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Originalveroffentlichung in: Jones, Lars R. (Hg.): Coming About ...A Festschrift for John Shearman, Cambridge (Mass.) 2001, S. 381-386 The Kite, Envy isr a Memory of Leonardo da Vinci's Childhood ALESSANDRO NOVA A well-known drawing by Leonardo at Christ Church in Oxford is catalogued as an allegory alluding to the political state of Milan (fig. 1). 1 On the verso of the same sheet the artist has sketched a combat between Virtue or Fame and Envy, as the original inscriptions reveal (fig. 2): "It would be easier to find a body without a shadow than virtue without envy" (above), "envy" (below the figure on the left) and "fame or virtue" (below the right-hand personification). Both sketches were drawn at the court of Ludovico il Moro Sforza in Milan and are usually dated between c. 1483 and c. 1487 (although a later date should not be ruled out). 2 The verso, which is obviously related to other allegorical represen tations of the same theme, requires no further commentary in the present context, but the iconography of the recto has not yet been adequately explained. Kenneth Clark interpreted these complex allegories as an outlet for Leonardo's "bizarre fancies," and even in the most comprehensive recent monograph on Leonardo such inventions are grudgingly acknowledged by Martin Kemp as iconographic "nightmares" which seem "to border upon elaborate absurdity."'Their allusive meaning is perceived as too dense not only for present-day viewers—who no longer share the early modern taste for allegory—but also for the members of Ludovico's court. Although some details are ambiguous and escape inter pretation, the allegory's general message could not, however, be clearer. On the left, Justice holds a sword, her traditional attribute, as well as the mirror of Prudence, since the latter is engaged in other actions. In her right hand Prudence holds a remora. This may have been intended as a covert allusion to the Sforza family's heraldic emblem, but it more probably functions as a specific attribute of Prudence since, according to Pliny and Ripa, the ecneide or remora is a symbol of Prudence (i.e., of this particular Virtue). The other objects Prudence holds in her right hand are probably a mulberry branch (according to Alciatus, the moro's leaves allude to Prudence), a dove and a scopetta (brush), emblems as well as imprese of the Sforza family and, more specifically, of Ludovico il Moro. J With her left hand Prudence protects a cock, a well-known symbol of vigilance, from the onslaught of rapacious dogs, the traditional attributes of Envy, and from the aggression of Envy herself, here symbolized by a horned female satyr with withered breasts. The bird at Prudence's feet is cursorily sketched, but not so schematically that one cannot recognize a small partridge. Like many other animals, the partridge enjoyed positive as well as negative associations in medieval and Renaissance bestiaries. In Leonardo's writings, the partridge could be a symbol of envy, theft and deceit, but also of truth, and it is probably with this latter significance that the bird has been included in the allegory' Indeed, it seems to me undeniable that the artist's objective—whatever the specific meaning of each detail—was that of representing a clear-cut psychomachia between Ludovico's virtues on the left (Justice, Prudence, Vigilance, Truth), which protect the Milanese grass serpents in the cage (although one of them seems to be fighting a dog outside this cage), and the vices coming from the right. If this is true, the large bird at the top right of the composition cannot be the imperial eagle coming to the rescue of Prudence, as has been often suggested, but more likely a kite, which in Leonardo's bestiary was a symbol of Envy. As shown by a North Italian print engraved around 1465-1470 (fig. 3), the kite and the dog were well-established attributes of Envy before Leonardo made his drawing; if the bird on the Oxford sheet is, indeed, a kite, this means that Leonardo was thinking in terms of simple oppositions— oppositions that were reshuffled into a still more complex invention on the sheet's verso." Since the beginning of this century, that is, since Sigmund Freud first published his essay titled Leonardo da Vinci and a Memory of His Childhood in 1910, the kite has been at the center of numerous psychoanalytic and art historical inquiries. On the back of a sheet concerned with his studies of flight, Leonardo recorded a childhood memory (or his re-elaboration of a supposed infantile memory) that must have had a particular meaningforhim: "This writing distinctly about the kite seems to be my destiny, because among the first recollections of my infancy, it seemed to me that, as I was in my cradle, a kite came to me and opened my mouth with its tail and struck me several times with its tail inside my lips."" As is well known, Freud had based a part of his psycho analytic interpretation of this recollection on Herzfeld's erro neous translation of the Italian original, since the word nibhio was not rendered with the correct term, "kite," but translated as "vulture." Several generations of art historians have since attempted to discredit Freud's analysis on the basis of this fac tual mistake. Meyer Schapiro, who was sympathetic to psy choanalysis and wrote the most serious rebuttal of Freud's theory, was not the first to point out the erroneous transla tion." As early as 1923, Eric MacLagan had written a letter to the editor of The Burlington Magazine, who had praised the essay in a previous editorial, to protest the "prominence given to Dr. Freud's little book on Leonardo" and to undermine Freud's argument by exposing the incorrect translation." The irony of this criticism, which laid to rest Freud's Alessandro Nova "The Kite. Envv 6- , Memory of Leonardo da Vim i s. Childhood ~ L\>m,ngMvul . .11-csl.vhnH lcrphn Slmiomin Edited by I ars R Jones and Louisa C Matthew, pp Ml *6 Cambridge. Massachusetts Harvard University Art Museums, ami. c ami Copyright held jointly bv Alessandro Nova and President and Fellows of Harvard College All rights reserved ISBN l SM1771 11 (v

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Page 1: The Kite, Envy isr a Memory of - archiv.ub.uni …archiv.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/artdok/232/1/Nova_Leonardo_2001.pdf · Meyer Schapiro, who was sympathetic to psy ... Leonardo' s unconsciou

Originalveroffentlichung in: Jones, Lars R. (Hg.): Coming About ...A Festschrift for John Shearman, Cambridge (Mass.) 2001, S. 381-386

The Kite, Envy isr a Memory of Leonardo da Vinci's Childhood

A L E S S A N D R O N O V A

A w e l l - k n o w n d r a w i n g b y L e o n a r d o a t C h r i s t C h u r c h i n O x f o r d is c a t a l o g u e d as a n a l l e g o r y a l l u d i n g t o t h e p o l i t i c a l state o f M i l a n ( f ig . 1).1 O n t h e verso o f t h e s a m e s h e e t t h e art ist h a s s k e t c h e d

a c o m b a t b e t w e e n V i r t u e o r F a m e a n d E n v y , as t h e o r i g i n a l i n s c r i p t i o n s r e v e a l ( f i g . 2): " I t w o u l d b e eas ie r t o f i n d a b o d y w i t h o u t a s h a d o w t h a n v i r t u e w i t h o u t e n v y " ( a b o v e ) , " e n v y " ( b e l o w t h e f i g u r e o n t h e l e f t ) a n d " f a m e o r v i r t u e " ( b e l o w t h e

r i g h t - h a n d p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n ) . B o t h s k e t c h e s w e r e d r a w n at t h e c o u r t o f L u d o v i c o il

