The Justice Motive in Social Behavior

ADAPTING TO TIMES OF SCARCITY AND CHANGE

CRITICAL ISSUES IN SOCIAL JUSTICE

Series Editor: MELVIN J. LERNER Ulliversiiy of Waierloo Waierloo, Olliario, Gil/ada

THE JUSTICE MOTIVE IN SOCIAL BEHAVIOR: Adapting to Times of Scarcity and Change Edited by Melvin J. Lerner and Sally C. Lerner

A C onlinuation Order Plan is available tor this series. A continuation order will brin~ delivery of each new volume immediately uron rublicatinn Vnlumes arc billed only uron actual shipment. For further information rlease contact the publisher.

The Justice Motive in Social Behavior

ADAPTING TO TIMES OF SCARCITY AND CHANGE

Edited by MEL YIN J. LERNER

and

SALLY C. LERNER Ulliver5i~1 of Wlilerioo

Wilier/0o, O'lilirio, CtIIltJda

Springer Science+ Business Media, LLC

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Main entry under title:

The justice motive in social behavior.

(Critical issues in social justice)Based on papers presented at a meeting prior to the annual conference of

the American Psychological Association, 1978, Toronto, Canada.Bibliography: p.Includes index.1. Social justice—Psychological aspects—Congresses. 2. Social

change—Psychological aspects—Congresses. 3. Adaptability (Psychology)—Congresses. I. Lerner, Melvin ]., 1929- II. Lerner, Sally C , 1931-

III. Series.HM216.J88 303.4 81-10605ISBN 978-1-4899-0431-7 AACR2

ISBN 978-1-4899-0431-7 ISBN 978-1-4899-0429-4 (eBook)DOI 10.1007/978-1-4899-0429-4

© 1981 Springer Science+Business Media New YorkOriginally published by Plenum Press, New York in 1981

All rights reserved

No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system,or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,

photocopying, microfilming, recording, or otherwise, without writtenpermission from the Publisher

For MIRIAM and DANIEL

Ellen Berscheid

Philip Brickman

Bruce Campbell

Ellen S. Cohn

Thomas D. Cook

William Damon

Andre deCarufel

Morton Deutsch

Nicholas P. Emler

Michele A. Fagan

Robert Folger

Erica Goode

Contributors

Department of Psychology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455.

Department of Psychology and Research Center for Group Dynamics, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48106.

Department of Psychology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455.

Department of Psychology, University of New Hampshire, Durham, New Hampshire 03824.

Department of Psychology, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 6020l.

Department of Psychology, Clark University, Worcester, Massachusetts 01610.

Faculty of Administration, University of Ottawa, Ontario, Canada KIN 985.

Department of Psychology, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, New York 10027.

Department of Psychology, University of Dundee, Dundee, Scotland.

Department of Psychology, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637.

Department of Psychology, Southern Methodist University, Dallas, Texas 75275.

Department of Psychology, University of California at Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, California 95064.

vii

viii

Jerald Greenberg

Robert Hogan

John G. Holmes

Rachel Karniol

Louise H. Kidder

Robert L. Kidder

Melvin J. Lerner

Sally C. Lerner

Dale T. Miller

Dean E. Peachey

Barbara Pearlman

Edward E. Sampson

Yaacov Schul

Carolyn H.Simmons

Neil Vidmar

CONTRIBUTORS

Faculty of Management, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210.

Department of Psychology, The Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland 21218.

Department of Psychology, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada N2L 3Gl.

Departm.ent of Psychology, Tel Aviv University, Ramat Aviv, Israel.

Department of Psychology, Temple University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19122.

Department of Sociology, Temple University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19122.

Department of Psychology, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada N2L 3Gl.

Environmental Studies, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada N2L 3Gl.

Department of Psychology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada V6T 1W5.

Department of Psychology, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada N2L 3Gl.

Department of Psychology, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60201.

Department of Sociology and Social Anthropology, Clark University, Worcester, Massachusetts 01610.

Department of Psychology and Research Center for Group Dynamics, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48106.

Department of Psychology, University of Colorado at Denver, Denver, Colorado 80202.

Department of Psychology, University of Western Ontario, London, Canada N6A 5C2.

