The Language Environment of First Century Judaea Language Environment of First Century Judaea ... 4 The Linguistic Ethos of the Galilee in the First Century ... what is known about

This is a digital offfprint for restricted use only | copy 2014 Koninklijke Brill NV

The Language Environment of First Century Judaea

Jerusalem Studies in the Synoptic Gospels

Volume Two

Edited by

Randall Buth and R Steven Notley

LEIDEN | BOSTON


Contents

Introduction Language Issues Are Important for Gospel Studiesemspemsp1

Randall Buth

Sociolinguistic Issues in a Trilingual Frameworkemspemsp7

1 The Origins of the ldquoExclusive Aramaic Modelrdquo in the Nineteenth Century Methodological Fallacies and Subtle Motivesemspemsp9

Guido Baltes

2 The Use of Hebrew and Aramaic in Epigraphic Sources of the New Testament Eraemspemsp35

Guido Baltes

3 Hebraisti in Ancient Texts Does Ἑβραϊστί Ever Mean ldquoAramaicrdquoemspemsp66Randall Buth and Chad Pierce

4 The Linguistic Ethos of the Galilee in the First Century CEemspemsp110Marc Turnage

5 Hebrew versus Aramaic as Jesusrsquo Language Notes on Early Opinions by Syriac Authorsemspemsp182

Serge Ruzer

Literary Issues in a Trilingual Frameworkemspemsp207

6 Hebrew Aramaic and the Difffering Phenomena of Targum and Translation in the Second Temple Period and Post-Second Temple Periodemspemsp209

Daniel A Machiela

7 Distinguishing Hebrew from Aramaic in Semitized Greek Texts with an Application for the Gospels and Pseudepigraphaemspemsp247

Randall Buth

vi contents


8 Non-Septuagintal Hebraisms in the Third Gospel An Inconvenient Truthemspemsp320

R Steven Notley

Reading Gospel Texts in a Trilingual Frameworkemspemsp347

9 Hebrew-Only Exegesis A Philological Approach to Jesusrsquo Use of the Hebrew Bibleemspemsp349

R Steven Notley and Jefffrey P Garcia

10 Jesusrsquo Petrosndashpetra Wordplay (Matthew 1618) Is It Greek Aramaic or Hebrewemspemsp375

David N Bivin

11 The Riddle of Jesusrsquo Cry from the Cross The Meaning of ηλι ηλι λαμα σαβαχθανι (Matthew 2746) and the Literary Function of ελωι ελωι λειμα σαβαχθανι (Mark 1534)emspemsp395

Randall Buth

Index of Ancient Sourcesemspemsp423 Subject Index emspemsp448

copy koninklijke brill nv leiden 2014ensp|enspdoi 1011639789004264410_013


The Riddle of Jesusrsquo Cry from the Cross The Meaning of ηλι ηλι λαμα σαβαχθανι (Matthew 2746) and the Literary Function of ελωι ελωι λειμα σαβαχθανι (Mark 1534)

Randall Buth

Just before Jesus dies on the cross he cries out with a loud voice and says some-thing that Mark and Matthew record in a foreign language There are two reac-tions to this cry Some of the people mock and say that he is calling on Elijah to save him In Mark the reaction is that of a centurion who says ldquotruly this was Godrsquos sonrdquo The same reaction in Matthew follows an earthquake

This essay will explore several questions by evaluating them in the light of what is known about the tri-language situation of the time and especially from the perspective of current Mishnaic Hebrew scholarship Is the story historical or did it have a historical basis What was actually said Most importantly how does the cry function within the narratives of Mark and Matthew

1 Establishing the Greek Text of the Foreign Words in Matthew 2746 and Mark 1534

The Greek text of Matt 2746 and Mark 1534 is both complicated and interest-ing The text in both Gospels needs to be discussed together The four major textual groupsmdashthe Alexandrian (Alx) the Western (Wes) the Caesarean (Cae) and the Byzantine (Byz)mdashare all diffferent from each other but they may be placed in two general groups The Alexandrian Western and Caesarean all give a harmonistic assimilated text between Matthew and Mark and are all probably secondary It is the Byzantine text type that has resisted assimila-tion This is especially remarkable since we are dealing with a transliteration of the words of Jesus at a high point in the gospel story There was obviously pressure to assimilate the texts the Alexandrian1 assimilated to Mark the

1 ελωι ελωι λεμα σαβαχθανει אc C (B reads ελωει ελωει λεμα σαβακτανει in Matthew with a confused and conflated ελωι ελωι λαμα ζαβαφθανει in Mark) See Reuben Swanson ed New

Testament Greek Manuscripts Variant Readings Arranged in Horizontal Lines Against Codex

Vaticanus Matthew Mark (Shefffĳield Shefffĳield Academic 1995) for fuller citations In the fĳirst century the graph ει was pronounced the same as ι

396 buth


Caesarean2 to M atthew and the Western3 to Biblical Hebrew But the Byzantine text type preserved a Matthew that is diffferent from Mark

Matt (Byz) ηλι ηλι λειμα σαβαχθανιMark (Byz) ελωι ελωι λειμα σαβαχθανι

These are probably the closest recoverable texts to the original texts of Matthew and Mark4 An alternative to these Byz readings would be to substitute the Caesarean in Matthew5

Matt (Cae) ηλει ηλει λαμα σαβαχθανει6Mark (Byz) ελωι ελωι λειμα σαβαχθανι

2 Is the Story in Matthew and Mark with Psalm 22 and Elijah an Invention

Rudolf Bultmann7 argued that the story in Mark developed out of an unspeci-fĳied cry in the tradition (Mark 1537) that was fĳilled out by adding a scripture

2 ηλει ηλει λαμα σαβαχθανει Θ f1 See ibid for fuller citations3 ηλει ηλει λαμα ζαφθανει D4 Westcott and Hort followed the Alexandrian family on this question despite the strength of

the assimilation explanation against their view and despite the problem with Codex Vatica-nus in Mark An overriding aversion to the Byzantine textform misled them here UBSNA and the new SBLGNT have corrected that

5 In the matter of reconstructing these transliterations I think that it is a mistake to work on each word in each author eclectically and work up to the whole sentence UBSNA and SBLGNT have produced a ldquonewrdquo reading for Matthew that does not appear in any manuscript listed in Swanson This is a case where one should probably stay within the non-assimilating text group which is the Byzantine Having said that I would not be averse to following the Caesarean text in Matthew as a very slightly diffferent variant of the Byzantine Both Cae and Byz basically point to the same sentence in Matthew

6 For the title of the present study the Caesarean option was chosen for Matthew (λαμα) which highlights the diffference between Matthew and Mark The Byz reading in Matthew is the better textual choice if keeping to one unassimilated family for both Matthew and Mark Both the Caesarean and Byzantine texts of Matthew agree on the same linguistic pedigree and structure (The Caesarean Greek text in the title of this essay has been changed for ita-

cism [ηλι for ηλει and σαβαχθανι for σαβαχθανει] in order to accommodate ldquoErasmianrdquo readers of Greek The form λειμα was left in Mark as non-distracting for Erasmians for the title and for the broad strokes of the argument)

7 Rudolf Bultmann History of the Synoptic Tradition (New York Harper amp Row 1963) 313

397The Riddle Of Jesusrsquo Cry From The Cross


David Flusser employing a diffferent methodology basically agreed8 There are two problems with this approach Many have pointed out that Markrsquos translit-eration does not fĳit easily with the Elijah motif If Mark introduced Ps 22 into the story then he would have been the one introducing the transliteration and the Elijah motif But Markrsquos transliteration does not highlight the Elijah con-nection for a Greek reader in fact ελωι is about as far from ηλεια as possible The transliteration suggests that Mark received the story and worked it into his gospel In addition these suggestions do not satisfactorily deal with the embar-rassment criterion The citation of Ps 22 has been seen as embarrassing in the history of the Church Intuitively most commentators consider the verse as easier to explain as the inclusion of a historical detail than as a literary cre-ation in a gospel I share this opinion Looking at this issue from the other side may help clarify the strength of these counterarguments If Mark only received Ps 3169 or an unspecifĳied cry in the traditions10 then what would lead him to choose Ps 222 as a replacement What interpretative advantage for presenting his portrayal of the messiah does he achieve through the particular verse he chose He unnecessarily creates added complexity for the picture of a messiah or the Son of God If he wanted an Elijah story then he bungled the connection by his transliteration against the biblical text and he did not need a scripture in any case In terms of probability of solutions we must accept that Mark 1534ndash35

8 David Flusser with R Steven Notley The Sage from Galilee Rediscovering Jesusrsquo Genius (Grand Rapids Eerdmans 2007) 4 ldquoI believe that the famous quotation of Ps 221 [HMT 222] in Mark 1534 (and Matt 2746) is a creative inventionrdquo

9 For Robert Lindsey (A Hebrew Translation of the Gospel of Mark [2d ed Jerusalem Dugith 1973] 63) the quotation of Ps 31 in Luke was the catalyst for Markrsquos substituting Ps 222 from a targum and rewriting the story ldquoThe Aramaic wordsthinspthinspthinspthinspare a direct quotation from a targum of Psalm 22 and appear to be a Markan replacement of the Lukan saying of Jesus from Psalm 31rdquo He gives it as one among many examples of Mark replacing Lukersquos text but he does not explain why Mark chose a targum nor does he discuss whether a targum existed in the fĳirst century On a Psalms targum see below

10 Flusser (Sage 161) assumed that Luke assimilated Jesusrsquo last cry to what a dying Jew would be expected to say (Luke 2346) Flusser cited the Jewish Prayer Book However as his editor Steven Notley has pointed out in private communication this is a remark-able confluence between Jewish tradition and a probable Gentile author despite the fact that the Jewish tradition is only fĳirst attested over a millennium later Notley argues that this points to a historical tradition behind Luke 2346 and we would concur Notley also provides a close attestation for this Jewish custom in the Life of Adam and Eve 314 ἕως οὗ ἀποδῶ τὸ πνεῦμά μου εἰς τὰς χεῖρας τοῦ δεδωκότος αὐτό ldquountil I repay my spirit into the hands of the one who gave itrdquo At a minimum we would conclude that Luke has received the material behind Luke 2346 and the parallel usage in Acts 759 from a Judean source oral or written and with a reasonable case for historicity