M o r o Sforza i n M i l a n a n d are u s u a l l y d a t e d b e t w e e n c. 1483 a n d c. 1487 ( a l t h o u g h a l a t e r d a t e s h o u l d n o t b e r u l e d o u t ) . 2 T h e verso, w h i c h is o b v i o u s l y r e l a t e d t o o t h e r a l l egor ica l r e p r e s e n ­t a t i o n s o f t h e s a m e t h e m e , requ i re s n o f u r t h e r c o m m e n t a r y in t h e p r e s e n t c o n t e x t , b u t t h e i c o n o g r a p h y o f t h e recto h a s n o t y e t b e e n a d e q u a t e l y exp la ined . K e n n e t h C l a r k i n t e r p r e t e d these c o m p l e x a l legor ies as an o u t l e t f o r L e o n a r d o ' s "b i zar re fanc ies , " a n d e v e n i n t h e m o s t c o m p r e h e n s i v e r e c e n t m o n o g r a p h o n L e o n a r d o s u c h i n v e n t i o n s are g r u d g i n g l y a c k n o w l e d g e d b y M a r t i n K e m p as i c o n o g r a p h i c " n i g h t m a r e s " w h i c h s e e m " t o b o r d e r u p o n e l a b o r a t e a b s u r d i t y . " ' T h e i r a l l u s i ve m e a n i n g is p e r c e i v e d as t o o d e n s e n o t o n l y f o r p r e s e n t - d a y v i e w e r s — w h o n o l o n g e r s h a r e t h e ear ly m o d e r n taste f o r a l l e g o r y — b u t a l so

f o r t h e m e m b e r s o f L u d o v i c o ' s c o u r t . A l t h o u g h s o m e deta i l s are a m b i g u o u s a n d e s c a p e i n t e r ­

p r e t a t i o n , t h e a l l e g o r y ' s g e n e r a l m e s s a g e c o u l d n o t , h o w e v e r , b e c learer . O n t h e l e f t , J u s t i c e h o l d s a s w o r d , h e r t r a d i t i o n a l a t t r i b u t e , as w e l l as t h e m i r r o r o f P r u d e n c e , s i n c e t h e l a t t e r is e n g a g e d i n o t h e r a c t i o n s . I n h e r r i g h t h a n d P r u d e n c e h o l d s a r e m o r a . T h i s m a y h a v e b e e n i n t e n d e d as a c o v e r t a l l u s i o n t o t h e S f o r z a f a m i l y ' s h e r a l d i c e m b l e m , b u t it m o r e p r o b a b l y f u n c t i o n s as a s p e c i f i c a t t r i b u t e o f P r u d e n c e s i n c e , a c c o r d i n g t o P l i n y a n d R i p a , the ecneide o r r e m o r a is a s y m b o l o f P r u d e n c e ( i . e . , o f th i s p a r t i c u l a r V i r t u e ) . T h e o t h e r o b j e c t s P r u d e n c e h o l d s i n h e r r i g h t h a n d are p r o b a b l y a m u l b e r r y b r a n c h ( a c c o r d i n g t o A l c i a t u s , t h e moro's l eaves a l l u d e t o P r u d e n c e ) , a d o v e a n d a scopetta ( b r u s h ) , e m b l e m s as w e l l as imprese o f t h e S f o r z a f a m i l y a n d , m o r e s p e c i f i c a l l y , o f L u d o v i c o il M o r o . J

W i t h h e r l e f t h a n d P r u d e n c e p r o t e c t s a c o c k , a w e l l - k n o w n s y m b o l o f v i g i l a n c e , f r o m t h e o n s l a u g h t o f r a p a c i o u s d o g s , t h e t r a d i t i o n a l a t t r i b u t e s o f E n v y , a n d f r o m t h e a g g r e s s i o n o f E n v y h e r s e l f , h e r e s y m b o l i z e d b y a h o r n e d f e m a l e s a t y r w i t h w i t h e r e d b r e a s t s . T h e b i r d at P r u d e n c e ' s f e e t is c u r s o r i l y s k e t c h e d , b u t n o t s o s c h e m a t i c a l l y t h a t o n e c a n n o t r e c o g n i z e a s m a l l p a r t r i d g e . L i k e m a n y o t h e r a n i m a l s , t h e p a r t r i d g e e n j o y e d p o s i t i v e as w e l l as n e g a t i v e a s s o c i a t i o n s i n m e d i e v a l a n d Rena i ssance bestiaries. In L e o n a r d o ' s wr i t ings , the p a r t r i d g e

c o u l d b e a s y m b o l o f e n v y , t h e f t a n d d e c e i t , b u t a l so o f t r u t h , a n d i t is p r o b a b l y w i t h th i s l a t te r s i g n i f i c a n c e t h a t t h e b i r d h a s b e e n i n c l u d e d i n the a l l e g o r y ' I n d e e d , it s e e m s t o m e u n d e n i a b l e t h a t t h e art is t ' s o b j e c t i v e — w h a t e v e r t h e s p e c i f i c m e a n i n g o f e a c h d e t a i l — w a s t ha t o f r e p r e s e n t i n g a c l e a r - c u t psychomachia b e t w e e n L u d o v i c o ' s v i r t u e s o n t h e l e f t ( J u s t i c e , P r u d e n c e , V i g i l a n c e , T r u t h ) , w h i c h p r o t e c t t h e M i l a n e s e g r a s s s e r p e n t s i n t h e c a g e ( a l t h o u g h o n e o f t h e m s e e m s t o b e f i g h t i n g a d o g o u t s i d e th i s c a g e ) , a n d t h e v i c e s c o m i n g f r o m t h e r i g h t . I f th i s is t rue , the large b i r d at t h e t o p r ight o f t h e c o m p o s i t i o n c a n n o t b e t h e i m p e r i a l eag le c o m i n g t o t h e r e s c u e o f P r u d e n c e , as has b e e n o f t e n sugges ted , b u t m o r e l ikely a k i te , w h i c h in L e o n a r d o ' s

b e s t i a r y w a s a s y m b o l o f E n v y . A s s h o w n b y a N o r t h I t a l i a n p r i n t e n g r a v e d a r o u n d

