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Edited by
Ebiegberi Joe Alagoa
Tekena Nitonye Tamuno
John Pepper Clark
Onyoma Research Publications
T H E I.Z O. N
O F T H E
N IG E R D E L T A
© 2009 Onyoma Research Publications
ISBN: 978-978-8195-00-9
E-mail: [email protected]: www.onyoma.org
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Published in 2009 byOnyoma Research Publications
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Port Harcourt, Rivers State, Nigeria
Di.se. ye Tantua
CONTENTS
Members of The Ijaw History Project Committee viContributing Authors viiList of Figures xiList of Plates xiiList of Tables xvAppendices xviPreface xviiChapter 1 Introduction
E.J. Alagoa 1-9Chapter 2 Environment
B.L. Nyananyo, I. Daminabo and E.R. Aminigo 11-28Chapter 3 Population
C.O. Ikporukpo and Osi S. Akpoghomeh 29-40Chapter 4 The Social Context
Marida Hollos and Philip Leis 41-51Chapter 5 Life Stages
Marida Hollos and Philip Leis 53-67Chapter 6 Language: Some Historical Implications
Ozo-mekuri Ndimele, Ethelbert E. Kari and Jones G.I. Ayuwo 69-89
Chapter 7 The Western Delta and Limit: Basic LinguisticSurveyC. Budonyefa Agbegha 91-103
Chapter 8 A Common Language for the Ijaw EthnicNationality?Kay Williamson 105-113
Chapter 9 Visual ArtsMartha G. Anderson 115-133
Chapter 10 Ogboinba: The Ijaw Creation MythGabriel Okara 135-146
Chapter 11 Canoes and Fish In Ijo Art and RitualMartha G. Anderson 147-192
Chapter 12 The Literature of the IzonEldred Ibibiem Green and Seiyifa Koroye 193-224
Chapter 13 Night One of The Ozidi SagaJ. P. Clark 225-278
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Chapter 14 ResourcesAdaye Orugbani 279-292
Chapter 15 PrehistoryAbi A. Derefaka and Stanley Okoroafor 293-355
Chapter 16 HistoryAtei Mark Okorobia 357-390
Chapter 17 LinkagesE. J. Alagoa 391-400
Chapter 18 The Western Delta LimitE. J. Alagoa, E. A. Kowei, B.J. Owei and J.B. Dunu 401-429
Chapter 19 The Western Delta E. J. Alagoa And Ebiegberi A. Femowei 431-457
Chapter 20 The Central DeltaAtei Mark Okorobia 459-491
Chapter 21 The Eastern DeltaAbi A. Derefaka and Adaye Orugabni 493-522
Chapter 22 The Eastern Delta LimitNkparom C. Ejituwu, Jones M. Jaja and John H. Enemugwem 523-547
Chapter 23 The Northern Delta LimitC.M. Sorgwe, O.C. Ama-Ogbari and M.P. Okonny 549-559
Chapter 24 Wilberforce Island: A Niger Delta Dispersal CentreE.J. Alagoa 561-576
Chapter 25 The Izon and Their Igboid NeighboursUgwulor Eugene Nwala, Kingdom Orjiand Gamaliel Sokari-George 577-597
Chapter 26 The Izon and Their Ogoni NeighboursSonpie Kpone-Tonwe and Emma Gbenenye 599-618
Chapter 27 The Izon and Their Neighbours of the Cross RiverValleyOtu A. Ubi and Timipa Igoli 619-629
Chapter 28 The Izon in Northern NigeriaAmbily Etekpe and Joseph Kariboro 631-646
Chapter 29 The Izon in West and Central AfricaSaviour Nathan A. Agoro, Charles Asuk, S.T. Olaliand Ambilly Etekpe 647-669
Chapter 30 The Izon in BritainBenaebi Benatari Oguoko and Eva Ogbozimo Amgbare 671-682
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Chapter 31 The Izon in North America: History, Politics and IdentityNimi Wariboko and Martha Anderson 683-711
Chapter 32 Izon Visibility in the Caribbean New WorldDiasporaWaibinte Wariboko, Otelemate G. Harryand Hubert Devonish 713-726
Chapter 33 Conclusion:What Future for the Izon in Nigeria?Tekena N. Tamuno 727-767
Bibliography: Jigekuma A. Ombu 769-824Index: Hudron K. Kari 825-849
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MEMBERS OF THE IJAW HISTORY PROJECT COMMITTEE
1. Ebiegberi Joe Alagoa, PhD (Wisconsin), JP, OON, FHSN, FNAL.Emeritus Professor of History, University of Port Harcourt: Chairman.