398 buth


was most probably based on a source and the cry of Ps 22 is a likely candidate for being historical We proceed from this historical conclusion

3 The Language of the Eliya Story

The story about Elijah (Greek ηλειαςηλιας vocative ηλειαηλια sometimes ηλειου in Old Greek OT) a common Jewish messianic motif suggests that a pre-canonical Greek version of the story circulated with ηλειηλι not ελωι11 The form ελωι is not a good fĳit for an author who is writing about a wordplay with Elijah The connection for the Greek reader is unnecessarily obscured

If ηλι is pre-Markan as appears probable then Mark is responsible for the form ελωι and we should at least ask ourselves if there is a reason or motive that might explain such a change Fortunately this is not the only place where Mark introduces a language switch into his narrative At both 541 and 735 Mark introduces apparent Aramaic sentences in healing accounts12 Apparently when Mark was writing he was not thinking primarily of this Eliya wordplay but was more interested in presenting a clearly Aramaic saying13 This is the literary connection that needs to be explored Another interesting question assuming that Matthew had access to Mark is why Matthew changed the tran-scription from what he found in Mark However before discussing the literary connections within each Gospel we must cover the background of the trans-literated words themselves since they have raised not a little controversy and confusion

11 Similarly an oral tradition would have used [eli] instead of [ɛlɔi]12 ταλιθα ldquolittle lambgirlrdquo is unambiguously an Aramaic word εφφαθα ldquobe openedrdquo is actu-

ally closer to a niphal Hebrew word הפתח In the fĳirst century the fĳirst Hebrew vowel was lower than [i] and Greek φφ was hard [p]) But εφφαθα can also be explained as colloquial development within Aramaic Cf Isaac Rabinowitz ldquo lsquoBe Openedrsquo = ΕΦΦΑΦΘΑ Mk 734 Did Jesus Speak Hebrewrdquo ZNT 53 (1962) 229ndash38 John A Emerton ldquoMaranatha and Eph-

phathardquo JTS 18 (1967) 427ndash31 Isaac Rabinowitz ldquoἘφφαθά [Mk vii 34] Certainly Hebrew Not Aramaicrdquo JSS 16 (1971) 151ndash56 Shlomo Morag ldquoἘφφαθά [Mk vii 34] Certainly Hebrew Not Aramaicrdquo JSS 17 (1972) 198ndash202 Because 541 and 1534 are unambiguously Aramaic it is best to read 735 as Aramaic too

13 Mark 317 βοανηργες Mark shows that he is capable of changing a foreign transliteration for literary efffect He probably transliterated the word בני bene- ldquosons ofrdquo βοανη-precisely for its literary efffect in Greek where βοᾶν means ldquoto shoutrdquo See Randall Buth ldquoMark 317 ΒΟΝΕΡΕΓΕΜ and Popular Etymologyrdquo JSNT 3 (January 1981) 29ndash33



4 Semitic Background of the Individual Words

The form ελωι in Mark seems intended to represent an Aramaic word for ldquomy Godrdquo אלהי in the Tiberian system14 That is easy to establish and not in dispute

On the other hand ηλι and its acoustically equivalent by-form ηλει are most probably intended as specifĳically Hebrew One needs to ask the ques-tion from the perspective of persons in antiquity who knew both Hebrew and Aramaic Would they have recognized אלי as Aramaic or Hebrew Matthewrsquos transliteration ηλιηλει will turn out to be a crucial point because it sets the framework for his own citation

It has sometimes been claimed that אלי is good Aramaic For example some have pointed to a late copy of a late Psalms Targum where אלי is in the אלי text15 But a possible use of אלי in the late16 Psalms Targum at 222 might only mean that a foreign word was being used for midrashic purposes in a targum Moreover the text of the Psalms Targum at that verse probably did not con-tain אלי The Targum printed in the new Bar Ilan series Miqraot Gedolot lsquoha-

Keterrsquo reads standard Aramaic 17אלהי One must remember that a targum is a

14 This Aramaic may be transcribed in IPA as approximately [ʔɛlɔi] though in the fĳirst century the vowel with lamed may have ranged anywhere from [a] to [o] depending on dialect and speaker Etymologically the vowel came from an ldquoardquo but a sister language Phoenician was using ldquoordquo for many of these later Western Syriac would use ldquoordquo for this and later Tiberian Hebrew would use [ɔ] An IPA transcription of the Greek would produce something similar [ɛlɔi] or [ɛloi] The ω-mega was originally a low back vowel close to [ɔ] though in the Hellenistic period both ω-mega and ο-mikron were pronounced the same So diffferent dialects could freely range anywhere in the mid to lower back region for the one phonemic sound from [o] to [ɔ] or in between On the other hand a Hebrew form for ldquomy Godrdquo would expect an extra vowel [ɛloai] אלהי Hellenistic Greeks would need to write this ελωαει (ελωαι would be ambiguous with ελωε and need a dieresis ελωαϊ) The uncommon Biblical Hebrew form אלוה might have been thought to fĳit perfectly but it is never attested with a sufffĳix and is not used in Mishnaic Hebrew Since neither Hebrew can explain the Greek ελωι must be considered an Aramaic word אלוה nor Hebrew אלהי

15 See Robert H Gundry The Use of the Old Testament in St Matthewrsquos Gospel with Special

Reference to the Messianic Hope (NovTSup 18 Leiden Brill 1975) 64 ldquo(The targum has rdquo(אלי

16 Probably seventh century or considerably later A Psalms targum was not in use in Yemen and was not part of the otherwise excellent targumic traditions passed down through Yemenite sources In the West Rashi Ibn Ezra and Qimhi who frequently quote Targu-mim in their commentaries do not quote a Psalms targum

17 The Bar Ilan targum in its Psalms volume is based primarily on Paris 110 for the con-sonantal Aramaic text and primarily on Paris 117 for the vocalization with a group of other manuscripts being used in a supporting role for correcting obvious mistakes

400 buth


midrashic translation and cannot be assumed to be natural Aramaic even if it were from the correct time period The Targum traditions are a rich index of Jewish exegesis of the biblical text In sum the Psalms Targum tradition has nothing to say about fĳirst-century Aramaic and the Targum probably had the normal Aramaic אלהי אלהי when it developed towards the end of the fĳirst millennium In a secondary late manuscript אלי can only be accepted as a Hebrew insertion

Joseph Fitzmyer has claimed that no question remains about ηλι being Aramaic because אל is found in Qumran Aramaic18 Unfortunately his state-ment is premature and somewhat misleading The form אליηλι has not been found in Qumran What has been found at Qumran is not so much an Aramaic word as an in-group Hebrew code word a quasi-proper name Approximately 800 times in the Hebrew texts at Qumran we fĳind אל El as a quasi-name It is not used with ldquotherdquo or with pronominal sufffĳixes It is a special name that Qumran uses for ldquoGodrdquo The quasi-name has been borrowed in some of the Qumranian Aramaic texts19 It is important to point out that this form too does not occur with sufffĳixes and it is not a general word for ldquoGodrdquo Fitzmyer has acknowledged this20 It is this special Qumranian Hebrew name that appears in 4Q246ar the so-called Son of God or Antichrist text So one must remember

See Menahem Cohen Rabbinic Bible ldquothe Crownrdquo [miqraot gedolot ha-keter] The Book of Psalms Part 1 Psalms 1ndash72 (Ramat-Gan Israel Bar-Ilan University 2003 [Hebrew]) ixndashx

18 Joseph A Fitzmyer ldquoThe Aramaic Language and the Study of the New Testamentrdquo JBL 99 (1980) 15 ldquoMoreover the phrase bereh di rsquol lsquothe Son of Godrsquo preserves the use of rsquoel as a name for God in Aramaic in contrast to the usual name rsquoelah(arsquo) It thus puts an end to the debate whether the words of Jesus on the cross in the Matthean form eli eli lema

sabachthani (2746) were really all Aramaic or half Hebrew and half Aramaic as has been at times maintained Even though the Aramaic sufffĳixal form rsquoeli has not yet turned up the absolute rsquoel ldquoGodrdquo turns up several times in this textrdquo

19 For instance in Qumran Hebrew documents the Hebrew title עליון is used which is אל tied to the special afffĳinity that Qumran had for אל El as almost a personal name for God Similarly in the Aramaic 1Q20 Genesis Apocryphon we have a Hebrew title אל עליון ldquosupreme Godrdquo apparently taken as a loan title in an Aramaic Qumran document 4Q246 has ברה די אל ldquoson of ElGodrdquo עם אל ldquopeople of ElGodrdquo and אל רבא ldquothe great ElGodrdquo 4Q538 might be a better example of a potential normal use הוא אל טב ldquohe is a good GodElrdquo but the reading is doubtful 4Q542 אל אלין is apparently an adaption from the Qum-ranic Hebrew אל אלים

20 Joseph A Fitzmyer A Wandering Aramean Collected Aramaic Essays (Missoula Mont Scholars Press 1979) 93 ldquoEven though we still do not have the sufffĳixal form of it (אלי) such as the Greek of Matt 2746 would call forthinspthinspthinsp this form of the divine name should be recalled in discussions that bear on that verse (it has often been maintained that is Hebraic)rdquo



to ask If bystanders at the cross heard אלי אלי would they have thought that it was Hebrew or Aramaic Nothing suggests anything except Hebrew