1 4 6 5 - 1 4 7 0 ( f i g . 3), t h e k i t e a n d t h e d o g w e r e w e l l - e s t a b l i s h e d a t t r i b u t e s o f E n v y b e f o r e L e o n a r d o m a d e h is d r a w i n g ; i f t h e b i r d o n t h e O x f o r d s h e e t is, i n d e e d , a k i t e , t h i s m e a n s t h a t L e o n a r d o w a s t h i n k i n g i n t e r m s o f s i m p l e o p p o s i t i o n s — o p p o s i t i o n s t h a t w e r e r e s h u f f l e d i n t o a st i l l m o r e c o m p l e x

i n v e n t i o n o n t h e s h e e t ' s verso." Since t h e b e g i n n i n g o f th is century , t ha t is, since S i g m u n d

F r e u d f i r s t p u b l i s h e d h i s e s s a y t i t l e d Leonardo da Vinci and a Memory of His Childhood i n 1910, t h e k i t e h a s b e e n at t h e c e n t e r o f n u m e r o u s p s y c h o a n a l y t i c a n d art h i s t o r i c a l i n q u i r i e s . O n t h e b a c k o f a s h e e t c o n c e r n e d w i t h h i s s t u d i e s o f f l i g h t , L e o n a r d o r e c o r d e d a c h i l d h o o d m e m o r y ( o r his r e - e l a b o r a t i o n o f a s u p p o s e d in fant i le m e m o r y ) that m u s t have h a d a part icu lar m e a n i n g f o r h i m : " T h i s w r i t i n g d i s t inc t l y a b o u t the k i t e s e e m s t o b e m y des t iny , b e c a u s e a m o n g t h e f i r s t r e c o l l e c t i o n s o f m y i n fancy , it s e e m e d t o m e tha t , as I w a s i n m y crad le , a k i t e c a m e t o m e a n d o p e n e d m y m o u t h w i t h its tail a n d s t r u c k m e several

t i m e s w i t h i ts tail i n s i d e m y l ips . " " A s is w e l l k n o w n , F r e u d h a d b a s e d a p a r t o f h is p s y c h o ­

a n a l y t i c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f th i s r e c o l l e c t i o n o n H e r z f e l d ' s e r r o ­n e o u s t r a n s l a t i o n o f t h e I t a l i an o r i g i n a l , s i n c e t h e w o r d nibhio w a s n o t r e n d e r e d w i t h t h e c o r r e c t t e r m , " k i t e , " b u t t r a n s l a t e d as " v u l t u r e . " S e v e r a l g e n e r a t i o n s o f art h i s t o r i a n s h a v e s i n c e a t t e m p t e d t o d i sc red i t F r e u d ' s a n a l y s i s o n t h e bas is o f th i s fac ­t u a l m i s t a k e . M e y e r S c h a p i r o , w h o w a s s y m p a t h e t i c t o p s y ­c h o a n a l y s i s a n d w r o t e t h e m o s t s e r i o u s r e b u t t a l o f F r e u d ' s t h e o r y , w a s n o t t h e f i r s t t o p o i n t o u t t h e e r r o n e o u s t r a n s l a ­t i on . " A s e a r l y as 1923, Er i c M a c L a g a n h a d w r i t t e n a l e t t e r t o t h e e d i t o r o f The Burlington Magazine, w h o h a d p r a i s e d t h e essay in a p r e v i o u s e d i t o r i a l , t o p r o t e s t t h e " p r o m i n e n c e g i v e n t o D r . F r e u d ' s l i t t l e b o o k o n L e o n a r d o " a n d t o u n d e r m i n e F r e u d ' s a r g u m e n t b y e x p o s i n g t h e i n c o r r e c t t r a n s l a t i o n . "

T h e i r o n y o f t h i s c r i t i c i s m , w h i c h l a i d t o rest F r e u d ' s

A l e s s a n d r o N o v a " T h e Ki te . E n v v 6 - , M e m o r y o f L e o n a r d o da V i m i s. C h i l d h o o d ~ L\>m,ngMvul . .11-csl.vhnH lcrphn S l m i o m i n Ed i ted b y I ars R J o n e s and L o u i s a C M a t t h e w , p p M l * 6 C a m b r i d g e . M a s s a c h u s e t t s H a r v a r d University A r t M u s e u m s , a m i . c a m i C o p y r i g h t he ld j o i n t l y bv A l e s s a n d r o N o v a a n d Pres ident a n d Fe l l ows o f H a r v a r d C o l l e g e Al l r ights reserved

I S B N l SM1771 11 (v

Page 2: The Kite, Envy isr a Memory of - archiv.ub.uni …archiv.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/artdok/232/1/Nova_Leonardo_2001.pdf · Meyer Schapiro, who was sympathetic to psy ... Leonardo' s unconsciou

Figure 1. Leonardo da V inc i , Allegory Alluding to the Political State of Milan, c. 1483-1487 o r c. 1494, p e n and b r o w n ink (Ox ford , Christ Church , cat. 0037 recto). Photograph: courtesy o f T h e G o v e r n i n g Body, Christ Church , Oxford .