2. Tekena Nitonye Tamuno, PhD, DLitt (London), FHSN, FNAL, fni,OFR, CON. Emeritus Professor of History, former Vice Chancellor,University of Ibadan; President, Bells University: Member.
3. C. A. Dime, PhD, Professor of Philosophy, Edo State University,Ekpoma, first President, Ijaw National Congress: Member.
4. Nkparom Claude Ejituwu, PhD (Lagos), Professor of History,University of Port Harcourt: Member.
5. Nicholas A. Frank-Opigo, B.A (Ibadan), Chief: Member.
6. B. A. Obuoforibo, PhD, Reverend Canon: Member.
7. Zebulon Bire Agbede, Surgeon: Member.
8. T. O. Onduku, Chief. [Represented by Preye Onduku Esquire]:Member.
9. Tam Fiofori, Film-maker, Photo Journalist: Co-opted Member.
10. John H. Enemugwem, PhD (University of Port Harcourt), Sub-Dean,Faculty of Humanities, University of Port Harcourt: Secretary.
Secretariat: 11. Inia Ibufukama: Accountant
12. Rachael Ekejiuba: Computer Operator
13. Esinkuma Nyananyo and Bomo Nyananyo: Computer Consultants
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CONTRIBUTING AUTHORS
AGBEGHA, C. Budonyefa. Mr. Agbegha teaches English at the College ofEducation, Warri, Delta State.
AGORO, Saviour Nathan A. Dr. Agoro teaches Theatre Arts at the NigerDelta University, Wilberforce Island, Bayelsa State.
AKPOGHOMEH, Osi S. Akpoghomeh is Professor of Geography, andDean, Faculty of Social Sciences at the University of Port Harcourt.
ALAGOA, Ebiegberi Joe. Alagoa is Emeritus Professor of History,University of Port Harcourt.
AMA-OGBARI, O. C. Dr. Ama-Ogbari teaches history at the Niger DeltaUniversity, Wilberforce Island, Bayelsa State.
AMGBARE, Eva Ogbozimo. Miss Amgbare is member of the Ijaw PeoplesAssociation, London.
AMINIGO, E. R. Dr. Mrs. Aminigo teaches in the Department ofMicrobiology, University of Port Harcourt.
ANDERSON, Martha. Dr. Anderson is Professor of Art History, School ofArt and Design, New York State College of Ceramics at AlfredUniversity, Alfred, New York, U. S. A.
ASUK, Charles. Mr. Asuk teaches history at the University of Port Harcourt.
AYUWO, Jones G. I. Mr. Ayuwo teaches linguistics at the University of PortHarcourt.
CLARK, John Pepper. Professor Clark is Chairman, Pec Repertory Theatre,Lagos and Funama, Kiagbodo, Delta State.
DAMINABO, I. E. Mrs. Daminabo teaches Geography at the Rivers StateCollege of Arts and Science, Port Harcourt.
DEREFAKA, Abi A. Derefaka is Professor of Archaeology, University ofPort Harcourt.
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DEVONISH, Hubert. Dr. Devonish is Head, Department of Linguistics, atThe University of the West Indies, Mona-Kingston, Jamaica.