Peter Williams21 has claimed that אל is colloquial popular Aramaic because is found in some amulets dating from the fourth century ce following22 אלWhen viewed in its literary context this is actually counterevidence Foreign names of divinity are used for magic power They become a kind of abra-

kadabra and are not common speech As Naveh and Shaked comment ldquoWithin this general web of magical elements there are elements which may strike us as Jewish Some of these have become part of the general non-Jewish magic tradition eg names such as Yah Yahu Sabaoth El I-am-who-I-am as well as formulae such as Amen selah etcrdquo23 They are undoubtedly correct in their general practice of translating most of the occurrences of אל in such texts as ldquoElrdquo that is they transcribe a foreign name rather than translating as the word ldquoGodgodrdquo We do have a Syriac amulet of unknown provenance and date24 and a missing Aramaic amulet from Turkey where the אל may have entered Aramaic syntax25 These two amulets within the Aramaic magic traditions show that El

21 Peter J Williams ldquoThe Linguistic Background to Jesusrsquo Dereliction Cry (Matt 2746 Mark 1534)rdquo in The New Testament in Its First Century Setting Essays on Context and Background

in Honour of B W Winter on His 65th Birthday (ed P J Williams Andrew D Clarke Peter M Head and David Instone-Brewer Grand Rapids Eerdmans 2004)

22 The location of both amulets that Williams cites are currently unknown 23 Joseph Naveh and Shaul Shaked Amulets and Magic Bowls Aramaic Incantations of Late

Antiquity (2d ed Jerusalem Magnes 1987) 36 Several of these can illustrate the direct borrowing of Hebrew and the very special genre of language use

ldquo(Heb) אל אלוהי (ldquomy God Elrdquo Amulet 2810) (Heb) האל אלוהי ישראל (ldquothe God the God of Israelrdquo Amulet 123)(Amulet 24) יה יה יהו אל אל אל קקקקקקקקקק (Hebrew in an Aramaic amulet) אל צצצצצצצצצצצצצצצצצ החקוקה השם אתות בשם

in the name of the letters of the engraved name [17 tsades] El El Elrdquo Amuletldquo) אל אל1916ndash17 from Joseph Naveh and Shaul Shaked Magic Spells and Formulae Aramaic

Incantations of Late Antiquity [Jerusalem Magnes Press 1993]) Il Il Il El El El Shaddairdquo Bowl 245ndash6 Naveh and Shakedldquo) איל איל איל אל אל אל שדי

Magic Spells and Formulae)rdquo(the God of Israelrdquo Amulet 714ldquo) אלה דישראל

24 The Syriac amulet was photographed but was lost in 1926 See Naveh and Shaked Amulets

and Magic Bowls (Syriac) קדיש אילאthinspthinspthinspthinspאו | בר | טאון | אילא (ldquoholy one of GodthinspthinspthinspthinspO | Son | of Theon [θεῶν]

| the Godrdquo Amulet 62 11 Naveh and Shaked Amulets and Magic Bowls) 25 ldquoPresent location unknownrdquo See Naveh and Shaked Amulets and Magic Bowls 68

Cf דאלה רבה (ldquoof the Great Godrdquo Amulet 75) and אלה דישראל (ldquothe God of Israelrdquo Amu-let 714 Naveh and Shaked Amulets and Magic Bowls)

402 buth


penetrated Aramaic dialects in magic contexts probably in a late period but they do not prove that it was an Aramaic word in the fĳirst century or that it was being used in normal Aramaic speech or syntax So fĳinding אל at Qumran and il in some magic texts further fĳills out the picture and confĳirms that אלי was not used in Aramaic and that the Hebrew loanword אל was only used in special marginal Aramaic Predictably we do not have words like אלי ldquomy Godrdquo אלך ldquoyour Godrdquo אליה ldquohis Godrdquo and so forth in Jewish Palestinian Aramaic26 More importantly in front of an audience that understands Hebrew the word אלי would be understood as Hebrew and there would be no thought that it was Aramaic or foreign There is little doubt that bilingual Aramaic and Hebrew speakers would hear אלי אלי as Hebrew27

A comparison of the Greek text with Syriac translations is complicated and ultimately unhelpful for understanding Matthew and Mark In Matthew the Syriac Peshitto has ܐ ܐ without the personal sufffĳix ldquomyrdquo It is also with-out translation apparently since the word is recognized and used in Syriac in names like ܝ El-Shaddai and even by i tself In Mark the Peshitto has the ܐsame ܐ ܐ without ldquomyrdquo although a translation in standard AramaicSyriac is also given ܝ ܝ ܐ my God my Godrdquo If the Peshitto texts are correct28ldquo ܐthey might indicate that ilIl was being considered a divine name However one might also speculate that the Syriac ܐ is reflecting an abstract Hebraism force powerrdquo29 from a parallel interpretation that shows up in the Gospelldquo איל

26 One might ask whether אלי might be an otherwise unattested signal for Aramaic magic in the fĳirst century This however is ruled out by being in a sentence that is devoid of any-thing magical Secondly there is no evidence that ldquoMY GODrdquo entered the Aramaic magic tradition certainly not from pre-Christian times As mentioned above properly formed Hebrew words and phrases were sometimes taken in whole into the Aramaic magic tradi-tions (cf אהיה אשר ישראל and אהיה אלוהי on Amulet 123 (in Naveh and Shaked האל Amulets and Magic Bowls) but the word on the cross is not one of them

27 Cf Epiphanius in the Panarion 683 (Frank Williams The Panarion of Epiphanius of Sala-

mis Books II and III [Leiden Brill 1994] 386) ldquoIndeed the Lord prophesied this when he said in Hebrew lsquoEli Eli lema sabachthanirsquo On the cross the Lord duly fulfĳilled what had been prophesied of him by saying lsquoEli Elirsquo in Hebrew as had originally been written And to complete the companion phrase he said lsquolema sabachthanirsquo no longer in Hebrew but in Aramaicthinspthinspthinspthinspby saying the rest no longer in Hebrew but in Aramaic he meant to humble ltthe pridegt of those who boast of Hebrewrdquo

28 From some point of time in the fĳirst millennium Syriac did not vocalize the fĳinal syllable of ܝ is more likely to be explained interpretively as a name or possibly ܐ However ܐas Hebrew ldquopowerrdquo rather than textually especially with the correct form provided in the following clause

29 The cognate to this word in Syriac is rdquohelpldquo ܐ



of Peter 19 (η δυναμις μου η δυναμις μου κατελειπας με ldquomy Power my Power you left merdquo) It appears that the Peshitto has assimilated Matthew and Mark to the same transcription and it cannot be taken to represent either the word from the cross or Aramaic for ldquomy Godrdquo The Old Syriac Sinaiticus text has ܐ ܐ in Matthew without translation and ܝ ܝ ܐ in Mark without translation ܐEven though ܐ is not a word used naturally elsewhere in Syriac30 the lack of translation shows that Syriac audiences were probably able to understand ܐ but the phrase for ldquowhyrdquo shows assimilation to Syriac32 The Old Syriac 31ܐ

provides a good correspondence to the Byzantine text family in GreekAn indirect indication that אלי was spoken and that it was not Aramaic

comes from the logic of the confusion motif Some of the bystanders were prob-ably Aramaic speakers without a good control of Hebrew if at all Passover was a feast when Aramaic- and Greek-speaking pilgrims were in Jerusalem from all over the world In addition many of the conscripted Roman soldiers and other non-Jews in attendance would be mainly Aramaic- and Greek-speaking Both pilgrims and non-Jews would be primary candidates for confusing eli eli as eliya eliya ηλεια ηλεια If the sounds eli were not an expected or normal word in Aramaic this could generate confusion so that the confusion motif takes on verisimilitude with a non-Aramaic eli

30 Neither ܐܠ nor ܐ are listed in Payne Smithrsquos dictionary According to Payne Smith ܐ means ldquoGodrdquo and is ldquofrequently used in the composition of proper namesrdquo There is also a wordplay listed ܐ ܐ which would mean ldquoby the help of GodIlrdquo For perspective ܐis not used in the Old Syriac (Curetonian or Sinaiticus) and it is not used in the Peshitto NT outside of Matt 2746 and Mark 1534 In the OT it mainly occurs with names cf eg Gen 3320 ܝ ܐ ܐ ܕܐ and he called it El-elohe-Yisraelrdquo Gen 351 with aldquo ܘplay on the name Bethel ldquobet-ilelrdquo house of the God IlEl Num 1622 has a vocative ܐ

rdquoO God Illdquo ܐ31 This probably shows a cross-language understanding perhaps like ldquoa Diosrdquo is understood

by many Anglo-Californians even though they also recognize Dios as Spanish Hebrew and Aramaic are closer See above where Hebrew words for ldquoGodrdquo enter the Aramaic magic tradition as probable ldquoforeign magicrdquo yet they were apparently able to be made understandable While ldquoIlElrdquo is one of the names of God in the Syriac OT ܐ is not used for ldquomy Godrdquo

32 Syriac le-mono where an extra -n- consonant is added although it was not part of either Greek tradition or Second Temple Western Aramaic

404 buth


5 Short Textual Note on λειμαλαμα ldquoWhyrdquo

The transliteration λειμα in Mark probably represents the Aramaic למה ldquowhyrdquo33 The Greek transcriptions with [i] would be a perception resulting from influence of the alveolar [l] sound on the reduced vowel

The texts with λαμα are more transparently a Hebrew word מה rdquowhyldquo לThat may be an indication that some of the Caesarean texts are preserving the more original form of the saying in Matthew where the sentence begins with Hebrew ηλι ηλι However it must be remembered that the Caesarean text has assimilated Markrsquos text to Matthew Nevertheless the Caesarean text is still a ldquodifffĳicult readingrdquo in Matthew meaning textually capable of being original and generating the other texts since it preserves the apparent Hebrew-Aramaic language dichotomy as enunciated by Epiphanius (see footnote 27 above)The Byzantine tradition itself is rather consistent in having (λιμα λειμα [lima]) This probably reflects internal harmonization in Matthew but it might reflect a dialectical use of ה in Mishnaic Hebrew34 למ