a s s o c i a t i o n b e t w e e n L e o n a r d o ' s m e m o r y a n d t h e E g y p t i a n s y m b o l i s m o f t h e v u l t u r e , l ies i n t h e f ac t t h a t i f F r e u d h a d k n o w n t h e s y m b o l i c m e a n i n g o f t h e rea l b i r d i n L e o n a r d o ' s r e c o l l e c t i o n h i s a r g u m e n t w o u l d h a v e g a i n e d y e t f u r t h e r s t r e n g t h a n d c o h e r e n c e . Far f r o m d i s c r e d i t i n g h i s i n t e r p r e t a ­t i o n , L e o n a r d o ' s n o t e o n t h e k i t e as a s y m b o l o f E n v y (an e lab ­o r a t i o n o f t h e text read b y the pa in te r i n the Fior di virtu a n d j o t ­ted d o w n in h is n o t e b o o k s ) d e m o n s t r a t e s tha t the k i t e c o u l d b e i n t e r p r e t e d as a ( c r u e l ) m a t e r n a l f i g u r e : " E N V Y . W e r e a d o f t h e k i t e t h a t , w h e n it sees i ts y o u n g o n e s g r o w i n g t o o b i g i n t h e nes t , o u t o f e n v y it p e c k s t h e i r s ides a n d k e e p s t h e m w i t h ­o u t f o o d . " " T h i s a s s o c i a t i o n m a k e s it m o r e l i k e l y — n o t l e s s — t h a t L e o n a r d o ' s c h i l d h o o d m e m o r y s y m b o l i z e d h i s m o t h e r C a t e r i n a . " F o r K u r t E iss ler , w h o w r o t e t h e m o s t c i r c u m s t a n ­tial d e f e n s e o f F reud ' s essay, t h e s h o r t m e d i e v a l t e x t c o p i e d b y L e o n a r d o revea l s t h e ar t i s t ' s a m b i v a l e n t h o s t i l i t y t o w a r d h i s rea l m o t h e r a n d r e i n f o r c e s F r e u d ' s i d e a o f t h e t e n s i o n p r o ­v o k e d b y t h e t w o m a t e r n a l f i g u r e s i n L e o n a r d o ' s e m o t i o n a l life.12 A f t e r all , o n e o f F r e u d ' s m o s t m e m o r a b l e p a s s a g e s dea l s w i t h t h e a m b i g u o u s s m i l e o f Sa int A n n e , w h i c h is i n t e r p r e t e d as a r e f l e c t i o n o f C a t e r i n a ' s j e a l o u s y o f D o n n a A l b i e r a : " T h e ar t i s t s e e m s t o h a v e u s e d t h e b l i s s f u l s m i l e o f S a i n t A n n e t o d i s a v o w a n d t o c l oak the e n v y w h i c h t h e u n f o r t u n a t e w o m a n felt w h e n she w a s f o rced t o g i ve u p her s o n t o h e r b e t t e r - b o r n r i va l . " "

W i t h o u t q u e s t i o n i n g t h e l e g i t i m a c y o f a p s y c h o b i o -g r a p h i c a l a p p r o a c h t o L e o n a r d o ' s n o t e s a n d w o r k s o f ar t as a w a y o f p e n e t r a t i n g m o r e d e e p l y i n t o h i s e m o t i o n a l l i fe , o n e s h o u l d n o t f o r g e t , h o w e v e r , t h a t L e o n a r d o ' s r e c o l l e c t i o n s a n d s k e t c h e s b e l o n g t o a p r e c i s e h i s t o r i ca l , soc ia l a n d p h y s i c a l c o n ­t ex t . T h e E n v y t h e m e a p p e a r s as a r e c u r r e n t p r e o c c u p a t i o n i n L e o n a r d o ' s ar t . A n o t h e r c e l e b r a t e d s h e e t at C h r i s t C h u r c h c o m p r i s e s a n a l l e g o r y o f Pleasure and Pain as w e l l as s e v e r a l v e r y c o m p l e x a l l e g o r i e s o f Envy t h a t are d u l y e x p l a i n e d i n L e o n a r d o ' s e x t e n s i v e w r i t t e n a n n o t a t i o n s ( f i gs . 4 -5 ) . 1 4 F o l ­l o w e r s o f F r e u d , s u c h as Eissler, h a v e u s e d th i s m a t e r i a l t o c o n ­firm s o m e o f the i r m e n t o r ' s a s s u m p t i o n s a n d t o a d v a n c e s o m e h y p o t h e s e s o f the i r o w n . A c c o r d i n g t o Eissler, t h e s k e t c h e s o f Pleasure and Pain o n t h e verso ( f ig . 5) a n d o f Virtue and Envy o n t h e recto ( f ig . 4 ) — w h i c h u n i t e t w o c o n t r a s t i n g p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n s i n a s i n g l e f i g u r e — r e v e a l , m o r e t h a n a n y o t h e r d o c u m e n t , L e o n a r d o ' s u n c o n s c i o u s a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d s e x u a l i n t i m a c y . W h a t E i s s l e r d i d n o t a c k n o w l e d g e , h o w e v e r , is t h a t t h e s e d r a w i n g s b e l o n g t o a h o m o g e n e o u s series. It is n o c o i n c i d e n c e t h a t b o t h s h e e t s at O x f o r d ( f i g s . 1 - 2 &- 4 - 5 ) h a v e i d e n t i c a l d i m e n s i o n s a n d p r o v e n a n c e . N e i t h e r is it c o i n c i d e n t a l t h a t b o t h w e r e k n o w n t o G i a n P a o l o L o m a z z o , s ince it m e a n s t h a t b o t h s h e e t s w e r e sti l l i n M i l a n d u r i n g t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y . " S i m i l a r l y , it is n o c o i n c i d e n c e t h a t t h e y d e a l w i t h t h e s a m e

382 N O V A Coming About. . . A Festschrift for John Shearman

Page 3: The Kite, Envy isr a Memory of - archiv.ub.uni …archiv.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/artdok/232/1/Nova_Leonardo_2001.pdf · Meyer Schapiro, who was sympathetic to psy ... Leonardo' s unconsciou

"Ml v,

r

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Figure 2. L e o n a r d o da Vinci , A Combat between Virtue or Fame and Envy, c. 1483-1487 or c. 1494, pen and b r o w n ink (Ox ford , Christ Church , cat. 0037 verso). Pho tograph : courtesy o f T h e G o v e r n i n g Body, Christ Church , Ox ford .

t h e m e . I n o t h e r w o r d s , w h a t s e e m s t o b e t h e e x p r e s s i o n o f p r i v a t e p r e o c c u p a t i o n s c a n n o t b e s e p a r a t e d f r o m t h e a l l egory , a n a l l e g o r y o b v i o u s l y r e l a t e d t o L e o n a r d o ' s p a t r o n L u d o v i c o

il M o r o . E v e n t h o u g h t h i s c o u r t a s s i g n m e n t m u s t h a v e b e e n a

p r e c i p i t a t i n g f a c t o r f o r L e o n a r d o ' s b r o o d i n g o v e r t h e s e n t i ­m e n t s e x p r e s s e d , t h e m a n i f e s t c o n t e n t o f t h e e n t i r e ser ies h a s m o r e t o d o w i t h t h e d u k e o f M i l a n t h a n w i t h L e o n a r d o . A s B r a d l e y C o l l i n s w r o t e :