Preface

This volume was conceived out of the concern with what the imminent future holds for the "have" countries ... those societies, such as the United States, which are based on complex technology and a high level of energy consumption. Even the most sanguine projection includes as base minimum relatively rapid and radical change in all aspects of the society, reflecting adaptation or reactions to demands created by poten­tial threat to the technological base, sources of energy, to the life-support system itself. Whatever the source of these threats-whether they are the result of politically endogeneous or exogeneous forces-they will elicit changes in our social institutions; changes resulting not only from attempts to adapt but also from unintended consequences of failures to adapt.

One reasonable assumption is that whatever the future holds for us, we would prefer to live in a world of minimal suffering with the greatest opportunity for fulfilling the human potential. The question then becomes one of how we can provide for these goals in that scenario for the imminent future ... a world of threat, change, need to adapt, diminishing access to that which has been familiar, comfortable, needed.

There is an answer to that question which has unexplored and potentially important ramifications. Social scientists have generated in­creasing documentation for the common observation that justice plays a singular and pervasive role in our culture. More specifically, they have shown that people can and do adapt successfully to changing circum­stances, including those of scarcity and diminishing access . . . if they perceive their lot to be fair and just. More recently, research has provided considerable evidence that judgments of fairness and justness are not simply reflections of the prevailing normative system, but rather are well-grounded in psychological structure and processes. The implica­tions of this are extremely relevant to the future, since the commitment to justice and the forms this commitment can take provide an as yet unexamined potential for creating the directions and the means for suc­cessful adaptation during times of change and scarcity.

ix

x PREFACE

Although the contributors to this volume conceptualize the psy­chology of justice in various ways, they have all demonstrated amply in their previous work the extent to which the commitment to justice guides important social behaviors. In this volume, they focus their at­tention on the establishment of guidelines for effective and constructive solutions to the set of human problems with which we must soon deal.

Waterloo, Ontario January 17, 1981

MELVIN J. LERNER

SALLY C. LERNER

Acknowledgments

In the latter part of August, 1978, just prior to the American Psychological Association annual meetings in Toronto, a unique and important event took place on the campus of the University of Waterloo. For three days and evenings, twelve social psychologists, a sociologist, and an anthro­pologist pooled their expertise-through formal presentations, critical analyses, and informal discussions-in pursuit of answers to this ques­tion: how can the human concern with justice provide opportunities for constructive responses to future social dilemmas which may involve scarcity of resources and rapid change? As it turned out, this occasion was unique in many respects, not the least of which is that never before or since has there been such a gathering for the purpose of exchanging ideas. The setting and the topic provided a marvellous opportunity for this group to generate important contributions to our understanding of justice and of ways to meet the challenges which face our society.

This volume is one outcome of that 1978 conference. Although the chapters in the volume differ to some extent from what took place that August, the impetus for the volume came from those meetings and many of the individual contributions were stimulated and shaped by the dialogues that took place in the meetings.

This is the occasion to express our gratitude to those who made that unique conference possible. The encouragement and support of our colleagues in the Department of Psychology and the Faculty of Envi­ronmental Studies helped generate the conviction that not only was such a conference desirable, but feasible as well. Certainly, without the grants from the University of Waterloo Research Grant Program and the De­partment of Psychology, this estimate of feasibility would not have been transformed into reality. In a less direct but equally essential fashion, the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada (File No. 41O-77-0601-X2) and the Ontario Ministry of Energy provided gen­erous support for the research which formed the conceptual background for much of this volume.

xi

Contents

INTRODUCTION

1 ,. Adapting to Scarcity and Change (I): Stating the Problem .... 3

Sally C. Lerner

1. The Necessary Transition .................................. 3 2. Tragic Choices in the "Crunch" ............................ 5 3. Conclusion ............................................... 9 References ................................................. 10

2 • The Justice Motive in Human Relations: Some Thoughts on What We Know and Need to Know about Justice ....... 11

Melvin J. Lerner

1. Setting the Stage for What We Know: A Conceptual Analysis of Justice ....................................... 11 1.1. Some Definitional Properties That Describe What