DUNU, J. B. Mr. Dunu teaches in Ogbe-Ijoh, Warri South-West LocalGovernment, Delta State.
EJITUWU, Nkparom Claude. Ejituwu is Professor of History at theUniversity of Port Harcourt, and Fellow of the Historical Society ofNigeria.
ENEMUGWEM, John H. Dr. Enemugwem, Historian, was Associate Deanof the Faculty of Humanities, and Head, Department of History andDiplomatic Studies, University of Port Harcourt.
ETEKPE, Ambily. Dr. Etekpe teaches Political Science at the Niger DeltaUniversity, Wilberforce Island, Bayelsa State.
GBENENYE, Emma. Dr. Gbenenye teaches history at the University of PortHarcourt.
GREEN, Eldred Ibibiem. Dr. Green teaches English at the University of PortHarcourt.
HARRY, Otelemate G. Dr. Harry teaches linguistics at The University of theWest Indies, Mona-Kingston, Jamaica.
HOLLOS, Marida. Dr Hollos is Professor of Anthropology at BrownUniversity, Providence, Rhode Island, USA
IGOLI, Timipa. Mr. Igoli is a graduate student of history at the University ofPort Harcourt.
IKPORUKPO, C. O. Ikporukpo is Professor of Geography, University ofIbadan; currently serving as Vice Chancellor, Niger Delta University,Wilberforce Island, Bayelsa State.
JAJA, J. M. Dr. Jaja is of the Institute of Foundation Studies, Rivers StateUniversity of Science and Technology, Port Harcourt.
KARI, Ethelbert E. Dr. Kari teaches linguistics at the University of PortHarcourt.
KARIBORO, Joseph. Mr. Kariboro is Administrative Officer, Rivers StateLiaison Office, Abuja.
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KOROYE, Seiyifa. Mr. Koroye teaches English at the University of PortHarcourt.
KOWEI, F. A. Mr. Kowei teaches at the Comprehensive High School,Igbobini, Ondo State.
KPONE-TONWE, Sonpie. The Rev. Dr. Kpone-Tonwe teaches History at theUniversity of Port Harcourt, Faculty of Humanities, Port Harcourt.
LEIS, Philip E., Philip Leis is Professor of Anthropology, Brown University,Providnce, Rhode Island, USA
NDIMELE, Ozo-mekuri. Ndimele is Professor of Linguistics at theUniversity of Port Harcourt.
NWALA, Ugwulor Eugene. Mr. Nwala is Director of Chieftaincy Affairs inthe Rivers State Ministry of Local Government and CommunityDevelopment, Port Harcourt.
NYANANYO, B. L. Nyananyo is Professor of Plant Science andBiotechnology, University of Port Harcourt,
OGUOKO, Benaebi Benatari. Mr. Oguoko was Secretary-General, IjawPeoples Association, London.
OKARA, Gabriel. Okara is Doctor of Letters, honoris causa, of the Universityof Port Harcourt.
OKONNY, M. P. Dr. Okonny is an educationist in Port Harcourt, RiversState.
OKOROAFOR, Stanley. Mr. Okoroafor teaches Archaeology at theUniversity of Port Harcourt.
OKOROBIA, Atei Mark. Dr. Okorobia was Head of the Department ofHistory and Diplomatic Studies, University of Port Harcourt.
OLALI, S. T. Mr. Olali teaches history at the Niger Delta University,Wilberforce Island, Bayelsa State.
ORJI, Kingdom. Dr. Orji is of the Humanities Department, Rivers StateCollege of Arts and Science, Rumuola Road, Port Harcourt.
OWEI, B. J. Mr. Owei teaches at the Ijaw National High School, Arogbo,Ondo State.
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SOKARI-GEORGE, Gamaliel. The late Sokari-George taught history at theRivers State College of Education, Rumuolumeni, Port Harcourt.