As psychoanalytic evidence the allegories seem too good to be true. T h e y . . . s e e m s o c l o s e t o t h e art ist 's u n c o n s c i o u s as t o a p p e a r suspec t . A n d o n e c a n i m a g i n e a n a r t h i s t o r i a n l e a p i n g t o d e p e r ­s o n a l i z e t h e d r a w i n g s b y s u p p l y i n g a p o l i t i c a l m e a n i n g t o e a c h f i g u r e a n d s y m b o l . Yet L e o n a r d o e n j o y e d a n u n d e n i a b l e ar t i s t i c f r e e d o m i n t h e s e s k e t c h e s a n d h i s u n c o n s c i o u s must have taken

advantage of it.'6

T h e a p p e a l t o t h e r e a d e r ' s f a i t h i m p l i e d i n th i s q u o t a ­t i o n ' s first a n d last s e n t e n c e s is e v i d e n t — b u t o n e s h o u l d n o t s u r r e n d e r s o u n c r i t i c a l l y . I a m i n c l i n e d t o see i n t h e s e d r a w ­i n g s n o t s o m u c h " p o l i t i c a l " as m o r a l i z i n g a l l e g o r i e s t h a t

w o u l d h a v e b e e n e a s i l y u n d e r s t o o d a n d g r e a t l y a p p r e c i a t e d b y t h e p a t r o n as w e l l as b y t h e m e m b e r s o f h i s c o u r t .

A s o n e o f t h e m o s t b a s i c h u m a n p a s s i o n s , e n v y h a s a l o n g l i t e r a r y a n d i c o n o g r a p h i c t r a d i t i o n . G r e e k p h i l o s o p h e r s s u c h as P l a t o a n d A r i s t o t l e as w e l l as L a t i n p o e t s l i ke H o r a c e a n d O v i d w r o t e a b o u t i t , a n d S a i n t P a u l a n d t h e C h u r c h F a t h e r s s u b s e q u e n t l y C h r i s t i a n i z e d i t s d i s c o u r s e . P o p u l a r p r o v e r b s c o n c e r n e d w i t h e n v y , w h i c h w e r e l a te r c o l l e c t e d i n E r a s m u s ' s Adagia, are n u m e r o u s a n d , at l eas t s i n c e t h e t i m e o f D a n t e , e n v y h a s b e e n a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t r e a c h e r o u s c o u r t l y l i fe . ' 7 O n t h e v i s u a l s i d e , t h e i c o n o g r a p h y o f e n v y e n j o y e d g r e a t p o p u l a r i t y i n t h e M i d d l e A g e s i n p i c t o r i a l c yc l e s o f t h e s e v e n d e a d l y s ins, b u t it w a s i n t h e c o u r t l y a t m o s p h e r e o f la te -f i f t e e n t h - c e n t u r y n o r t h e r n Italy that its r epresen ta t i on acqu i red m o r e s e c u l a r a n d i n d e p e n d e n t c o n n o t a t i o n s . " M a n t e g n a ' s e n g r a v i n g s i n M a n t u a a n d L e o n a r d o ' s d r a w i n g s i n M i l a n are c r u c i a l e v i d e n c e o f t h e p h e n o m e n o n b e f o r e its c o d i f i c a t i o n i n t h e s i x t e e n t h - c e n t u r y letteratura cortigiana.

O n c e L e o n a r d o ' s r e f l e c t i o n s o n t h e t h e m e are p l a c e d i n t h e i r p r o p e r soc i a l ( i .e . , c o u r t l y ) as w e l l as " p h y s i c a l " a n d h i s ­t o r i c a l c o n t e x t s ( i .e . , as a ser ies o f a l l e g o r i c a l d r a w i n g s f o r h i s p a t r o n a n d f o r t h e e n t e r t a i n m e n t o f L u d o v i c o ' s c o u r t ) , t h e y s e e m p a r t l y t o l o s e t h e i n d i v i d u a l i z e d c o n n o t a t i o n s t h a t are s o i m p o r t a n t f o r a p s y c h o b i o g r a p h i c a l a p p r o a c h t o L e o n a r d o ' s

Coming About. . . A Festschrift for John Shearman N O V A 383

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Figure 3. N o r t h Italian, Invidia, c. 1465-1470, engrav ing (Ar thur A . H i n d , Early Italian Engraving, L o n d o n , 1938, vo l . 1, p. 250). P h o t o g r a p h : author.

w o r k s . Y e t t h e art h i s t o r i a n s h o u l d n o t i m i t a t e t h e p s y c h o a n ­a l y s t ' s s h o r t c o m i n g s b y r e d u c i n g t h e i s s u e t o a d u b i o u s , i n e v i t a b l y f r a g m e n t a r y a n d , at a n y r a t e , s u b j e c t i v e r e c o n ­

s t r u c t i o n o f t h e pas t " a s it w a s . " It w o u l d b e t i r e s o m e t o repea t y e t a g a i n a cr i t ica l r e v i e w

o f the m o s t i m p o r t a n t p o l e m i c a l w r i t i n g s p r o v o k e d b y Freud ' s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . I n s t e a d , it is m o r e p r o d u c t i v e t o i n d i c a t e t h e d i f f e r e n t s t r a t e g i e s e m p l o y e d b y s o m e art h i s t o r i a n s t o c o m e t o t e r m s w i t h it . M e y e r S c h a p i r o n o t o n l y e x p o s e d t h e e r r o ­n e o u s t r a n s l a t i o n a n d its c o n s e q u e n c e s f o r F r e u d ' s t h e o r y ; h e a l s o d i s c u s s e d t h e c lass i ca l topoi w h i c h d e a l w i t h g r e a t m e n w h o s e e m e d t o h a v e b e e n p r e d e s t i n e d f r o m t h e i r b i r t h t o a c h i e v e u n u s u a l a c c o m p l i s h m e n t s a n d g r e a t e l o q u e n c e , ' 9

i c o n o g r a p h i c i s sues s u c h as t h e s p r e a d o f t h e Anna Metterza, t h e o l o g i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s l i ke t h e d i s c u s s i o n o n t h e d o g m a o f t h e I m m a c u l a t e C o n c e p t i o n a n d , a m o n g o t h e r t h i n g s , t h e p r o b a b l e p r e c i p i t a n t o f L e o n a r d o ' s c h i l d h o o d m e m o r y .

