The International System The International System Before World War IBefore World War I

The ‘Concert of Europe’ (1815-1914) The ‘Concert of Europe’ (1815-1914) International Relations from the Congress of Vienna to WWInternational Relations from the Congress of Vienna to WW

II

Informally established at the Congress of ViennaInformally established at the Congress of ViennaManage relations among European powersManage relations among European powersBasis: Great Powers : Britain, Austria, Prussia, Russia Basis: Great Powers : Britain, Austria, Prussia, Russia – The Quadruple Alliance (Britain, Austria, Prussia, The Quadruple Alliance (Britain, Austria, Prussia,

Russia) toRussia) todefeat Napoleon, block French aggressiondefeat Napoleon, block French aggressionenforce the peace settlement. enforce the peace settlement.

Quintuple Alliance when France is admitted in 1818 Quintuple Alliance when France is admitted in 1818 Holy Alliance (Austria, Prussia, Russia) 1815 – Holy Alliance (Austria, Prussia, Russia) 1815 – – promote Christian principles in the affairs of nations. promote Christian principles in the affairs of nations.

First patterned international org. in modern worldFirst patterned international org. in modern world

The ‘concert’ and the ‘balance of power’The ‘concert’ and the ‘balance of power’

Great powers meet at Congresses to Great powers meet at Congresses to agree on policiesagree on policiesArmed intervention against threats to Armed intervention against threats to territory and the status quo – territory and the status quo – Shifting alliances to prevent rise of Shifting alliances to prevent rise of ‘superpower’‘superpower’Small powers must conform to decisions Small powers must conform to decisions taken by Great Powerstaken by Great PowersNon-Europeans excludedNon-Europeans excluded

Upsetting the balanceUpsetting the balance

Germany unifies, 1860-71 & seeks its Germany unifies, 1860-71 & seeks its ‘place in the sun’‘place in the sun’

Weakening multinational empiresWeakening multinational empires

Solidification of alliances > Growing Solidification of alliances > Growing rigidity, absence of balancing rigidity, absence of balancing mechanism(s), rising tensionsmechanism(s), rising tensions

German unification and its impactGerman unification and its impact

Germany as disparate collections of states & Germany as disparate collections of states & principalitiesprincipalities

Unification engineered by Otto von BismarckUnification engineered by Otto von Bismarck

Bismarck’s problem: forging unity where there Bismarck’s problem: forging unity where there was none:was none:– Divide and rule tacticsDivide and rule tactics– KultuurkampfKultuurkampf and anti-Socialist laws and anti-Socialist laws

Germany seeks colonies and marketsGermany seeks colonies and markets– Morocco crises: 1906 and 1911Morocco crises: 1906 and 1911

– Middle-East (Berlin to Baghdad railway)Middle-East (Berlin to Baghdad railway)

Rising nationalism, the Eastern Question & Rising nationalism, the Eastern Question & the weakening of multi-national empires the weakening of multi-national empires

Ottoman EmpireOttoman Empire– Pressed from within & withoutPressed from within & without

Young TurksYoung TurksNationalist demandsNationalist demands

Austria-HungaryAustria-Hungary– Absence of common institutionsAbsence of common institutions– Rising nationalismRising nationalism– Decreasing ability of either Austria or Hungary to Decreasing ability of either Austria or Hungary to

contain it contain it

RigidificationRigidification

International system nominally International system nominally regulated by the balance of regulated by the balance of power power But Britain remains more aloof But Britain remains more aloof Alliance system rigidifies: Alliance system rigidifies: –antagonistic blocs confront each antagonistic blocs confront each

otherother

Triple Alliance v. the Triple EntenteTriple Alliance v. the Triple Entente

– Triple Alliance: Triple Alliance: GermanyGermany

Austria-HungaryAustria-Hungary

ItalyItaly

– Triple EntenteTriple EntenteFranceFrance

RussiaRussia

BritainBritain

GermanyGermany

Wanted its ‘place in the sun’Wanted its ‘place in the sun’Weltpolitik Weltpolitik (world policy): (world policy): – build up navy (Dreadnought class of ships) in order to rival build up navy (Dreadnought class of ships) in order to rival

BritainBritain

Attempts to drive Britain and France apart (Moroccan Attempts to drive Britain and France apart (Moroccan Crises (1905 & 1911 ) bring them togetherCrises (1905 & 1911 ) bring them togetherStaunch support for Austria-HungaryStaunch support for Austria-HungaryWilling to consider war as tool of policy Willing to consider war as tool of policy – Von Clausevitz: War = politics by other meansVon Clausevitz: War = politics by other means– common at the time among great powers, common at the time among great powers, – necessary to the balance of power mechanismnecessary to the balance of power mechanism