SORGWE, C. M. Rev. Dr. Sorgwe teaches history at the Niger DeltaUniversity, Wilberforce Island, Bayelsa State.
TAMUNO, Tekena Nitonye. Tamuno is Emeritus Professor of History, andformer Vice-Chancellor University of Ibadan, Oyo State; and President,Bells University, Otta, Ogun State, Nigeria.
UBI, Otu A. Dr. Ubi teaches history at the University of Calabar, Calabar,Cross River State.
WARIBOKO, Nimi. Dr. Wariboko is the inaugural Katherine B. StuartAssociate Professor of Christian Ethics at Andover Newton TheologicalSchool, Newton Center, Massachussetts, U. S. A.
WARIBOKO, Waibinte. Dr. Wariboko teaches History at The University ofthe West Indies, Mona-Kingston, Jamaica.
WILLIAMSON, Ruth Kay. Williamson was Professor of LinguisticsUniversity of Ibadan and University of Port Harcourt. She died on the2nd January 2005, and was buried at Kaiama, Bayelsa State, Nigeria.
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page1.1 Classification of Ijo dialects 4
1.2 The Ijo Diaspora 8
2.1 Land Forms of the Niger Delta 13
6.1 Niger Delta Languages 70
14.1 Natural Resources of the Niger Delta Region 280
15.1 Map of the Niger Delta showing Excavated ArchaeologicalSites 294
16.1 Ijo Migration Routes 367
18.1 The Ijo of the Western Delta Limit 402
19.1 The Ijo of the Western Delta 432
20.1 The Ijo of the Central Delta 460
21.1 The Ijo of the Eastern Delta 494
22.1 The Ijo of the Eastern Delta Limit and their neighbours 532
23.1 The Northern Delta Limit 550
24.1 Central Niger Delta showing Excavated Sites 562
25.1 The Ijo and their Igboid Neighbours 578
26.1 The Ijo and their Ogoni Neighbours 600
27.1 The Ijo and the People of the Cross River Valley 620
28.1 Locations of major Ijo populations in Northern Nigeria 632
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LIST OF PLATES
Plate Page2.1 Salt water swamp. Red mangrove, Angala (Nembe),
Rhizophora racemosa (Rhizophoraceae) 14
2.2 Fresh water swamp. Water hyacinth, Lakwa (Nembe),Eichhornia crassipes Solms (pontederiacaea) 15
2.3 African Grey Parrot, Okoko (Nembe), Psittacus erithacus 26
2.4 Nile monitor lizard, Abedi (Nembe), Varanus niloticus 27
9.1 Shrine of the Creator, Woyinghi, "Our Mother". Lubia,Bassan 116
9.2 Osuwowei, Umbugbene 117
9.3 Man with bush spirit companion, Ikibiri, Ekpetiama 120
9.4 Mask performing at Egbesu festival, Olobiri, Kolokuma clan 123
9.5 Ungozu masquerade, Olugbobiri, Olodiama clan, 1992 125
11.1 Water spirit headdress, Ijo 148
11.2 Canoe headdress, Urhobo 148
11.3 Paddle, Itsekiri 149
11.4 Paddle. Ijo or Itsekiri 149
11.5 Paddle. Ijo or Itsekiri 149
11.6 Canoe headdress. Ogoni 152
11.7 Boys fishing from canoes. Korokorosei, 1991 153
11.8 Firing a dugout so it can be bent into shape. Korokorosei,1991 154
11.9 People watching a masquerade (Ungozu) from canoes on theriver, Olugbobiri, 1992 155
11.10 A small sacrificial canoe (ikiyan aru) mounted along theriver bank. Korokorosei, 1992 156
11.11 Funeral party from the bush with firewood. Korokorosei,1979 157
11.12 A war canoe appearing at a festival for Egbesu, the war godof the Kolokuma clan. Olobiri, 1978 158
11.13 A masker representing Oki, or "Sawfish", traveling to thearena in his canoe. Akedei, 1992 158
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Plate Page11.14 A girl pretending to paddle a bench during a dance called
Inanu, which was originated by bush spirits 159
11.15 Shrine for a water spirit named Adumu. Keme Mbiama,1979 160
11.16 Water spirit headdress. Eastern Ijo 161
11.17 Water spirit headdress. Eastern Ijo 162
11.18 Barge loaded with dancers at the Ogori ba uge, or “Buffalokilling festival”. Odi, 1978 163
11.19 People displaying a portion of their catch at the fishingfestival for Lake Adigbe. Ossiama, 1992 169
11.20 Water spirit headdress. Ijo 171