F r e u d h i m s e l f h a d a l r e a d y n o t e d t h a t L e o n a r d o ' s sc i ­en t i f i c in terest in b i r d f l ight cer ta in l y p l a y e d a ro le i n h i s s u d d e n r e c o l l e c t i o n , b u t it w a s M e y e r S c h a p i r o w h o r e i n s e r t e d t h e c h i l d h o o d m e m o r y i n t o i ts " p h y s i c a l " c o n t e x t i n t h e Codex Atlanticus, t h u s r e d u c i n g it t o a m u c h m o r e m u n d a n e e x p e r i ­e n c e . Y e t L e o n a r d o ' s r e f l e c t i o n s o n t h e t e c h n i c a l a s p e c t s o f t h e k i t e ' s f l i gh t i n d i c a t e o n l y t h e c a u s e o f h i s s u d d e n i m p u l s e ;

t h e y d o n o t e x p l a i n h i s e n d u r i n g i n t e res t i n the t h e m e o f envy . I f P e d r e t t i i s r i g h t i n d a t i n g t h e c h i l d h o o d m e m o r y t o c. 1 5 0 4 - 1 5 0 5 , a n d i f t h e O x f o r d d r a w i n g s b e l o n g t o t h e p e r i o d 1 4 8 3 - 1 4 8 7 ( o r , a l t e r n a t i v e l y , t o c. 1494) , th i s s u g g e s t s t h a t L e o n a r d o w a s r e p e a t e d l y b r o o d i n g o v e r a s e n t i m e n t tha t h e m u s t a l s o h a v e o b s e r v e d a n d e x p e r i e n c e d o n a n art is t ic level.20

M o r e i m p o r t a n t l y , w h i l e M e y e r S c h a p i r o i d e n t i f i e d t h e p o s s i ­b l e p r e c i p i t a n t o f L e o n a r d o ' s r e c o l l e c t i o n a n d p o i n t e d o u t t h e c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e k i t e a n d E n v y , h e d i d n o t e x p l a i n w h y t h e b i r d r e p e a t e d l y s t r u c k L e o n a r d o ' s l ips a n d i n s e r t e d its ta i l i n t o h i s m o u t h , a m u c h m o r e r e v e a l i n g de ta i l f o r F r e u d ( o r f o r

a n y o t h e r p s y c h o a n a l y s t ) . I n a r e c e n t l e c t u r e o n L e o n a r d o ' s d r e a m s , J a m e s B e c k

h a s a l s o t a k e n i ssue w i t h F r e u d . H e a r g u e s tha t t h e n o t e i n t h e Codex Atlanticus is n e i t h e r a d r e a m n o r a c h i l d h o o d m e m o r y , b u t a f a n t a s y b a s e d o n a c lass ica l s o u r c e . A e s o p , w h o s e t e x t s L e o n a r d o k n e w w e l l , d e a l s w i t h t h e k i t e i n t h e c o n t e x t o f e n v y ; i n t h e Sogno di Daniello, t h e k i t e m e a n s d e a t h o f t h e p a r ­e n t s ; b u t it is , a b o v e a l l , i n P l i n y ' s Natural History—a w o r k L e o n a r d o o w n e d — t h a t t h e m o v e m e n t o f t h e b i r d ' s tai l is d i s ­c u s s e d i n o r d e r t o e x p l a i n h o w m a n l e a r n e d t o d i r e c t t h e m o v e m e n t s o f h i s s h i p s o n t h e o c e a n s , m o v i n g t h e r u d d e r as t h e tail o f t h e kite.2 ' A c c o r d i n g t o B e c k , it is p r o b a b l e tha t P l i n y w a s t h e s o u r c e o f L e o n a r d o ' s i m a g i n a t i o n , " [ P ] a c e F r e u d [sic], o n e t h i n g is c e r t a i n : i t w a s n o t a ' rea l ' c h i l d h o o d e x p e r i e n c e . " ( T h i s is a p o i n t t h a t F r e u d h i m s e l f s t r e s s e d at t h e b e g i n n i n g o f h i s s e c o n d c h a p t e r : " [ T ] h e s c e n e w i t h t h e v u l t u r e w o u l d n o t b e a m e m o r y o f L e o n a r d o ' s b u t a f a n t a s y , w h i c h h e f o r m e d at a l a te r d a t e a n d t r a n s p o s e d t o h i s c h i l d h o o d . T h i s is o f t e n t h e w a y i n w h i c h c h i l d h o o d m e m o r i e s o r i g i n a t e . " ) 2 2

I n h i s b o o k Why the Mona Lisa Smiles and Other Tales by Vasari, P a u l B a r o l s k y a l s o t o u c h e s o n o n e o f F r e u d ' s c e n t r a l p o i n t s , a r g u i n g tha t M o n a L i sa s m i l e s b e c a u s e s h e w a s the w i f e o f F r a n c e s c o d e l G i o c o n d o ; i f t h i s s e m i s e r i o u s p r o p o s a l s o u n d s at f i r s t t r i v i a l , t h e a u t h o r b u t t r e s s e s i t b y c i t i n g t h e V a s a r i a n - R e n a i s s a n c e tas te f o r s i m p l e j o k e s a n d puns . 2 3

A r t h i s t o r i a n s ' d i f f e r e n t t e m p e r a m e n t s a n d o b j e c t i v e s e x p l a i n t h e i r d i f f e r e n t a p p r o a c h e s . A l l o f t h e m h a v e m a d e p l a u s i b l e s u g g e s t i o n s : T h e w i s h t o c o n n e c t h i m s e l f w i t h g r e a t m e n o f t h e pas t m a y h a v e u n c o n s c i o u s l y s t i m u l a t e d L e o n a r d o t o c r e a t e a n i m a g e b a s e d o n t r a d i t i o n a l ta les o f n a t u r a l e l o ­q u e n c e ; A e s o p a n d t h e Fior di virtu, as w e l l as t h e R e n a i s s a n c e d i s c o u r s e o n e n v y , m a y h a v e c o l o r e d h i s p r i n c i p a l l y s c i e n t i f i c i n t e r e s t i n t h e k i t e ' s f l i g h t ; a n d M o n a L i s a m a y s m i l e f o r a n y r e a s o n w h a t s o e v e r . B u t n o n e o f t h e s e a r t h i s t o r i a n s h a s a s k e d a q u e s t i o n t h a t c a n c o m p e t e w i t h F r e u d ' s a m b i t i o u s i n v e s t i g a t i o n . 2 4