6 Short Anecdotal Excursus on Hebrew in Jerusalem in the First Century

We have three anecdotal accounts of language use in Jerusalem that testify to a fluent use of Hebrew being taken for granted Acts 2133 through 2221 records Paul in a riot then speaking Greek to a Roman chiliarch and then speaking Hebrew to the crowd It has often been suggested that Luke meant

33 All of the textual traditions λειμα λιμα λεμα and λαμα could theoretically refer to an Ara-maic word ה though the fĳirst three would be more suggestive of Aramaic and the last למmore suggestive of Hebrew

34 The Hebrew Bible does not use למה even where a preposition might be expected with the word ldquowhatrdquo For comparison consider במה This occurs 28 times in the Bible vocalized with pataḥ as במה (along with its byform במה) and once in Qoh 322 vocalized with shva משלו as in למה and למה Later in Mishnaic Hebrew we get a distinction between במהדומה הדבר למה rdquothey parabled a parablemdashto what does the matter resembleldquo משל- There may have been dialects using lema ldquowhyrdquo that have not been recorded due to the lack of written vocalization in antiquity 1 Chr 1513 has such a form but it is graphi-cally joined to the following word למבראשונה This could give some support to a dialect hypothesis The Byzantine text family in Matthew would then provide support for such a dialectical form in Mishnaic Hebrew However having mentioned this possibility we assume that it is more likely that λειμα λιμα and λεμα represent an internal Greek corrup-tion within the Byzantine textual traditions of Matt 2746



ldquoAramaicrdquo as Bible translations like the NIV and the footnote of the RSV make explicit Allegedly a Jew from the diaspora who can speak to them in Aramaic brings them to silence35 The problem with this suggestion is that many if not most diaspora Jews visiting from throughout the Middle East and the Eastern Mediterranean could speak Aramaic as a lingua franca There was nothing sur-prising at all and the account becomes puzzling when viewed from a wider geographical perspective Appropriately Luke did not say that Paul spoke in Aramaic ἐν τῇ Συριακῇ διαλέκτῳ ldquoin the Aramaic languagerdquo Thanks in part to over a century of research on Mishnaic Hebrew we now have a more fĳitting option A colloquial Hebrew not Biblical Hebrew was used in teaching people about Jewish laws relating to daily life and groups like Qumran and even the Jewish members of Bar-Kochbarsquos army would use it However Hebrew was not widely used outside of Judea and Galilee so hearing a speaker address a crowd in an extemporaneous public speech in Hebrew was predictably stun-ning Hebrew explains the crowdrsquos reaction and it was also an appropriate lan-guage for discussing afffairs internal to Jewish religious life John Poirier has added another possibility that points to Hebrew36 The riot and investigation of Acts 2133ndash34 may have taken place in Aramaic If Paul participated in the investigation in any way before the Greek conversation in Acts 2137ndash38 then Paul would have used Aramaic and could not switch to Aramaic in Acts 22 as something new Roman soldiers serving in the Eastern Mediterranean had to know Greek but many soldiers also spoke Aramaic as Josephus exempli-fĳies in War 437ndash38 Presumably soldiers who were bilingual in Greek and Aramaic (not counting ldquoarmy Latinrdquo and other languages) would be stationed in the Temple area for organized crowd control Finally contemporary lit-erature in Greek like Josephus the LXX the letter of Aristeas Ben Sira and Pseudepigrapha consistently distinguish Hebrew (Ἑβραΐς) from Aramaic

35 Cf Joseph A Fitzmyer The Acts of the Apostles (AB 31 New York Doubleday 1998) 704 ldquoA parenthetical remark of Luke explains that Jews of Jerusalem are surprised that a dias-pora Jew would address them not in Greek but in Aramaic their native languagerdquo

36 John C Poirier ldquoThe Narrative Role of Semitic Languages in the Book of Actsrdquo Filologiacutea

Neotestamentaria 16 (2003) 107ndash16 (109ndash11) Also John C Poirier ldquoThe Linguistic Situation in Jewish Palestine in Late Antiquityrdquo JGRChJ 4ndash3 (2007) 80 ldquowhen Paul addresses the crowd in τῇ Ἑβραΐδι διαλέκτῳ they immediately fall silent greatly surprised (and respect-ful) at his choice of language This indicates that Paulrsquos earlier exchange with the mob was not in τῇ Ἑβραΐδι διαλέκτῳ But could it not be that Paul had earlier addressed the mob in Greek No for then the tribune would not be surprised to hear Paul address him

in Greek In other words no matter what τῇ Ἑβραΐδι διαλέκτῳ means the narrative implies that Paul addressed the mob in two diffferent languages and that neither of them was Greekrdquo

406 buth


(Συριακή) There is no unambiguous reference of ἙβραΐςἙβραϊστί to Aramaic The closest example of an Aramaic reference are three names in the Gospel of John with an alleged Aramaic etymology that are called Hebrew names (See the article in this volume by Randall Buth and Chad Pierce ldquoHebraisti in Ancient Texts Does Ἑβραϊστί Ever Mean lsquoAramaicrsquordquo) One cannot use the Gospel of John for re-reading Luke-Acts against its context and against the rest of the Greek language Thus Acts 22 most probably records a public speech in Hebrew

A second anecdote comes from Josephus (War 5272) where watchers on the city walls of Jerusalem warn the populace below whenever a Roman boul-der is being catapulted into the city Josephus records that the warning cry was in ldquothe patriarchal languagerdquo37 ὁ υἱὸς ἔρχεται ldquothe son is comingrdquo a wordplay that was only possible in Hebrew אבן באה ldquostone is comingrdquo being shouted quickly as בן בא ldquoson is comingrdquo while אבן אתה ldquostone is comingrdquo (Aramaic eben ata) does not fĳit בר אתה ldquoson is comingrdquo (Aramaic bar ate) The watchers apparently intuitively chose an insider language for the people and a diffferent one from the Roman soldiers many of whom would know Aramaic

Finally Josephus records a speech that he makes on behalf of the Roman leader to the rebels holding the city The speech is given in Hebrew for the ben-efĳit of the rebel leaders as well as bystanders in the city Josephus of course knew the diffference between Hebrew and Aramaic as he made clear when discussing the translation of the Torah into Greek The translators did not work from Aramaic but from Hebrew (Ant 1215) Grintz comments ldquoThus it can be taken for granted that when Josephus talks (Bellum Judaicum VI21 sect 96) about a speech he delivered by the command of the emperor in Hebrew Ἰώσηπος ὡς ἂν εἴη μὴ τῷ Ἰωάννῃ μόνον ἀλλὰ καὶ τοῖς πολλοῖς ἐν ἐπηκόῳ στὰς τά τε τοῦ Καίσαρος διήγγελλεν ἑβραΐζων lsquoStanding so that his words might reach the ears not only of John but also of the multitude (he) delivered Caesarrsquos message in Hebrewrsquomdashhe means precisely what he says Hebrew and not Syrianrdquo38

37 This has implications for the fĳirst edition of Josephusrsquo War Josephus says that he wrote it ldquoin the patriarchal languagerdquo In Josephusrsquo own words he apparently chose Hebrew as the language of writing for posterity maybe like 1 Maccabees and other histories before him despite sending the book out to the Jewish diaspora Incidentally our Greek edition is of such a good quality that one may doubt if it is a translation at all It appears to be much closer in quality to an original Greek work than a translation from a Semitic language It would be best to think of the Greek work as a second edition that has been skillfully and thoroughly rewritten over an earlier Hebrew work

38 Jehoshua M Grintz ldquoHebrew as the Spoken and Written Language in the Last Days of the Second Templerdquo JBL 79 (1960) 32ndash47 (44) Earlier Grintz had surveyed Josephusrsquo usage of the language terms and concluded (p 42) ldquoAn investigation into the writings of Josephus



Thus we have three clear testimonies about the use of Hebrew in Jerusalem among a public Jewish audience This does not require us to make Hebrew the most common language in use in Jerusalem it is simply a language of choice in a Jewish audience in some contexts39

7 Foreign Words that are Not an Example of Language Switching

We need to look at two questions in order to understand properly what is going on in Markrsquos writing and with his language switching or ldquocode switchingrdquo to use a linguistic metalanguage

First we should discuss foreign items that are not examples of full language switching They are intrusions into the same governing code the language has not changed We will start with these easier items and then return to the the examples of full code switching

We have names like Boanerges (317) and Golgotha (1522) The names are quoted in order to bring out a wordplay on their meaning Boanerges is almost humorous because it appears that Mark has altered his transliteration of a for-eign name in order to play on the Greek word ldquoto shoutrdquo βοᾶν Literarily the use of a foreign name is unremarkable since names penetrate and pass through language boundaries all the time

Mark has added three foreign technical terms at three places qorban in 711 and hosanna (הושע-נא) in 119ndash10 and abba in 1436 These can be explained as a simple desire for precision using a technical term that is easiest to communi-cate by citing the foreign form Qorban is a rabbinic term and best interpreted

demonstrates beyond doubt that whenever Josephus mentions γλῶττα Ἑβραίων Ἑβραίων διάλεκτον etc he always means lsquoHebrewrsquo and no other languagerdquo

emspGrintz wrote his article 50 years ago One wonders why this article has not made more impact on NT scholarship Perhaps the reason is that Grintz started offf the article with an implicit equation of the Greek Gospel of Matthew with the Hebrew gospel mentioned in historical sources Most Gospel scholars correctly recognize that canonical Greek Mat-thew is not a direct translation of a Hebrew source but is an original Greek work even if using sources in a Semitized Greek Grintz was certainly correct about Josephusrsquo use of ldquoHebrewrdquo for Hebrew

