad/fielded-search.jsp?dt=929&cat=WR26&tf=F&bc=,sl

You may be able to get the soldier’s military personnel file from the National Personnel Records Center (NPRC) in St. Louis, Missouri by mailing in Standard Form 180. The form lists the address to mail the form on the last page. Most WWII U.S. Army records were destroyed in a fire in 1973, but it is worth a try:

http://www.archives.gov/research/order/standard-form-180.pdf

The Army created an Individual Deceased Personnel File (IDPF) for each soldier killed during the war. The IDPF takes months to get, but gives valuable information and often contains correspondence with family members regarding the deceased. The ones I have seen do not contain any images or descriptions of the state of the body, but it is probably a good idea to have the file sent to your teacher, just in case. To get your soldier’s IDPF, fill out the Freedom of Information Act request on at the end of this section and mail it to:

The Human Resources Command, FOIA Office, 1600 Spearhead Division Avenue, Building 1, Third Floor, Ft. Knox, KY 40122.

The National Archives’s website has lists of military personnel killed during the war by state and by county. The forward to these books often has interesting information about your state’s participation in the war. The Army lists are here:

http://www.archives.gov/research/arc/ww2/army-casualties/

The best place to do research on your soldier’s family is http://www.ancestry.com. Ancestry offers a two week free trial, so you should be able to find your soldier’s census data using the information from ABMC’s website and his enlistment record (if applicable). Some libraries have Ancestry on a computer for free use. By now, you hopefully know where your soldier was from and have a year of birth. Using that information, you can think about where he

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may have gone to high school. What high schools were around in his town or city in the late 1930s? Contact the school’s librarian. They may be able to find a yearbook picture of the soldier. It is also a good idea to talk to the people at your local or state historical society. They may be able to help you find resources. Try finding a library or university with the soldier’s local newspaper archived. You may be able to find an article about him or an obituary. Remember that obituaries were sometimes not printed until months after the soldier died. It often took weeks for the Army to send information regarding the soldier to his family. A city or county directory may have been published for your soldier’s area by R. L. Polk & Company. These directories list each resident in alphabetical order and give a one-sentence listing of their place of work, job title, and address. Check WorldCat or your local library for listings. Researching the soldier’s personal life is the most difficult part of fallen soldier research. You have to think like a detective and be creative to try to find sources. Sometimes a piece of evidence from one source and another scrap of information from another source can lead to wonderful results.

Your soldier’s military records are housed in two different archives. The records of your soldier’s military unit are at the National Archives at College Park, Maryland. These records contain all kinds of military documents. You can find after action reports discussing what happened during a battle, orders from your soldier’s commander, lists of medals or awards, and even minute-by-minute logs of messages coming in to the unit’s staff officers. Sometimes, these records have really interesting items, like cartoons, unit newspapers, and other items that give you an idea of what life in your soldier’s unit was like. A few other records are housed at the National Personnel Records Center. The NPRC has unit rosters of all of the men in a unit, but not for the years 1944 or 1945 (those were thrown out). They also have company morning reports – a short document filled out each morning by the company listing what happened that day, the number of men in the unit, and the names of men not present for duty that day for whatever reason.

Sometimes you find the information you want very quickly during your research and other times you have to work for it. Sometimes the information is just gone forever. But it is best to ‘leave no stone unturned’ and to try everything. Your hard work will usually be rewarded with good results. Take a lesson your soldier had to learn in Normandy – be flexible, be creative, and don’t give up.

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Freedom of Information Act Request TO: Department of the Army Human Resources Command of Excellence ATTN: FOIA, Bldg 1, 3rd Floor, Suite 17 1600 Spearhead Division Avenue Fort Knox, KY 40122 E-mail address: Foia.hrc@conus.army.mil Telephone: 502-613-4400 I request a copy of the Individual Deceased Personnel File (IDPF) pertaining to: Soldier’s Rank and Name: ________________________________________________ Serial Number if known: _______________________________ Date of Death: _______________________ Conflict: ____________________ Next of Kin requesting documents: _________________________________________ Next of Kin day time phone number: ___________________ Mailing address where documents will be sent: _______________________________ Signature of requestor and Date

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Bibliography

6 Juin 1944. Accessed October 19, 2011. http://www.6juin1944.com/ Ellis, John. The Sharp End: The Fighting Man in World War II. New York: Charles Scribner’s

Sons, 1980. Greenfield, Kent Roberts, editor. The War against Germany: Europe and Adjacent Areas.

Washington: Center of Military History, 1989. Headquarters, 101st Airborne Division. “Organization and Function of Airborne Medical

Company in Combat.” Undated. Record Group 407, National Archives, College Park, MD.

Headquarters, Task Force 122. “Report on Naval Combat Demolition Units in Operation

‘Neptune’ as part of Task Force 122,” 19 July 1944. Kennedy, Gary. Battalion Organization during the Second World War. Accessed October 11,

2011. http://www.bayonetstrength.150m.com/ Lone Sentry: Photos, Articles, & Research on the European Theater in World War II. Accessed

November 11, 2011. http://www.lonesentry.com/ McManus, John C. The Deadly Brotherhood: The American Combat Soldier in World War II.

New York: Ballantine Books, 1998. Mollo, Andrew. The Armed Forces of World War II: Uniforms, insignia and organization. New

York: Crown Publishers, 1981. Pyle, Ernie. Brave Men. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2001. The Stars & Stripes. That Men Might Live!: The Story of the Medical Service – ETO. Paris: The

Stars & Stripes, 1945. War Department. Antiaircraft Artillery Automatic Weapons Battalion, Mobile, T/O&E 44-25. 22

April 1944. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1944. —. Antiaircraft Artillery Automatic Weapons Battery, Self-Propelled, T/O&E 44-77. 17

November, 1944. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1944. —. Antiaircraft Artillery Automatic Weapons Battery, Mobile, T/O&E 44-27. 22 April 1944.

Washington: Government Printing Office, 1944.

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—. Antiaircraft Artillery Battalion, Mobile, T/O&E 44-15. 17 November 1944. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1944.

—. The Armored Engineer Battalion, FM 17-45. 15 June 1944. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1944.

—. Employment of Antiaircraft Artillery Automatic Weapons, FM 44-2. December 1944.

Washington: Government Printing Office, 1944. —. Employment of Antiaircraft Artillery Guns, FM 44-4. June 1945. Washington: Government

Printing Office, 1945. —. Engineer Combat Battalion, T/O&E 5-15 13 March 1944. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1944. —. Engineer Combat Company (Troop), T/O&E 5-17 13 March 1944. Washington: Government

Printing Office, 1944. —. Engineer Troops, FM 5-5. 11 October 1943. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1943. —. Medical Battalion, Infantry Division, T/O&E 8-15. April 1, 1942. Washington: Government

Printing Office, 1942. —. Medical Detachment, Infantry Regiment, T/O&E 7-11. 26 February 1944. Washington:

Government Printing Office, 1944. —. Mobile Units of the Medical Department, FM 8-5. January 12, 1942. Washington:

Government Printing Office, 1944.

Engineers relax on a pontoon bridge as a Dodge Weapons Carrier crosses

Courtesy Stolly.org.uk