11.21 Water spirit mask, crocodile. Delta peoples 171
11.22 Multibeaded water spirit headdress. Ijo 171
11.23 Janus water spirit headdress with feathers. Ijo 172
11.24 Masks of different types appearing together at a festival forKolokuma Egbesu, the clan war god. Olobiri, 1978 173
11.25 Water spirit headdress with janus figures, Delta peoples 173
11.26 Water spirit headdress, Pipligbo, Kalabari Ijo 174
11.27 Water spirit headdress, Ijo 178
11.28 A caged Ofuruma, or "Shark", being hauled upriver, while afisherman and his wife circle his raft in their canoe.Ondewari, 1992 179
11.29 Shark masquerade headdress. Delta peoples 181
11.30 Oki, or "Sawfish" appearing in a masquerade sponsored bythe author. Akedei, 1992 182
11.31 Having netted Oki, a fisherman cuts his throat. Akedei, 1992 183
11.32 Kabi, or "Tiger fish" during a performance of hismasquerade sponsored by the author. Ossiama, 1992 185
11.33 Apedeu, or "Lake perch", during a performance of the Kabimasquerade. Ossiama, 1992 185
11.34 Eleke embracing his priest. Korokorosei, 1991 187
11.35 Fishing motif on T-shirt designed for a civic festival.Opuama, 1992 191
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Plate Page12.1 Gabriel Okara 197
12.2 John Pepper Clark 19912.3 Ola Rotimi 20514.1 Gas Flare 28315.1 Agadagbabou Pit II, 1980 306
15.2 Gun parts found at Koroama, Mound II, Pit 2, Level 2 326
15.3 Isomabou Pit V, 1983 328
19.1 A bronze human face from Kiagbodo, claimed to representthe Oba of Benin 438
19.2 Bronze from Kiagbodo, claimed to be a gift from “the Obaof Benin as a picture of Mein” 439
20.1 Oloibiri oil well and signboard 461
20.2 Bronze canine skulls from Okpoama 466
20.3 A terracotta figurine from Onyoma, Nembe, possiblyrepresenting a priest king, Onyoma pere 471
21.1 A terra-cotta mask from near excavation site Ke II 497
21.2 A second terra-cotta mask from near excavation site Ke II 49721.3 A terra-cotta mask from excavation site Ke III 49822.1 Human figure of an Ijo native 528
22.2-3 Stylized carnivore skull of a leopard from Obolo (Andoni). 528
22.4 Decorated bronze bell removed from Obolo (Andoni) to theBritish Museum in 1904 529
22.5 Two Andoni double-edged bronze swords in the BritishMuseum, 1904 529
22.6 Andoni ancestral shrine, Isi Ebikan 530
22.7 Andoni Owuogbo headdress of a lobster (Ikem) 531
22.8 Spiral manila with trumpet-shaped ends removed fromAndoni to the British Museum in 1904 532
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LIST OF TABLESTable Page
3.1 Regional Grouping, Location and Population of Ijaw 373.2 Population of Ijaw LGAs of Predominance in 1991 38
3.3 Population Densities of Ijaw LGAs 1991 393.4 Age-Specific Literacy Rate: Central and Eastern Niger Delta
1991 405.1 Ijo Names for Age Periods 56
15.1 Radiocarbon Dates for Koroama 324 15.2 Radiocarbon Dates for Isomabou 333 15.3 Smoking Pipes from Ogoloma by Provenance 33825.1 Loan Words, Ijaw to Ikwerre 587
32.1 Identified Slave Departures from Ports in the Bight ofBiafra [Bight of Bonny] [1676-1832] 711
32.2 “African Ethnicities from the Bight of Biafra [Bight ofBonny] on British West Indies Registration Lists,1813-1827” 719
32.3 Analysis of Berbice Dutch Sources (percentages) 72232.4 Eastern Ijo Sources for Berbice Dutch Lexical Items 72332.5 Shared Phonological Innovation among Berbice Dutch and
Ijo 724
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LIST OF APPENDICES
Appendix Page8.1 Family Tree of the Ijoid Language Cluster 112
8.2 Family Tree of the Central Delta Group 113
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PREFACE
On the 14th August, 2004, Chief Diepiriye Simon Peter Alamieyeseigha, JP,Governor of Bayelsa State, inaugurated the Ijaw History Project Committee torun the Ijaw History Project, in the presence of the Executive of the IjawNational Congress.