We Have Learned ................................... 12 1.2. Paradoxical Properties of Justice ...................... 13

2. What We Thought We Knew about Justice: Justice as an Instrumental Device for Maximizing Outcomes ............. 16 2.1. The Appearance of the "Social Contract" and Its

Tentative Acceptance ................................ 16 2.2. Justice as the Expression of Social Power: Contemporary

"Equity Theory" .................................... 17 2.3. Man as a More Rational Animal ...................... 18 2.4. Common Assumptions and Special Problems in

These Perspectives .................................. 19 3. Need for an Encompassing Theoretical Perspective .... . . . . .. 20

3.1. Justice in Social Institutions .......................... 20 3.2. Justice as It Defines What Is a "Desired Resource" 21

xiii

xiv CONTENTS

3.3. Centrality of Justice in the Acquisition and Allocation of Resources .............................. 21

4. What Social-Psychological Processes Could Account for the Way Justice Appears in People's Lives ................. 22 4.1. Maturation of Cognitive Processes: The

Understanding of "Impersonal Causation" ............. 23 4.2. The Basic Templates for Organizing One's View

of the World ........................................ 24 5. Examples of the "Emergent Activities": How Justice

Appears in Interpersonal Encounters ...................... 28 5.1. Conditions of Divergent Goals ....................... 29 5.2. Conditions of Convergent Goals ...................... 31 5.3. Conditions of Vicarious Dependency .................. 32

6. Summary of What We Now "Know" and Need to Know about the Justice Motive in a Complex Society .............. 33

References ................................................. 35

BASIC PROCESSES

Origins and Development of the Sense of Justice ...................... 39

3 • Theoretical Issues in the Development of Social Justice ...... 41

Carolyn H. Simmons

1. Introduction ............................................. 41 2. Social Learning Theory ................................... 42 3. Psychoanalytic Theory ................................... 43 4. Cognitive Developmental Theory .......................... 43

4.1. Piaget's Perspective ................................. 43 4.2. Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Reasoning ................. 45 4.3. Social Justice and Role-Taking Ability ................. 46 4.4. Social Justice and Transformation of Thought .......... 46

5. Parity and Equity ........................................ 47 6. Justice Motive Theory .................................... 48

6.1. The Personal Contract ............................... 48 6.2. The Social Contract ............................ :..... 48 6.3. Identity, Unit, and Nonunit Relationships ............. 49

7. Questions for Future Study ............................... 51 7.1. How Early Are Children Capable of Different Types of

Justice-Based Decisions? .... _ ........................ 51 7.2. What Range of Responses Are Children Capable of

in Expressing Their Ideas of Social Justice? ............ 52

CONTENTS xv

7.3. What Are the Effects of Prevalent Strategies in Different Cultures on Children's Social Justice Behavior? ........ 52

References ................................................. 53

4 • The Development of Justice and Self-Interest during Childhood .............................................. 57

William Damon

1. Introduction ............................................. 57 2. The Development of Children's Hypothetical Reasoning

about Justice ............................................ 59 3. Brief Descriptions of Early Positive Justice Levels ........... 60 4. Children's Peer-Group Behavior in a Distributive

Justice Situation ......................................... 63 5. Description of Further Research ........................... 71 References ................................................. 72

5 • Morality and the Development of Conceptions of Justice 73

Rachel Karniol and Dale T. Miller

1. Introduction ............................................. 73 2. Commutative Justice ..................................... 74

2.1. Responsibility and Commutative Justice ............... 74 2.2. Authority and Commutative Justice ................... 75 2.3. Consistency and Commutative Justice ................. 76

3. Distributive Justice ....................................... 78 3.1. Similarity and Distributive Justice ..................... 78 3.2. Justifying Unequal Distributions ...................... 79

4. Procedural Justice: Establishing Fair Procedures ............ , 81 5. Transforming Justice Concerns into Moral and Legal

Guidelines .............................................. 82 5.1. Role Taking and Morality ............................ 83 5.2. Moral Development and Legal Obedience ............. 84 5.3. Specious Morality ................................... 85

6. Summary ............................................... 86 References ................................................. 87