Wanted to fight before too late – i.e. before Russia Wanted to fight before too late – i.e. before Russia rearmsrearms

Austria-HungaryAustria-Hungary

Multinational empire threatened byMultinational empire threatened by– Demands for popular participation, making it Demands for popular participation, making it

harder to maintain balance among groupsharder to maintain balance among groups– Rising nationalism in BalkansRising nationalism in Balkans

Dependent on external supportDependent on external supportAnxious to Anxious to – contain Serbiacontain Serbia– prevent states on its border from becoming prevent states on its border from becoming

too powerful too powerful

RussiaRussia

Autocratic multinational empireAutocratic multinational empire– Defeated in Russo-Japanese War, 1904-5Defeated in Russo-Japanese War, 1904-5– Political system broadened after Revolution of 1905Political system broadened after Revolution of 1905

powers granted to an elected parliament (Duma), powers granted to an elected parliament (Duma),

then gradually withdrawnthen gradually withdrawn

– Rearming & modernizing militaryRearming & modernizing military

Aligned with France, SerbiaAligned with France, Serbia

Interested in access to Mediterranean – via Interested in access to Mediterranean – via DardanellesDardanelles

FranceFrance

Wants to reassert self as a great powerWants to reassert self as a great power

Interest in Interest in – Restraining GermanyRestraining Germany– Regaining Alsace & LorraineRegaining Alsace & Lorraine

Wants to maintain & expand colonial Wants to maintain & expand colonial holdingsholdings

Allied with Russia and BritainAllied with Russia and Britain

ItalyItaly

Interest in colonial acquisitionsInterest in colonial acquisitions

Interest in territorial gains from AustriaInterest in territorial gains from Austria– South TyrolSouth Tyrol– Trieste, Trieste, Fiume-Rjieka Fiume-Rjieka

Nominally allied with Germany and AustriaNominally allied with Germany and Austria

Does not become immediately involvedDoes not become immediately involved(when it does, joins Britain and France)(when it does, joins Britain and France)

BritainBritain

Preoccupied with domestic issuesPreoccupied with domestic issues

Anxious to maintain naval superiority, Anxious to maintain naval superiority, freedom of the seas, Empirefreedom of the seas, Empire

Prefer to remain aloof from continental Prefer to remain aloof from continental conflicts – conflicts – – provides the balance the system provides the balance the system

Guarantor of neutrals: Belgium & Guarantor of neutrals: Belgium & NetherlandsNetherlands

Causes of warCauses of war

Continuing debate, multiple explanations, Continuing debate, multiple explanations, some better than others:some better than others:

Arms race & especially those who Arms race & especially those who benefitted: munitions-makersbenefitted: munitions-makers

Entangling alliances and secret Entangling alliances and secret covenants (Woodrow Wilson)covenants (Woodrow Wilson)

NationalismNationalism

Capitalism itself (Orthodox Marxists)Capitalism itself (Orthodox Marxists)

A broader view:A broader view:

LongLong: industrialization, population growth, : industrialization, population growth, social and political changesocial and political change

MediumMedium: : – changes in the balance of powerchanges in the balance of power– rise of Germany a threat to France and Britainrise of Germany a threat to France and Britain– decline of Ottoman empiredecline of Ottoman empire

ShortShort: events of August 1914 : events of August 1914

A further takeA further take

Systemic factors:Systemic factors:balance of power (prevent Germany from balance of power (prevent Germany from becoming dominant power) becoming dominant power) German aggression (Weltpolitik)? German aggression (Weltpolitik)? Declining empires?Declining empires? Failure of the balance of power system Failure of the balance of power system Entangling alliancesEntangling alliancesFailure of Britain to make its position Failure of Britain to make its position clear?clear?

Other factorsOther factorsPopular pressure because of Popular pressure because of nationalism, newspapers, nationalism, newspapers,

Inflexible military plans Inflexible military plans Willingness of leaders to take great Willingness of leaders to take great risks, partially but not fully understoodrisks, partially but not fully understood

Or Or Slide into war, with consequences not Slide into war, with consequences not fully understoodfully understood

Dynamics of eventsDynamics of eventsJune-August 1914June-August 1914

June 28: Assassination in Sarajevo of June 28: Assassination in Sarajevo of Franz-Ferdinand and wifeFranz-Ferdinand and wifeAustria blames Serbia (parallel with the Austria blames Serbia (parallel with the 1990s)1990s)The German ‘blank-check’ (they believe The German ‘blank-check’ (they believe Russia will not intervene and if it does Russia will not intervene and if it does Germany can deal with both Russia and Germany can deal with both Russia and France –Schlieffen plan)France –Schlieffen plan)

June-August 1914June-August 1914

Austria’s ultimatum of July 23 (parallel with Austria’s ultimatum of July 23 (parallel with Rambouillet). Serbia begins mobilizationRambouillet). Serbia begins mobilizationJuly 25 answer is given. July 28 July 25 answer is given. July 28 declaration of war. July 29 first shells on declaration of war. July 29 first shells on Belgrade.Belgrade.July 29: Russia calls for general July 29: Russia calls for general mobilization (against both Austria and mobilization (against both Austria and Germany). Rethinks it and then starts Germany). Rethinks it and then starts again.again.