39 E Y Kutscher and others long ago remarked that there may have been a diffference in language patterns between Jerusalem the capital city and the surrounding villages The Mishnah mentions that the ketubba was written in Aramaic in Jerusalem but in Hebrew in Judea This may incidentally mirror a cosmopolitanndashrural dichotomy that is known in other multilingual societies in sociolinguistic and dialectical studies To this day in the Middle East one fĳinds patterns of Arabic dialects that divide as city versus rural

408 buth


as Mishnaic Hebrew befĳitting a halakic discussion Also contrary to some claim in NT studies hoshalsquo-na is distinctly Hebrew and is not an Aramaic formulation40 The third example abba is a common Aramaic and Mishnaic

40 hoshalsquo-na הושע-נא is most probably a live Hebrew collocation that did not occur in the Hebrew Bible hoshalsquo is the normal imperative form of this Hebrew verb and it occurs two times in the Hebrew Bible Joseph Fitzmyer (Dead Sea Scrolls and Christian Origins [Grand Rapids Eerdmans 2000] 119ndash30 [Chapter 7 ldquoAramaic Evidence Afffecting the Interpretation of Hōsanna in the New Testamentrdquo]) proposed an Aramaic origin for this word and even speculated that הושע hoshalsquo might be an Aramaic loan-form in Biblical Hebrew (p 126) ldquoIndeed one wonders whether the short Hebrew form [הושעmdashRB] in Ps 862 and Jer 317 (if imperatival) is not really Aramaizedrdquo This comment appears to be an unfortunate mistake and cannot lead to explaining hosanna (See any Hebrew refer-ence grammar הושע hoshalsquo is the expected Hebrew form according to regular Hebrew morphological processes Final pharyngeal consonants ע cause the preceding [i] or ח [e] vowel in a hiphil imperative to change to a pataḥ [a] See הוקע הוכח הודע הצלח הנח (This occurs in many other morphological contexts in Hebrew too השע הושע

emspIn addition if the root of הושע is יתlsquoע [yθlsquo] as Fitzmyer suggests then the single occurrence of הושע in the Qumran texts (4Q243 f162) clearly testifĳies that it is a loan-word from Hebrew and cannot be an internal Aramaic development which would have produced הותע Furthermore later Aramaic dialects know nothing of a verb אושעהושע or אותעהותע which suggests that the Hebrew loanword הושע was shortlived and per-haps limited to Qumran (The same problem is true for Fitzmyerrsquos note [124] about the name אשור in Aramaic instead of Imperial Aramaic Syriac אתור and Targumic Aramaic in Qumran Aramaic does not attest to its אשור Thus [אשוריי once] rdquoAssyrianldquo אתורייbeing normal in Aramaic but it too is most probably a loan from Hebrew) Also נא na is the ubiquitous Hebrew particle of request frequently occurring with simple short-form imperatives Na is extremely limited in Aramaic and not natural to it It occurs in Qumran Aramaic as an apparent loanword from Hebrew but it is not in Aramaic translations from the Hebrew Bible and does not occur in the Syriac Bible or later Jewish Aramaic One may only conclude that hoshalsquo-na would be normal Hebrew despite its lack of attestation in the Hebrew Bible It most probably developed within a Hebrew environment either directly within itself or indirectly within a bi-tri-lingual environment Fitzmyer has that part of the language data exactly backwards After Hebrew הושע-נא (colloquial indig-enous and non-biblical Hebrew) developed as a word of praise it was then borrowed in wider Jewish and non-Jewish contexts by both Greek and Aramaic as a word of praise Alternatively הושע-נא may also represent an Aramaic calque (loan translation) still from a Hebrew environment Aramaic did not have a structure that corresponds to the ldquolongrdquo Hebrew imperative (eg הכתיבה in Hebrew would be הכתבאכתב in corresponding Ara-maic later Targumim to Biblical Hebrew הושיעה use Aramaic פרוק see 2 Sam 144 2 Kgs 626 (Note the diffferent lexeme and lack of -ah sufffĳix) So with loan words from Hebrew coupled with a loan translation of the -ah imperatival sufffĳix Jewish Aramaic הושיעה-נאcould produce a calque of הושע-נאאושע-נא This would fĳit the morphology into a pat-tern that would be shared between Aramaic and Hebrew הושע In either case whether



Hebrew term that was already becoming known in the young Christian Greek communities through Paulrsquos letters All three of these technical terms add specifĳicity beyond local color which is one of the reasons that foreign items are quoted in a literature throughout the ages and in various languages Technical terms function as loan words within the communication They do not repre-sent a change to another syntactic clausal structure Markrsquos sentences were still Greek A full change of language should be reserved for a switch to a diffferent sentence structure syntax and vocabulary

8 Markrsquos Three Examples of Language Switching

Of Markrsquos three examples of full language switching two of them are quite similar Both 541 and 734 are healing accounts where Jesus is quoted switch-ing into a foreign language The important question is Why Why did Mark switch languages41

Commentators tend to split and focus on two issues Some point to the fact that translation is provided and assume that Mark is interested in adding local color to his account For example Morna Hooker notes ldquoMark takes care to translate [the words] for his readersthinspthinspthinspthinspThus they do not function as a foreign formula in Markrsquos accountrdquo42 Also R T France observes ldquoMarkrsquos preservation (and translation) of the Aramaic words is typical of his interest in vivid rec-reation of the scene (734) but the words are so ordinary that any idea that a ldquomagicalrdquo formula is thus offfered is quite without foundationrdquo43 But these approaches44 show less insight at 734 where the word εφφατα ldquobe openedrdquo

an internal Hebrew development or a parallel Aramaic calqueloan from Hebrew or both Mark Matthew and John have all used hosanna without translation as a religious loan word in Greek already in the fĳirst century

41 Some have assumed that Jesusrsquo switched languages at these points (cf Harris Birkeland The Language of Jesus [Oslo I kommisjon hos J Dybwad 1954]) and that Mark is merely following the form of the story that he received While possible such a consideration is unnecessary and we will fĳind that a literary motif will join the three accounts of language switching in Mark However this motif in turn will reinforce the impression that Mark intends for the reader to assume or ldquofeelrdquo a language change in the story events

42 Morna D Hooker The Gospel According to St Mark (Blackrsquos New Testament Commentar-ies London Continuum 2001) 150

43 R T France The Gospel of Mark A Commentary on the Greek Text (NIGTC Grand Rapids Eerdmans 2002) 240

44 In a similar vein other commentators focus on the word ταλιθα ldquolambgirlrdquo and claim that the reason is to give local color or even to show compassion

410 buth


is about as commonplace as words can be and presents nothing signifĳicant of local color

Others point more probably to the Hellenistic parallels and expectations of Markrsquos audience Joel Marcus states

The retention of Aramaic here is partly for efffect the exotic foreign words increase the sense of mystery about the miracle that is about to occur Cf Lucian of Samosatarsquos reference to the tendency of faith healers to use rhesis barbarike ldquoforeign languagerdquo (False Philosopher 9) The only other healing story in which Jesusrsquo words are rendered in Aramaic is the nar-rative about the deaf-mute in 731ndash37 in both cases as Mussies (ldquoUserdquo 427) points out the Aramaic words are the verbal counterpart to the non-verbal healing actionthinspthinspthinspthinspand in both cases the healing takes place in seclusion This combination of the motifs of seclusion and mysterious words is probably not accidental Theissen (140ndash42 148ndash49) notes that in the magical papyri injunctions to silence frequently occur before or after occult formulae in order to guard their secrecythinspthinspthinspthinspAlso strikingly parallel to our narrative is Philostratusrsquo story of the resuscitation of a dead girl by Apollonius of Tyana ldquoHe simply touched her and said some secret words to her and woke her from seeming deathrdquo (Life of Apollonius of Tyana 445)thinspthinspthinspthinspThe combination of motifs is so close that it is difffĳicult not to agree with Pesch (1310) that our story reproduces typical techniques of ancient faith healing45

We must agree with Joel Marcus and with this overall perspective However we do not need to be torn between these two approaches to Markrsquos language switching Mark wants the readers to know the plain ordinary meaning of the words and Mark also wants to produce a literary efffect Mark has switched languages during a healing scene so that the actors in the story and Markrsquos audience can perceive words connected with miraculous power Switching the language dramatically provides a mysterious spiritual power-efffect to these words even though their literal meaning is ordinary

While it has long been noted that the language switch can imitate the efffect of whispered magical mysterious power words commentators have some-times retreated from this in the healing accounts assuming that this expla-nation does not work well with the cry from the cross If it does not work in

45 J Marcus Mark 1ndash8 (AB 27A New York Doubleday 2000) 363 Marcus cited Gerard Mussies ldquoThe Use of Hebrew and Aramaic in the Greek New Testamentrdquo NTS 30 (1984) 416ndash432 Gerd Theissen The Miracle Stories of the Early Christian Tradition translated Francis McDonagh (SPCK Edinburgh T amp T Clark 1983)



Mark 15 then one might be justifĳied in looking for a more generic reason at 541 and 734 We can approach this question from another angle A Greek audience would naturally make the connection between the language switch and the healing With this background we need to approach Mark 1534 and to see how it might play for various audiences

9 Markrsquos Purpose in Changing ηλι ηλι into ελωι ελωι

As argued above Mark probably received the story with the words from Ps 22 and the Elijah comment in Greek together with ηλι ηλι or perhaps orally with This raises a legitimate question Why would Mark choose to put the אלי אליforeign language transcription into a fully Aramaic form and against the natu-ral flow of the story The question is a legitimate part of reading the Gospel but it must be acknowledged at the outset that we do not have an explanation from Mark himself and we will be required to read between the lines in a cul-turally sensitive manner

One interesting motive might have been to refer to a targumic midrash associated with Ps 22 But we have no record of an Aramaic targum for Psalms being in existence in the fĳirst century in the land of Israel

Romantic modern ideas that the language change might show us in which language Jesus did his teaching do not help us either Mark missed many opportunities to give us transliterated words of teaching and the cross is cer-tainly not a teaching scene The words may convey some ldquolocal colorrdquo too They certainly do bring the audience right into the scene But this is a climax that goes far beyond ldquolocal colorrdquo