In his letter to the members of the Committee, the late Dr. S. A. Bobo-Jama,National Secretary, Ijaw National Congress, invited the Committee to
“…write a comprehensive single compendium harmonizing as much aspossible the existing individual contributions …”.
According to the National Secretary, the Ijaw National Congress conceived ofthe Ijaw History Project as
“…not a self-glorification project but one of self re-discovery which is a basicingredient in our quest for self-actualization”.
Governor Alamieyeseigha confirmed that the project for a global history of theIjo people had been recommended to him by an Ijaw Interactive Assemblycomprising representatives from all parts of the Niger Delta.
The Committee set to work without delay. It has received the cooperation ofthe government of Bayelsa State during its periods of stability. Dr. GoodluckEbele Jonathan, Deputy Governor to Alamieyeseigha, gave the Committeeabsolute support when he became Governor and later Vice President ofNigeria. Neither Alamieyeseigha nor Jonathan sought to influence the ProjectCommittee in any way whatsoever.
Eventually, the project could only succeed from the quality of the resourcepersons or scholars it could recruit. These have come mainly from the tertiaryinstitutions in Rivers, Bayelsa, and Delta States. The Ijaw Peoples Associationof London and its President, Rowland Ekperi, have been very supportive, as
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well as colleagues in New York, and Rhode Island, USA, and in TheUniversity of the West Indies at Mona, Kingston, Jamaica. With such support,the project has, indeed, been an international and global enterprise, especiallyas some of our younger colleagues were able to research across the countries ofWest and Central Africa.
The Committee itself encompasses a representative cross-section of the NigerDelta, and it has made every effort to reach out to all sections of the Ijawcommunity in Nigeria. Thus, although most of its meetings were held in PortHarcourt in Rivers State, one meeting was held at Yenagoa in Bayelsa State,and another at Kiagbodo in Delta State. The Committee also scheduled andcarried out consultative meetings with women and youth groups, and theChairman met with others who raised questions concerning the mandate and/ormethods of the project. Indeed, the Committee has been privileged to receivethe active cooperation of the eminent scholar and writer, Professor John PepperClark, and the Commonwealth poet laureate, Dr. Gabriel Okara, as well as theIjaw national leader, Chief Edwin Kiagbodo Clark. John Pepper Clark andGabriel Okara were both willing to permit the inclusion of samples of theirliterary output in the book. We have also used one of the late Professor KayWilliamson’s contributions to the crucial issue of the use of the Ijo language.
In conclusion, the Committee submits the results of its close to five yearactivity; hoping that it opens new fields of research, raises new issues fordiscussion and resolution, and answers some pertinent questions.
Ebiegberi Joe AlagoaEmeritus Professor of HistoryChairman, Ijaw History Project Committee
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