New Perspectives on the Social Dimensions of Justice .................. 91

6 • Social Change and the Contexts of Justice Motivation ....... 97

Edward E. Sampson

xvi CONTENTS

1. The Critique of Social Psychology ......................... 97 1.1. Elements of an Alternative Model .................... 99

2. Interpersonal Formulations of Psychological Processes . . . . .. 100 2.1. G. H. Mead and L. S. Vygotsky on Mind ............ 101 2.2. Mills on Motivation ................................ 102 2.3. Sullivan on Personality ............................. 104

3. The Address Frame ..................................... 104 3.1. Literal versus Indexical Meaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 106

4. Justice Motivation as Address Frame ..................... 107 4.1. The Meaning of Justice Motivation as Address Frame .. 107 4.2. The Role of Sociohistorical Factors ................... 110 4.3. The Negotiated Quality of Justice .................... 111 4.4. The Changing Intelligibility of the Justice Address

Frame ............................................. 111 5. Justice and Social Change ............................... 112

5.1. Particularism versus Universalism ................... 113 5.2. A Capsule History ................................. 114

6. Tension and Dissensus .................................. 116 6.1. The Bakke Case .. , .................................. 117

7. Justice Motivation and the Future ........................ 119 7.1. Beyond Intrapsychology ............................ 120

8. Scarcity and Justice ..................................... 121 9. Conclusion ............................................. 122 References ................................................ 123

7 • Retributive Justice ...................................... 125

Robert Hogan and Nicholas P. Emler

1. Justice ................................................. 126 2. Distributive Justice ...................................... 128 3. Retributive Justice ...................................... 130 4. Retribution and Equity Theory ........................... 134 5. The Morality of Retribution .............................. 138 6. Power, Retribution, and Status ........................... 141 References ................................................ 142

8 • The Social Psychology of Punishment Reactions

Dale T. Miller and Neil Vidmar

145

1. Introduction ............................................ 145 1.1. Definition of Punishment ........................... 146

2. An Analysis of the Components of Punishment Reactions .. 148

CONTENTS xvii

3. Behavior Control ....................................... 149 3.1. Rule and Offense Characteristics .................... 151 3.2. Rule Violator Characteristics ........................ 152 3.3. Individual Differences .............................. 154

4. Retribution ............................................. 155 4.1. Rule and Offense Characteristics .................... 157 4.2. Rule Violator Characteristics ........................ 159 4.3. Individual Differences .............................. 163

5. Final Perspective ........................................ 166 References ................................................ 168

9 • Microjustice and Macrojustice ........................... 173

Philip Brickman, Robert Folger, Erica Goode, and Yaacov Schul

1. Introduction ............................................ 173 2. Elements of Microjustice and Macrojustice ................ 176 3. Majority Rule and Minority Rights ....................... 181 4. Lotteries: Macrojustice without Microjustice ............... 185 5. The Salience of Microelements and Macroelements in Social

Policy Decisions ........................................ 189 6. Directions for Future Research ........................... 195 Appendix A .............................................. 198 References ................................................ 201

INSTITUTIONAL SETTINGS

Close Relations: Justice, Self-Interest, and Social Bonds ............... 205

10 • The Changing Longevity of Heterosexual Close Relationships: A Commentary and Forecast ............... 209

Ellen Berscheid and Bruce Campbell

1. Introduction ............................................ 209 2. Psychological Antecedents of CR Termination ............. 211

2.1. The Direct Effect of External Barriers on Termination Decisions .............................. 213

3. Recent Social Changes Resulting in Barrier Reduction ...... 214 3.1. Reductions in Economic Barriers ..................... 214 3.2. Reductions in Legal Barriers ......................... 217 3.3. Reductions in Religious Barriers ..................... 218 3.4. Reductions in Barriers due to Children ............... 218 3.5. Reductions in Social Barriers ........................ 220 3.6. Summary .......................................... 221

xviii CONTENTS

4. The Indirect Effects of Barrier Reduction on Termination Decisions ................................... 222 4.1. Effects of Barrier Reduction on the Attractiveness

of the Relationship ................................. 222 4.2. Effects of Barrier Reduction on the Number and

Attractiveness of Alternatives ....................... 228 5. Summary and Afterword ................................ 231 References ................................................ 233