More promising is a cultural phenomenon mentioned in Jewish traditions that will mesh well with the mysterious spiritual power that is associated with Markrsquos other two language changes In the late Second Temple Period the bat

qol or heavenly voice sometimes speaks in AramaicShmuel Safrai explained this

Tannaic and amoraic literatures contain references to prophetic utter-ances which were heard by various sages or by high priests in the Holy of Holies in the TemplethinspthinspthinspthinspThese utterances are set in early contexts such as the wars of the Hasmoneans the period of Hillel the Elder or the attempt to set up an idol in the Temple during the reign of the Roman Emperor Gaius Caligula (37ndash41 CE)

There are many references in tannaitic and amoraic sources to heavenly voices most of which are in Hebrew even when within an Aramaic con-text (eg b Ketub 77b) However a number of utterances are in Aramaic

412 buth


including some of the early ones For example according to rabbinic tra-dition the heavenly voice heard by John Hyrcanus in the Temple in the last decade of the second century BCE proclaiming that his sons who had gone to fĳight in Antioch were victorious was in Aramaic (t Sotah 135 and parallels cf Ant 13282)[15] [Footnote 15 See S Safrai ldquoZechariahrsquos Prestigious Taskrdquo Jerusalem Perspective 26 (1989) 1 4] The heavenly voice heard by a priest from the Holy of Holies which announced that Gaius Caligula had been murdered (41 CE) and that his decree order-ing the erecting of his statue in the Temple had been abrogated is also in Aramaic[16] [Footnote 16 T Sotah 136 The utterance that the priest heard was ldquoAbolished is the abomination that the hater wished to bring into the sanctuary] The rabbinic source even stresses that ldquohe [an anach-ronistic reference to Shimlsquoon the Righteous] heard it in the Aramaic lan-guagerdquo Samuel ha-Katanrsquos words (circa 115 CE) pertaining to the future troubles of Israel likewise is in Aramaic (b Sotah 48b and b Sanh 11a) The sources note that ldquohe said them in the Aramaic languagerdquo

The apparent reason for the heavenly voices being in Aramaic is the desire of certain sources to signal the general decline in the level of Israelrsquos holiness and to point out that the charismatics of later genera-tions who merited such heavenly utterances were not on par with biblical prophets such as Moses or Isaiah Only in the third to fourth centu-ries CE did the phenomenon of recording heavenly voices in Aramaic come to an end Then like other important material such as halakah or prayer heavenly voices were recorded in Hebrew[17] [Footnote 17 Even in later rabbinic sources however a number of heavenly voices were recorded in Aramaic (y Peah 15d and b Baba Batra 3b et al)]46

Now we are not required to accept the historicity of the rabbinic records nor can we ignore them They become important to the degree that they reflect the cultural views of Jewish people during the fĳirst century We should look at one of Safrairsquos examples that has external support

יוחנן כהן גדול שמע דבר מבית קדש הקדשים נצחין טליא דאזלי לאגחא קרבא באנטוכת

וכתבו אותה [שעה] ואותו היוםוכוונו ואותה שעה היתה שנצחו

46 Shmuel Safrai ldquoLiterary Languages in the Time of Jesusrdquo Jerusalem Perspective 4 no 2 (MarchndashApril 1991) online wwwjerusalemperspectivecom



[Heb] Yochanan the high priest heard a word inside the holy of holies[Aram] ldquoThe little kids who go to wage war against Antioch are getting the victoryrdquo[Heb] and they wrote it at that very hour and dayand they checked and it was the very hour that they were victorious

With this we compare Josephus Ant 13282

παράδοξον δέ τι καὶ περὶ τοῦ ἀρχιερέως Ὑρκανοῦ λέγεταιτίνα τρόπον αὐτῷ τὸ θεῖον εἰς λόγους ἦλθεν φασὶν γάρὅτι κατ᾿ ἐκείνην τὴν ἡμέραν καθ᾿ ἣν οἱ παῖδες αὐτοῦ τῷ Κυζικηνῷ συνέβαλοναὐτὸς ἐν τῷ ναῷ θυμιῶν μόνος ὢν ἀρχιερεὺς ἀκούσειε φωνῆςὡς οἱ παῖδες αὐτοῦ νενικήκασιν ἀρτίως τὸν Ἀντίοχον

Now a very surprising thing is related of this high priest Hyrcanus how God came to discourse with him for they say that on the very same day on which his sons fought with Antiochus Cyzicenus he was alone in the temple as high priest offfering incense and heard a voice that his sons had just then overcome Antiochus

Here we have confĳirmation from Josephus that the tradition that Hyrcanus heard a heavenly voice was in popular circulation in the fĳirst century We must trust the rabbinic quotation for the data that this was in Aramaic The spe-cial notices in similar stories with an Aramaic bat qol cited by Safrai (ובלשון and in Aramaic he heard itrdquo) add credibility and memorability toldquo ארמי שמעthat part of the tradition This suggests that the Hyrcanus story and others included an Aramaic bat qol in the popular mindset of the fĳirst century Note that Hyrcanus was in the temple when he heard this As Safrai points out there is a strong link between an Aramaic bat qol and the temple

Markrsquos relationship to the temple cannot be covered in the present study There is just one curious fact that should be brought out We can assume that Mark was aware of the actual geography of the temple and Golgotha All of our geographical knowledge makes it probable that the centurion could not have seen the temple veil the פרוכת τὸ καταπέτασμα when standing at the cross The temple faced east to the Mount of Olives it was surrounded by a wall and was far above the immediate surroundings in the Kidron Valley Golgotha was most likely west of the temple However literarily this does change the atmosphere of the story It is fair for us to conclude that Mark saw a link between the power words on the cross and the temple damage But we should not think that Mark thought that the centurion himself saw the temple veil

414 buth


being torn This should be read as privileged information that Mark supplies for the reader or at least ambiguous information for the reader The reader cannot know if the centurion saw the veil as it ripped but the centurion cer-tainly heard Jesus last words and fĳinal cry

The connection to the temple is therefore a Markan connection more than a centurion connection If indeed there is a Markan connection we may speculate that Markrsquos choice to introduce a language switch at this point was strengthened by the confluence of two efffects (1) The foreign language serves as a sign of a power event something extra-dimensional and (2) the foreign language is connected to a strange phenomenon at the temple not too difffer-ently from a bat qol

In other words Mark was presenting these words from the cross as miracu-lous and efffĳicacious like a bat qol For Mark Jesusrsquo words from the cross were a voice from heaven This literary connection is strengthened by the centu-rionrsquos conclusion and by the structure of the book as a whole Many have seen an inclusio (literary echo) between the opening of the Gospel at Jesusrsquo bap-tism and the crucifĳixion scene Mark 110ndash11 has a splitting of the heavens and Mark 15 has a splitting of the temple veil Both have a top down orientation Mark 1 is heaven to earth Mark 15 is top-down ripping At both the baptism and crucifĳixion it is declared that Jesus is Godrsquos Son The centurionrsquos evidence for his statement is the foreign sentence from the cross and a loud cry Here we can add that the voice from heaven at the baptism can be paralleled by the mysterious power efffect of a foreign language at 1534 Mark was pre-senting this Aramaic cry as the equivalent of the baptismal heavenly voice Furthermore the choice of full Aramaic for Mark is reinforced by its associa-tion with the language switching for two miracles earlier in the Gospel by its cultural association with the bat qol by the Aramaic background to 47שבק and by the association of the bat qol with the temple

There is an interesting sign during the Great War (66ndash70 ce) related to dan-ger for the temple reported by Josephus at War 6299

κατὰ δὲ τὴν ἑορτήν ἣ πεντηκοστὴ καλεῖταινύκτωρ οἱ ἱερεῖς παρελθόντες εἰς τὸ ἔνδον ἱερόνὡσπερ αὐτοῖς ἔθος πρὸς τὰς λειτουργίαςπρῶτον μὲν κινήσεως [ἔφασαν] ἀντιλαβέσθαι καὶ κτύπουμετὰ δὲ ταῦτα φωνῆς ἀθρόαςldquoμεταβαίνομεν ἐντεῦθενrdquo

47 See below for a fuller discussion of שבק in both Hebrew and Aramaic



Moreover at the feast which is called Pentecostthe priests on entering the inner court of the temple by nightas their custom was in the discharge of their ministrationsreported that they were conscious fĳirst of a commotion and a dinand after that of a voice as of a hostldquoWe are departing hencerdquo48

Here is a voice similar to a bat qol that is connected to the temple Josephus also gives an account of the temple doors swinging open of their own accord in the middle of the night during a Passover feast before the War49 If the Gospel of Mark was written before the Great War then this becomes an interesting cultural parallel However if Mark wrote after the outbreak of the War and even more so after the destruction of the Temple then Mark may have heard a version of one or more of these stories

Mark is certainly someone who is interested in moving things around for lit-erary efffect A close parallel is provided by the parable of the Tenants Against an original order of throwing out the ownerrsquos son and then murdering him testifĳied by the minor agreement of Luke and Matthew Mark puts the mur-der inside the vineyard Because of the connection in the parable between the vineyard and the temple Mark appears to be magnifying corpse uncleanness on the part of the temple authorities50 They do not just murder they com-mit murder in the vineyard A second example can be brought from Markrsquos handling of the cursing of the fĳig tree and the chronological diffferences with Matthewrsquos account Mark puts the cleansing of the temple between two refer-ences to the cursing of the fĳig tree51

For all of these reasons or for some of them it appears that Mark had both the skill and literary precedent to alter the words on the cross slightly into a full

48 For text and translation see H St J Thackeray Josephus Vol 3 The Jewish War Books

IVndashVII (LCL London Heinemann 1928 Cambridge Mass Harvard University Press 1968)