I f F r e u d h a d o n l y m a d e u s a w a r e o f the p o t e n t i a l e m o ­t i o n a l i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e i m a g e c r e a t e d b y L e o n a r d o — t h a t o f t h e b i r d w h i c h o p e n s h i s m o u t h a n d s t r i k e s h i m s e v e r a l t i m e s w i t h its tai l i n s ide h i s l i p s — w e w o u l d h a v e t o b e g r a t e f u l t o h i m forever . B u t F r e u d h a s g i v e n u s m u c h m o r e , s o m e t h i n g tha t h a s b e e n p a r t l y o b s c u r e d b y t h e r a t h e r p e d a n t i c p o l e m i c b e t w e e n h i s d e t r a c t o r s a n d h i s d e f e n d e r s . O n e o f h i s m a i n i s sues w a s t o u n d e r s t a n d w h y L e o n a r d o ' s w o r k s st i l l w i e l d a n e n o r m o u s e m o t i o n a l a p p e a l t o t h e m o d e r n v i e w e r . A l t h o u g h h e b e g a n h i s research f r o m a d o c u m e n t , h e t h e n s c r u t i n i z e d i n t h e m o s t s e r i o u s a n d s u s t a i n e d w a y t h e form o f L e o n a r d o ' s

384 N O V A Coming About.. . A Festschrift for John Shearman

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Figure 4. L e o n a r d o da Vinci , Two .Allegories o f Envy, c. 1483-1487 or c. 1494, pen and b r o w n ink w i t h s o m e light-red chalk (Oxford , Christ Church , cat. 0034 recto). Pho tograph : courtesy o f T h e Govern ing Body, Christ Church , Oxford .

t.9f p W * « ^ » " l * V j'^f'J

A

Figure 5. Leonardo da Vinci , Pleasure and Pain (on the r ight -hand side), c. 1483-1487 o r e . 1494, pen and b r o w n ink (Oxford , Christ Church , cat. 0034 verso). Pho tograph : courtesy o f T h e G o v e r n i n g Body, Christ Church , Ox ford .

Coming About. . . A Festschrift for John Shearman N O V A 385

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w o r k s . W h i l e m o s t a r t h i s t o r i a n s , t h e p r e s e n t w r i t e r i n c l u d e d ,

h a v e c o n c e n t r a t e d t h e i r a n a l y s i s o n w r i t t e n a n d / o r c i r c u m ­

s t a n t i a l e v i d e n c e — w h e t h e r l i t e r a r y s o u r c e s a n d t r a d i t i o n s ,

i c o n o g r a p h i c i s s u e s o r c u l t u r a l c o n v e n t i o n s — F r e u d l o o k e d

l o n g a n d h a r d a t t h e p i c t u r e s . A r t h i s t o r i a n s , h o w e v e r , d o n o t

s e e m p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e q u e s t i o n s p o s e d b y F r e u d ,

o r a t l e a s t t h e y d o n o t s e e m t o s h a r e t h e i n t e n s i t y o f h i s

i n q u i r y — n a m e l y , t o f i n d a p l a u s i b l e e x p l a n a t i o n f o r v i s u a l

e x p r e s s i o n s t h a t r e v e a l p s y c h i c e n e r g i e s , e m o t i o n s a n d p a s ­

s i o n s a c t i v a t e d b y t h e c r e a t i v e p r o c e s s .

I n h i s a n a l y s i s o f L e o n a r d o ' s Madonna of the Yarn-Winder,

J o h n S h e a r m a n h a s c r i t i c i z e d a c e r t a i n k i n d o f i c o n o l o g y

w h i c h i s i n c a p a b l e o f s e e i n g " w h a t s e e m s m o s t c r e a t i v e i n t h e

p i c t u r e . H e p r a i s e d F r a P i e t r o d a N o v e l l a r a f o r s e e i n g w h a t

L e o n a r d o h a d p u t i n t o t h e p a i n t i n g a n d f o r s h a r i n g a style o f

i m a g e r e a d i n g t h a t m i g h t b e c a l l e d n e o - P l i n i a n , i n R e n a i s s a n c e

t e r m s . Q u o t i n g P l i n y ' s b r i e f ekphrasis o f a w o r k b y A r i s t i d e s ,

S h e a r m a n o b s e r v e s t h a t ( a c c o r d i n g t o P l i n y ) t h i s p a i n t e r h a d

b e e n t h e f i r s t t o d e p i c t t h e m i n d a n d e x p r e s s t h e f e e l i n g s o f a

h u m a n b e i n g . " W h a t ' o n e f e e l s , ' " a d d s S h e a r m a n , " i s a r e a d ­

i n g , a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , o f t h e r e p r e s e n t e d a c t i o n i n b e h a v i o r a l

a n d p s y c h o l o g i c a l t e r m s , o r m o r e s i m p l y o f w h a t i s s u p p o s e d

t o b e g o i n g o n . " 2 6

I t i s l i k e l y t h a t S h e a r m a n i s c r i t i c a l o f , i f n o t h o s t i l e t o ,

F r e u d i a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f w o r k s o f a r t . Y e t w h e n h e d r a w s

o u r a t t e n t i o n t o t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e v i e w e r ' s p s y c h o l o g i ­

c a l r e s p o n s e t o R e n a i s s a n c e p a i n t i n g , h e d e a l s w i t h i s s u e s

t h a t a r e n o t v e r y d i s t a n t , a t l e a s t t h e o r e t i c a l l y , f r o m t h o s e

t h a t i n t e r e s t e d F r e u d . A n d t h i s o b s e r v a t i o n i s i n t e n d e d a s a

c o m p l i m e n t .

N O T E S

J a m e s B y a m Shaw, Drawings by Old Masters at Christ Church Oxford ( O x f o r d , 1976), v o l . 1. Catalogue, p. 37; p e n a n d b r o w n i n k , 206 x 283 m m .

: A . E . P o p h a m (The Drawings of Leonardo da Vinci [ L o n d o n , 1964], p. 117) sug­ges ted a da te a b o u t 1483 -1485 . B y a m Shaw, 1976, p. 37, da tes t h e d r a w i n g 1485-1487. c i t ing C a r l o Pedrett i , " L e o n a r d o ' s A l l egor i e s at O x f o r d E x p l a i n e d b y L o m a z z o , " The Burlington Magazine 96 (1954): 175 -77 . Pedret t i , h o w e v e r , said n o t h i n g a b o u t the date o f the d r a w i n g s in h is 1954 art ic le .