11 • Giving and Receiving: Social Justice in Close Relationships .................................. 235

Louise H. Kidder, Michele A. Fagan, and Ellen S. Cohn

1. Varieties of Justice in Close Relationships ................. 235 1.1. Distributive Justice: the Exchange of Resources in

Close Relationships ................................ 236 1.2. Procedural Justice: the Social Power That Accrues to

Those Who Have Resources ......................... 239 2. Men's and Women's Contributions in the World of Work .. 241

2.1. Who Does What Work .............................. 242 2.2. Which Work Counts ................................ 243

3. Men's and Women's Contributions in the World of Love ... 244 3.1. Who Gives the Love ................................ 244 3.2. The Origins of the Division of Labor of Love ......... 247

4. Men and Women in Relafionships: Different Conceptions of Justice and of Close Relationships ........................ 248 4.1. Sex Differences in Preferences for Equity or Equality .. 248 4.2. Sex Differences in Close Relationships: An

Examination of Homosocial Relationships ............ 250 5. A New Order of Intimate Relationships: A Prescription .... 254 References ................................................ 256

12 • The Exchange Process in Close Relationships: Microbehavior and Macromotives ...................................... 261

John G. Holmes

1. Introduction ............................................ 261 2. The Development of Macromotives ....................... 262 3. The Levels-of-Analysis Problem .......................... 264

3.1. Time Frame Considerations ......................... 265 4. The Address Frame for Social Evaluation .................. 266

4.1. Time Perspectives .................................. 268

CONTENTS xix

4.2. Explicit, Conditional Exchanges ..................... 271 4.3. Resource Equivalence and Substitution ............... 275 4.4. Rule-Governed Behavior ............................ 279

5. Conclusion ............................................. 281 References ................................................ 282

Justice in the Marketplace: Allocation of Scarce Resources ............. 285

13 • The Justice of Distributing Scarce and Abundant Resources 289

Jerald Greenberg

1. Introduction ............................................ 289 1.1. Allocation as a Ubiquitious and Profound Phenomenon 289 1.2. Scarcity: A Neglected Social-Psychological Issue ....... 290

2. Scarcity ................................................ 291 2.1. Need ............................................. 293 2.2. Efficiency .......................................... 297 2.3. Need and Efficiency Interrelated ..................... 299

3. Abundance ............................................. 300 3.1. Review of Experimental Evidence .................... 301 3.2. Abundance-Breeds-Scarcity Paradox ................. 302

4. Special Problems and Issues for Future Research ........... 305 4.1. Self-Enhancing Views of Justice ..................... 305 4.2. High Wages Commanded by Scarce Skills ............ 308 4.3. Other Important Considerations ..................... 309 4.4. Some Practical Considerations ....................... 311

5. Conclusion ............................................. 312 References ................................................ 312

14 • The Allocation and Acquisition of Resources in Times of Scarcity ............................................. 317

Andre deCarufel

1. Resource Scarcity and the Experience of Deprivation ....... 318 1.1. Unfairly Distributed Scarce Resources ................ 319 1.2. Progressive Deprivation ............................ 321 1.3. Aspirational Deprivation ............................ 322 1.4. J-Curve Hypothesis ................................ 323 1.5. Decremental Deprivation ........................... 324

2. Collective Responses to Resource Scarcity ................. 325 2.1. Individual Deprivation and Collective Deprivation .... 326

xx CONTENTS

2.2. Fraternal Deprivation and the Development of Group Cohesiveness ............................... 327

2.3. Enacting Collective Activity ......................... 329 2.4. The Aftermath of Collective Action .................. 332

3. The Effects of Scarcity on Resource Allocation ............. 333 3.1. Self-Interest ....................................... 334 3.2. Justification of the Injustice ......................... 336 3.3. Substitute Rewards ................................. 337 3.4. Attention to Procedural Matters ..................... 337

References ................................................ 339

15 • Justice in liThe Crunch"

Morton Deutsch

343

1. Introduction ............................................ 343 2. Conditions That Affect Coping ........................... 344