49 Josephus War 6290ndash9650 See R Buth and B Kvasnica ldquoTemple Authorities and Tithe Evasion The Linguistic Back-

ground and Impact of the Parable of the Vineyard the Tenants and the Sonrdquo in Jesusrsquo

Last Week (ed R Steven Notley Marc Turnage and Brian Becker Jerusalem Studies in the Synoptic Gospels 1 Leiden Brill 2006) 53ndash80

51 See David N Bivin ldquoEvidence of an Editorrsquos Hand in Two Instances of Markrsquos Account of Jesusrsquo Last Weekrdquo in Notley Turnage and Becker eds Jesusrsquo Last Week 211ndash24 (A revised version of this essay is available online wwwjerusalemperspectivecom)

416 buth


Aramaic form ελωι ελωι Mark wanted the reader to perceive the power behind the words and to feel their impact

10 Matthewrsquos Presentation of ηλι ηλι λειμαλαμα σαβαχθανει

Once it is clear that Matthewrsquos text is ηλιηλει and that it is Hebrew we can make some observations and ask some interesting questions

Assuming that Matthew saw Markrsquos account of the crucifĳixion it becomes clear that Matthew has changed Markrsquos text most probably consciously52 Matthew has changed an Aramaic text into a text that is Hebrew at the begin-ning The change is a language change In multilingual societies language switching is commonplace of course and there are certain expectations and practices that can be observed Once the threshold or reason for fully chang-ing a language has been triggered the communication tends to stay in that language for some time even after the initial reason may have lost its validity53 Therefore we would expect that the remainder of the sentence would be Hebrew after Matthew consciously changes language If the cry from the cross was originally in Hebrew and according to Ps 22 we would expect something like lama azabtani similar to what is found in Codex Bezae The same would be true if Matthew was assimilating the cry to the words of the psalm But Matthewrsquos text is diffferent Since Matthew is either correcting Mark or docu-menting his own source and since ηλι is clearly Hebrew and since full language change normally stays in the same language this sentence is probably being presented by Matthew as a Hebrew sentence This is within what Mishnaic Hebrew scholarship would expect Outside of Mishnaic Hebrew scholarship one might ask if such a Hebrew reading of the text is possible and in any case one may ask if it is probable How should one interpret the verb shvaqtani a verb that is common in Aramaic and means ldquoyou left merdquo

52 Of course Matthew may have been encouraged to substitute his transliteration simply through acquaintance with a pre-Markan form of the story

53 For an example of this sociolinguistic phenomenon in a biblical text note the canonical text of Ezra 48ndash22 and 423ndash57 The citation of the actual correspondence with the Per-sian king uses the original language (48ndash22) then the story of Ezra continues in Aramaic even after the conclusion of the letter A second letter is cited in 57ndash17 with continu-ing narrative in 61ndash2 another Aramaic document in 63ndash12 more Aramaic narrative in 613ndash18 but returning to Hebrew narrative in 6 19ndash711 Then an Aramaic letter is quoted in Ezra 712ndash26 with a return to Hebrew in 727 for the authorrsquos personal words staying in Hebrew for the rest of the book



The verb שבק is used in a Hebrew parable in Pesiqta Rabbati 44 Parables were traditionally given in Hebrew and may be considered to be an under-standable register of language It may be granted as ldquoa givenrdquo that parables were intended to be understandable to common folk

דבר אחר [שובה ישראל]אומרים על הושע ועל אליהו אכזריים היו

חס ושלום לא היו אכזריים האכזרי היה מציל אלא למה הדבר דומה

לבן מלכים שדנו המלך ונתחייב שריפה מה עשה (סונקנתרו) [סנקתדרון] אמר למלך

שבקו בבית האסורים וירעב(אותה) [ואתה] שורפו

והוא חשב לומר עד שתשוב חמתו

Another example [Concerning ldquoreturn O Israelrdquo (Hos 142)]They say that Hosea and Elijah were cruelIn no way the cruel person would have been someone who was a lifesaverTo what does the matter resembleTo a kingrsquos son whom the king had judged and was found liable of death by burningWhat did the kingrsquos counselor doHe said to the kingldquoAbandon him שבקו in the prison and let him starveAnd then you can burn himrdquoHe was thinking saying to himself ldquountil his anger stopsrdquo

However even though this is an excellent example of שבק entering the Hebrew language the Pesiqta Rabbati collection is late dated to 845 ce though con-taining old material Alone it would carry little weight for the fĳirst century54 Further support can be brought from the Mishnah M Gittin 93 has the phrase letter of divorcerdquo but it is in the midst of an Aramaic sentenceldquo אגרת שבוקין

-is later attested as an idiom (a metaphor related to Aramaic in b Ber 61b) in medi שבק 54eval and modern Hebrew שבק חיים ldquohe passed away diedrdquo Despite the connection with ldquodeathrdquo this idiom is obviously not related to the saying from the cross where ldquoGodrdquo is the subject of שבק

418 buth


גופו שלגטהרי את מותרת לכל אדם

ר יודה אומודן די יהויי ליך מיני

ספר תירוכין [[ו]]איגרת שבוקין [וגט גרושין]מהך להיתנסבה לכל גבר דיתצביין55

ldquoThe essential formula of the writ of divorce is lsquoLo thou art permitted to any manrsquoR Judah says [His formula is given in Aramaic] lsquoLet this be from meyour writ of divorce letter of dismissal and deed of liberationthat thou mayest marry whatsoever man thou wiltrdquo56

Moshe Bar Asher makes the point that the morphology of shibbuqin is ldquopure Hebrewrdquo57 But the context of the sentence is Aramaic

Likewise the existence of some names in the Hebrew Bible (ישבק Gen 252 and 1 Chr 131 and שובק Neh 1025) might suggest that the verb had been used at one time in Hebrew But these are not evidence for its use in Hebrew in the fĳirst century

A better parallel to what may be happening in Matthew can be seen in a text from the Mekhilta of Rabbi Ishmalsquoel on Exod 124

55 The Hebrew text is from Accordance Bible Software ldquoKaufmann Mishnardquo Version 22 (Oak Tree Software 2009)

56 Herbert Danby The Mishnah Translated from the Hebrew with Introduction and Brief

Explanatory Notes (Oxford Oxford University 1933) 31957 Moshe Bar Asher ldquoMishnaic Hebrew An Introductory Surveyrdquo in The Literature of the

Sages Second Part (ed edited by Shmuel Safrai Zeev Safrai Joshua Schwartz Peter J Tomson Compendia Rerum Judaicarum ad Novum Testamentum Section Two the Litera-ture of the Jewish People in the Period of the Second Temple and the Talmud [3b Midrash and Targum Liturgy Poetry Mysticism Contracts Inscriptions Ancient Science and the Languages of Rabbinic Literature] Assen Royal van Gorcum and Fortress Press 2006) 567ndash96 Bar Asher writes (p 587) ldquoSimilarly the word found in the expression אגרת שבוקין (m Git 93 lsquobill of divorcersquo) is a Hebrew form following the pure Hebrew pattern pilsquoūl[82]

but based on the Aramaic root šbq meaning lsquoforsakersquo [Footnote 82 Many terms related to family life are formed in MH on the pattern of pilsquoūl in the plural (pilsquoūlīn) Examples are qiddūšīn lsquobethrothalrsquo nissūrsquoīn lsquomarriagersquo gērūšīn (lt girrūšīn) lsquodivorcersquo and šibbūqīn lsquoreleasersquo]rdquo



איש לפי אכלו תכסו על השהרבי יאשיה אומר לשון סורסי הוא זה

כאדם שאומר למכירוכוס לי טלה זה

ldquoYou shall estimate (takossu) the persons for the lamb according to what a person eatsrdquoRabbi Yoshiya says This is Aramaic like when someone says to his friendldquoButcher this lamb for merdquo [כוס is used in place of normal Hebrew שחט]

Yohanan Breuer has clarifĳied this situation

The Aramaic verb נכס does not appear in Mishnaic Hebrew and here it is considered Aramaic (lsquoa Syriac expressionrsquo) Nevertheless it appears in a purely Hebrew sentencemdashכוס לי טלה זהmdashascribed to ldquoone saying to his neighbourrdquo[7] [Footnote 7 While the verb is adduced in order to explain the verse such a sentence could not have been framed without suitable background in the vernacular] It may thus be concluded that it was by virtue of the close relationship between the two languages that so free a borrowing of a verb could take place from one language to the other These two examples show that in the spoken Hebrew there existed a cer-tain degree of ldquoopennessrdquo towards Aramaic which enabled the Hebrew speaker to borrow a word from Aramaic on occasion and to use it in his natural speech without considering the question whether it actually belonged to the stock of the Hebrew vocabulary58

The distillation of all of this is that Matthew is probably recording a Hebrew sentence although we can recognize the language as ldquoAramaizedrdquo Hebrew Our text in Matthew becomes a good example of what Yochanan Breuer was describing words can be inserted in Mishnaic Hebrew without hesitation This exactly fĳits what Mishnaic Hebrew scholarship has been learning about the fĳirst-century language situation Thus the hearers around the cross in Matthewrsquos account heard a Hebrew sentence at least any who heard eli eli

58 Yohanan Breuer ldquoThe Aramaic of the Talmudic Periodrdquo in Safrai Schwartz and Tomson eds The Literature of the Sages Second Part 599 Incidentally it is irrelevant to this dis-cussion that the biblical text is technically using a diffferent verb כסס ldquowas numberedrdquo than נכס The point is that it was considered natural and normal to borrow an Aramaic verb in a Hebrew sentence

420 buth


A more interesting question now becomes the intention and fuller context of the statement If we project the story into its historical context a couple of interesting points arise

First of all the text does not quote Ps 222 exactly but introduces a word sub-stitution of שבקתני for עזבתני Spoken in Hebrew this would introduce an allu-sion to the technical divorce terminology שיבוקין giving a sense of ldquodivorcerdquo to the rejection