' See K e n n e t h Clark , Leonardo da Vinci, ed. M a r t i n K e m p ( L o n d o n , 1989), p. 120; a n d M a r t i n K e m p , Leonardo da Vinci: The Marvellous Works of Nature and Man ( L o n d o n . M e l b o u r n e ir T o r o n t o , 1981), p. 164. T h e s e d r a w i n g s are n o t dis­cussed in the m o s t recent m o n o g r a p h o n L e o n a r d o , P ietro C . Maran i , Leonardo:

Una carriera dipittore {Milan, 1999).

* A n d r e a s A lc ia tus , The Latin Emblems: Indexes and Lists, ed. Peter M . D a l y w i t h V i rg in ia W. Ca l l ahan , assisted b y S i m o n Cu t t l e r ( T o r o n t o , B u f f a l o ir L o n d o n , 1985), v o l . 2, e m b l e m 210.

' J e a n - P a u l R ichter , ed. . The Literary Works of Leonardo da Vinci, 2 vo ls . , 3rd ed. ( L o n d o n £r N e w York , 1970), nos . 1227 ir 1238.

" A r t h u r A . H i n d , Early Italian Engraving: A Critical Catalogue with Complete Reproduction of All the Prints Described, v o l . 1 ( L o n d o n , 1938), p. 250.

R ichter , 1970, n o . 1363.

" M e y e r S c h a p i r o , " F r e u d a n d L e o n a r d o : A n A r t H i s t o r i c a l S t u d y , " (1956) r e p r i n t e d in Theory and Philosophy of Art: Style, Artist and Society, ed . M e y e r Schap i ro ( N e w York , 1994), pp. 153 -92 . See a l so " F u r t h e r N o t e s o n Freud a n d L e o n a r d o , " in Schap i ro . 1994, pp. 193 -99 .

J Eric M a c L a g a n , " L e o n a r d o in the C o n s u l t i n g R o o m , " The Burlington Magazine

42 (1923 ) : 54.

'R ichter , 1970, n o . 1221; o n the Fiordivirtu, see E d m o n d o S o l m i , " L e f o n t i d e i m a n o s c r i t t i di L e o n a r d o da V i n c i : C o n t r i b u t i " (1908), repr. in Scritti vinciani ' F l o rence , 1976), p. 157.

:' Bradley I sham Col l ins , "Psychoana ly t i c B i o g r a p h y and A r t H i s t o r y : A Crit ical S t u d y o f P s y c h o b i o g r a p h i c a l A p p r o a c h e s t o L e o n a r d o da V i n c i " ( P h . D . diss., C o l u m b i a Univers i ty , 1995), pp. 8 0 - 8 1 .

" Kur t R. Eissler, Leonardo da Vinci: Psychoanalytic Notes on the Enigma ( N e w York , 1961).

1 S i g m u n d Freud, Leonardo da Vinci and a Memory of His Childhood ( V i e n n a ,

1910; repr. N e w Y o r k ir L o n d o n , 1964), p. 72.

" B y a m Shaw, 1976, pp. 3 6 - 3 7 ; p e n a n d b r o w n ink , w i t h s o m e l i gh t r ed - cha lk o n the recto, 210 x 289 m m .

1' G i a n P a o l o L o m a z z o , Scritti sullearti, ed. R o b e r t o P a o l o Ciardi (Florence, 1974), pp . 3 9 0 - 9 1 . See a l so C a r l o Pedre t t i , 1954; a n d E r n s t H . G o m b r i c h , Symbolic Images ( O x f o r d , 1972), pp . 137 -38 .

" Co l l i n s , 1995, p 163; e m p h a s e s m i n e .

See D a n t e , Inferno, X I I I . 6 4 - 6 6 .

" O n E n v y ' s p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n , see V ic tor ia Lor in i , " Inv id ia : D i e D a r s t e l l u n g d e s N e i d e s in I ta l ien v o n G i o t t o b is R i p a " ( M . A . thesis , J . W . G o e t h e - U n i v e r s i t a t , F r a n k f u r t , 1997).

w N o n e o f t h e e x a m p l e s m e n t i o n e d b y Schap i ro , h o w e v e r , refers t o a painter .

20 C a r l o Pedre t t i , "II ' be l l o s p e t t a c o l o ' di L e o n a r d o , " Achademia Leonardi Vinci

5(1992) : 1 6 3 - 6 5 .

" J a m e s B e c k , Isogni di Leonardo, X X X I I L e t t u r a V i n c i a n a ( A p r i l 15, 1992) (F lo rence , 1993), p p 8 - 1 0 . T h e Sogno di Daniello ( B o l o g n a , 1491) is an Ital ian t rans l a t i on o f the L a t i n [Danielis] Somniorum expositio ( A u g s b u r g , 1487). O n P l iny ' s r e f e rence t o the k i te , see Naturalis historia 10.12, trans. H o r a c e Rack -h a m ( C a m b r i d g e , Mass . , 1933), v o l . 3, p. 311.

" F r e u d , 1910(repr . 1964) ,p . 33.

" P a u l Baro l sky , Why the Mona Lisa Smiles and Other Tales by Vasari (Un ivers i t y P a r k , P e n n . , 1991); G e r m a n t r a n s l a t i o n , Warum lachelt Mona Lisa? Vasaris

Erfindungen, t rans. R o b i n C a c k e t t (Ber l in , 1995), pp . 83 -86 .

24 For the m o s t r e m a r k a b l e e x c e p t i o n , see K l a u s H e r d i n g , Freuds 'Leonardo': EineAuseinandersetzung mitpsychoanalytischen Theorien der Gegenwart ( M u n i c h , 1998); H e r d i n g , h o w e v e r , d o e s n o t discuss in d e p t h the c o n n e c t i o n s w i t h the Rena i s sance i c o n o g r a p h y o f Envy . See a lso D a n i e l Arasse , Leonard de Vinci:

Le rythme du monde (Par is , 1997), pp. 4 8 8 - 9 9 .

" J o h n S h e a r m a n , Only Connect... Art and the Spectator in the Italian Renaissance,

T h e A . W . M e l l o n Lec tu res in the F ine Ar t s , 1988, B o l l i n g e n Ser ies X X X V . 3 7 ( W a s h i n g t o n , D C . ir P r i n c e t o n , 1992), p. 5.

' " S h e a r m a n , 1992,p. 5.

3 8 6 N O V A Coming About. . . A Festschrift for John Shearman