2.1. The Individual's and the Group's Situation prior to the Adversity ................................... 344

2.2. The Salience of Economic Value in the Individual's and the Group's Eyes .............................. 345

2.3. The Nature of the Economic Crunch ................. 345 2.4. The Causal Attribution of the Crunch ................ 346 2.5. The Distribution of the Loss ......................... 346 2.6. The Constructiveness versus the Destructiveness

of the Conflict ..................................... 349 2.7. The Ability to Be Creative ........................... 352 2.8. The Potential for Mobilization ....................... 354 2.9. Participation in Decision Making .................... 355

3. Conclusion ............................................. 356 References ................................................ 357

16 • The Relationship of Economic Growth to Inequality in the Distribution of Income ............................ 359

Thomas D. Cook and Barbara Pearlman

1. Introduction ............................................ 359 2. The Trickle-Down Theory ............................... 362

2.1. Overview ......................................... 362 2.2. Assessing the Effectiveness of the Trickle-Down Theory 364 2.3. Summary .......................................... 369

3. The Bubble-Up Theory .................................. 370 3.1. Overview ......................................... 370

CONTENTS xxi

3.2. Evaluation of the Effectiveness of the Bubble-Up Strategy ........................................... 373

3.3. Conclusion ........................................ 377 4. Independent Tinkering .................................. 378

4.1. Introduction ....................................... 378 4.2. Managed Independent Tinkering .................... 379 4.3. A "Systems" Approach with "Mindless" Tinkering .... 383

5. Summary and Conclusion ............................... 385 References ................................................ 388

Legal Institutions and Their Alternatives ........................... 391

17 • Justice Motives and Other Psychological Factors in the Development and Resolution of Disputes ................. 395

Neil Vidmar

1. Overview .............................................. 395 2. Private Disputes and the Debate over Procedural

Alternatives ............................................ 397 3. Justice Motives and Resolution Procedure ................. 401

3.1. Justice and Other Motives in Disputes ............... 401 3.2. Motives and Forums ............................... 404

4. Dynamics of the Dispute Process ......................... 408 4.1. Choice Points in the Dispute Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 409 4.2. Theoretical and Practical Implications ................ 413

5. Implications and Research Needs ......................... 416 References ................................................ 419

18 • Down-to-Earth Justice: Pitfalls on the Road to Legal Decentralization ........................................ 423

Robert L. Kidder

1. Introduction ............................................ 423 2. Scarcity, Centralization, and Neighborhood Justice ......... 424 3. Scarcity, Technology, and Decentralization ................ 431 4. Conclusion ............................................. 435 References ................................................ 436

19 • Law as a Social Trap: Problems and Possibilities for the Future .......................................... 439

Dean E. Peachey and Melvin]. Lerner

xxii CONTENTS

1. Introduction ............................................ 439 2. Toward an Understanding of the Law .................... 440

2.1. A Functional Approach ............................. 440 2.2. Law as an Effort to Avoid Social Traps ............... 442

3. Current Problems in the Legal System .................... 443 3.1. Crime Control ..................................... 443 3.2. Dispute Settlement ................................. 445 3.3. Ensuring Civil Rights ............................... 445 3.4. Social Engineering: The Law as an Instrument

of Social Change and Adaptation .................... 447 4. Social Structures as Creators of Social Reality .............. 448

4.1; Effect of Surveillance and Rules on Perceived Motivation ........................................ 448

4.2. Loss of a Sense of Personal Control .................. 450 4.3. The Illusion of Autonomy and "Diffused

Interdependence" .................................. 450 4.4. The Model of Man Implicit in the Law: Man as a

"Rational Animal" .................................. 451 5. Scenarios of the Future: The Effects of Scarcity ............ 453 6. Alternatives ............................................ 455

6.1. Delegalizing Portions of the Law .................... 455 6.2. Changes in the Larger Social System ................. 456

References ................................................ 458

ENDNOTE

20 • Adapting to Scarcity and Change (II): Constructive Alternatives ............................................ 465

Sally C. Lerner

1. The Role of Justice in an Uncertain Future ................ 465 2. Toward Institutional Change ............................. 467

2.1. Education ......................................... 468 2.2. Work ............................................. 470

References ................................................ 472

Author Index 473

Subject Index 483