Secondly this alteration of the text leads the listener to consider the ldquointer-pretationrdquo of the passage and to consider the whole context something that was commonly done in midrashic and ancient exegesis The end of Ps 2222ndash32 does have a hopeful conclusion Other items are of interest in the psalm The verb tense in Ps 2222 עניתני ldquoyou have answered merdquo is special It is in the context of a request and follows four imperatives and implies the confĳidence of a sure answer The next verse continues from the new perspective from a state of salvation ldquoI would recount your name to my brothers in the midst of the congregation I will59 praise yourdquo The rest of the psalm implies a salvation Modern scholarship has sometimes been reluctant to include such a positive reading of this cry from the cross60 but its presumed circulation by the fĳirst generation of the Jerusalem Jesus-community leading to its adoption by Mark and Matthew probably guarantees that such an interpretation was under-stood within that Jewish community61 In the full context of Ps 22 the texts of

59 This follows the mt with its energic ldquomore indicativerdquo אהללך60 Cf E Rivkin What Crucifĳied Jesus (Nashville Abingdon 1984) 108 cited by W D Davies

and Dale C Allison A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Gospel according to

Saint Matthew (3 vols London Continuum 2004) 3625 ldquothe words are lsquoamong the most pathetic ever uttered in the annals of historyrsquordquo

61 Davies and Allison (Matthew 3625) reject such an interpretation ldquoOthers have supposed that whatever be the truth regarding Jesus himself our evangelist and his fĳirst readers would have understood the quotation of Ps 222 to be like a Jewish midrash in which the fĳirst part of a verse is quoted and the rest assumed and as Psalm 22 moves on from com-plaint to faith and praise so should Jesusrsquo words imply the same This interpretation dulls the impact of our verse which is the culmination of a Matthean themerdquo

emspYet Davies and Allison accept its basic point anyway ldquoThe abandonment although real is not the fĳinal fact God does fĳinally vindicate his Sonrdquo This admission by Davies and Allison reinforces the view that the context of the psalm was probably known and understood when the story about the cry from the cross circulated assuming that it was not invented by Mark The ldquofĳinal vindicationrdquo would have colored the interpretation of the reference to Ps 22 from the beginning of the circulation of the story within the new community especially within a Jewish community that was accustomed to sophisticated reading of scripture The only thing that Davies and Allison are really denying is that Mat-thew and perhaps Jesus would have been party to such a salvifĳic intention when quoting



Matthew and Mark are neither expressing ultimate despair nor incompatible with the more reverential reference to Ps 31 in Luke

11 Conclusion

The Gospels of Matthew and Mark have separate transcriptions and the Gospel authors probably had separate literary purposes

Matthew has recorded a Hebrew reference to Psalm 222 that was explicitly midrashic and that uses language that was connected with divorce He prob-ably intended for the audience to include the interpretive framework of the whole psalm which included a faith in Godrsquos salvation The transliteration ηλι ηλι λειμα σαβαχθανιηλει ηλει λαμα σαβαχθανει in Matthew has a better claim to historical accuracy and to a pre-Synoptic version of the story than the one in Mark In addition Matt 2746 is the earliest attestation of Mishnaic Hebrew שבק

Mark has taken a pre-Synoptic story about the word from the cross and Elijah and has rewritten the transliteration fully into Aramaic for a consistent literary efffect probably including a linguistic allusion to a bat qol For Mark this continues his use of Aramaic language switching to provide the reader with a sense of mystery awe and spiritual power Mark appears to treat the cry from the cross as if it were a ldquovoice from heavenrdquo and also to present the centu-rion as reacting to the word from the cross as if it were a ldquovoice from heavenrdquo This creates a literary analogy (inclusio) between the baptism scene Mark 111 where a heavenly voice mentions a ldquosonrdquo along with a ripping of the sky and the scene at the cross where the centurion concludes that this was a ldquodivine sonrdquo and the temple curtain rips Mark wanted the reader to feel the impact subliminally behind the words on the cross

This essay has also demonstrated the help that current Mishnaic Hebrew scholarship is able to contribute to New Testament studies especially in cases of textual complexity where there is a need for linguistic sensitivity as in the case of Jesusrsquo words from the cross Reciprocally the New Testament data even in Greek dress makes a small contribution to Mishnaic Hebrew studies

Ps 222 That is beyond our knowledge of course The midrashic interpretation of the verse stands as a reasonable reading of the linguistic data in the citation by Matthew

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false PDFXNoTrimBoxError true PDFXTrimBoxToMediaBoxOffset [ 000000 000000 000000 000000 ] PDFXSetBleedBoxToMediaBox true PDFXBleedBoxToTrimBoxOffset [ 000000 000000 000000 000000 ] PDFXOutputIntentProfile (US Web Coated 050SWOP051 v2) PDFXOutputConditionIdentifier (CGATS TR 001) PDFXOutputCondition () PDFXRegistryName (httpwwwcolororg) PDFXTrapped False Description ltlt ARA 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 BGR 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 CHS ltFEFF4f7f75288fd94e9b8bbe5b9a521b5efa7684002000410064006f006200650020005000440046002065876863900275284e8e5c4f5e55663e793a3001901a8fc775355b5090ae4ef653d190014ee553ca901a8fc756e072797f5153d15e03300260a853ef4ee54f7f75280020004100630072006f0062006100740020548c002000410064006f00620065002000520065006100640065007200200035002e003000204ee553ca66f49ad87248672c676562535f00521b5efa768400200050004400460020658768633002gt CHT ltFEFF4f7f752890194e9b8a2d7f6e5efa7acb7684002000410064006f006200650020005000440046002065874ef69069752865bc87a25e55986f793a3001901a904e96fb5b5090f54ef650b390014ee553ca57287db2969b7db28def4e0a767c5e03300260a853ef4ee54f7f75280020004100630072006f0062006100740020548c002000410064006f00620065002000520065006100640065007200200035002e003000204ee553ca66f49ad87248672c4f86958b555f5df25efa7acb76840020005000440046002065874ef63002gt CZE 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 DAN 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 DEU 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 ESP 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 ETI 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 FRA 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 GRE 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 HEB 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 HRV 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 HUN 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 ITA 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 JPN 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 KOR ltFEFFc7740020c124c815c7440020c0acc6a9d558c5ec0020d654ba740020d45cc2dc002c0020c804c7900020ba54c77c002c0020c778d130b137c5d00020ac00c7a50020c801d569d55c002000410064006f0062006500200050004400460020bb38c11cb97c0020c791c131d569b2c8b2e4002e0020c774b807ac8c0020c791c131b41c00200050004400460020bb38c11cb2940020004100630072006f0062006100740020bc0f002000410064006f00620065002000520065006100640065007200200035002e00300020c774c0c1c5d0c11c0020c5f40020c2180020c788c2b5b2c8b2e4002egt LTH 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 LVI ltFEFF0049007a006d0061006e0074006f006a00690065007400200161006f00730020006900650073007400610074012b006a0075006d00750073002c0020006c0061006900200076006500690064006f00740075002000410064006f00620065002000500044004600200064006f006b0075006d0065006e007400750073002c0020006b006100730020006900720020012b00700061016100690020007000690065006d01130072006f007400690020007201010064012b01610061006e0061006900200065006b00720101006e0101002c00200065002d00700061007300740061006d00200075006e00200069006e007400650072006e006500740061006d002e00200049007a0076006500690064006f006a006900650074002000500044004600200064006f006b0075006d0065006e007400750073002c0020006b006f002000760061007200200061007400760113007200740020006100720020004100630072006f00620061007400200075006e002000410064006f00620065002000520065006100640065007200200035002e0030002c0020006b0101002000610072012b00200074006f0020006a00610075006e0101006b0101006d002000760065007200730069006a0101006d002egt NLD (Gebruik deze instellingen om Adobe PDF-documenten te maken die zijn geoptimaliseerd voor weergave op een beeldscherm e-mail en internet De gemaakte PDF-documenten kunnen worden geopend met Acrobat en Adobe Reader 50 en hoger) NOR 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 POL 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 PTB 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 RUM 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 RUS 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 SKY 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 SLV 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 SUO 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Contents

Introduction Language Issues Are Important for Gospel Studiesemspemsp1

Randall Buth

Sociolinguistic Issues in a Trilingual Frameworkemspemsp7

1 The Origins of the ldquoExclusive Aramaic Modelrdquo in the Nineteenth Century Methodological Fallacies and Subtle Motivesemspemsp9

Guido Baltes

2 The Use of Hebrew and Aramaic in Epigraphic Sources of the New Testament Eraemspemsp35

Guido Baltes

3 Hebraisti in Ancient Texts Does Ἑβραϊστί Ever Mean ldquoAramaicrdquoemspemsp66Randall Buth and Chad Pierce

4 The Linguistic Ethos of the Galilee in the First Century CEemspemsp110Marc Turnage

5 Hebrew versus Aramaic as Jesusrsquo Language Notes on Early Opinions by Syriac Authorsemspemsp182

Serge Ruzer

Literary Issues in a Trilingual Frameworkemspemsp207

6 Hebrew Aramaic and the Difffering Phenomena of Targum and Translation in the Second Temple Period and Post-Second Temple Periodemspemsp209

Daniel A Machiela

7 Distinguishing Hebrew from Aramaic in Semitized Greek Texts with an Application for the Gospels and Pseudepigraphaemspemsp247

Randall Buth

vi contents



R Steven Notley





David N Bivin


Randall Buth





Randall Buth








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11 Conclusion







vi contents



R Steven Notley





David N Bivin


Randall Buth





Randall Buth








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398 buth






















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406 buth


















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11 Conclusion










Randall Buth








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11 Conclusion













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11 Conclusion










11 Conclusion







Documents

The Language Environment of First Century Judaea Language Environment of First Century Judaea ... 4 The Linguistic Ethos of the Galilee in the First Century ... what is known about