June-July 1914June-July 1914

July 29: France tells Russia it will stand by July 29: France tells Russia it will stand by her allyher allyGermany tells Russia to stop mobilization Germany tells Russia to stop mobilization and France to declare neutralityand France to declare neutralityWhen Russia refuses, Germany declares When Russia refuses, Germany declares war on Aug. 1.war on Aug. 1.France,France,– not believing Germany would respect not believing Germany would respect

neutrality, mobilizes. neutrality, mobilizes.

June-August 1914June-August 1914

Germany asks Belgium for free passage, Germany asks Belgium for free passage, then declares war on France (Aug. 2)then declares war on France (Aug. 2)

Britain declares war on Germany, Aug. 4.Britain declares war on Germany, Aug. 4.

Italy: seeks colonies, advantage, where it Italy: seeks colonies, advantage, where it can get itcan get it

War greeted with enthusiasm & nationalist War greeted with enthusiasm & nationalist fervor on both sidesfervor on both sides– Last European war, 1870-71, lasted 6 months Last European war, 1870-71, lasted 6 months

WW1: expectations v. realities:WW1: expectations v. realities:

A short war A short war Failure of initial offensivesFailure of initial offensives– Improper implementation of the Schlieffen Improper implementation of the Schlieffen

Plan (Von Moltke modifications)Plan (Von Moltke modifications)

Digging in on the western front: offence Digging in on the western front: offence gives way gives way – Trench warfareTrench warfare– TunnellingTunnelling

Movement on the eastern frontMovement on the eastern front

Western Front, 1916Western Front, 1916

TrenchesTrenches

War fields - SommeWar fields - Somme

Battle of the Somme – 1 JulyBattle of the Somme – 1 July

After 16 days of battle – July 16After 16 days of battle – July 16

Hawthorn Ridge mine 1 July 1916Hawthorn Ridge mine 1 July 1916

In the trenchesIn the trenches

AttackAttack

The tank appearsThe tank appears

Beaumont-Hamel Newfoundland War MemorialBeaumont-Hamel Newfoundland War Memorial

The Fighting Newfoundlander –St. John’sThe Fighting Newfoundlander –St. John’s

Newfoundland RegimentNewfoundland RegimentNo. 3 Platoon, A Company No. 3 Platoon, A Company

Newfoundland soldiers on St. Newfoundland soldiers on St. John’s RoadJohn’s Road

Beaumont-Hamel war fieldBeaumont-Hamel war field

The ‘Danger Tree’The ‘Danger Tree’

Aerial view of Passchendaele village, Aerial view of Passchendaele village, before and after the battlebefore and after the battle

A common sight in the SommeA common sight in the Somme

Costs in human lifeCosts in human life

Battle of the SommeBattle of the Somme– Allies: 600,000 ( of which over 24,000 Allies: 600,000 ( of which over 24,000

Canadians and over 245 Newfoundlanders)Canadians and over 245 Newfoundlanders)– July 1 alone: 60,000July 1 alone: 60,000

– Germans: 615,000Germans: 615,000

Total for WWI 9,000,000Total for WWI 9,000,000

CasualtiesCasualties

Failure of peace initiativesFailure of peace initiatives

Desire of France and Germany to maintain Desire of France and Germany to maintain buffer states on bordersbuffer states on borders

Incorporation of new allies with demands Incorporation of new allies with demands on territory of belligerentson territory of belligerents

Determining factors:Determining factors:

Supply of food and raw materialsSupply of food and raw materials

Exhaustion of combatantsExhaustion of combatants

Success of British naval blockadeSuccess of British naval blockade

American entry (triggered by German American entry (triggered by German submarine warfare)submarine warfare)

Consequences: an initial viewConsequences: an initial view

End of empires in Berlin, Vienna, St. Petersburg End of empires in Berlin, Vienna, St. Petersburg (Bolshevik revolution of 1917) and (Bolshevik revolution of 1917) and Constantinople-Istanbul.Constantinople-Istanbul.

European economic dislocation, indebtedness of European economic dislocation, indebtedness of European countries to the United States and European countries to the United States and end end of central role of Europe in the global economy of central role of Europe in the global economy and rise of the US.and rise of the US.

Widespread disillusionmentWidespread disillusionment