The International Law of Human Trafficking - Assetsassets.cambridge.org/97805211/91074/frontmatter/9780521191074... · The International Law of Human Trafficking huoh gt Ahl umfif

The International Law of Human Trafficking

Although human traffi cking has a long and ignoble history, it is only recently that traf-fi cking has become a major political issue for States and the international community and the subject of detailed international rules.

This book presents the fi rst-ever comprehensive and in-depth analysis of the inter-national law of human traffi cking. Anne T. Gallagher calls on her direct experience working within the United Nations to chart the development of new international laws on this issue. She links these rules to the international law of State responsibility, as well as key norms of international human rights law, transnational criminal law, refugee law, and international criminal law, in the process identifying and explaining the major legal obligations of States with respect to preventing traffi cking, protecting and support-ing victims, and prosecuting perpetrators. This is a timely and groundbreaking work: a unique and valuable resource for policy makers, advocates, practitioners, and scholars working in this new, controversial, and important fi eld.

Dr. Anne T. Gallagher is recognized as a leading authority on the international legal and policy aspects of human traffi cking. She served as a career UN offi cial from 1992 to 2003, including as Adviser on Human Traffi cking to the High Commissioner for Human Rights, Mary Robinson, whom she represented in negotiations for the Organized Crime Convention and its Protocols on Traffi cking and Migrant Smuggling. Dr. Gallagher oversaw the development of the UN Recommended Principles and Guidelines on Human Rights and Human Traffi cking and was founding Chair of the United Nations Inter-Agency Group on Traffi cking and Migrant Smuggling. She continues to advise the United Nations on these issues, her most recent assignment being the preparation of a detailed legal commentary on the UN Recommended Principles and Guidelines. Dr. Gallagher has worked directly with criminal justice agencies and legislatures on traffi cking in more than forty countries and is currently a technical adviser to the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) and its Member States. A scholar as well as a practitioner, she has taught international law and human rights law at uni-versities and academic institutions in Europe, Asia, and Australia and has published widely on human rights (including women’s rights), criminal justice, and traffi cking.

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Cambridge University Press978-0-521-19107-4 - The International Law of Human TraffickingAnne T. GallagherFrontmatterMore information

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The International Law of Human Traffi cking

ANNE T. GALLAGHER






CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS

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© Anne T. Gallagher 2010

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p. cm.Includes bibliographical references and index.isbn 978-0-521-19107-4 (hardback)1. Human trafficking. 2. Human traffi cking – Prevention – Internationalcooperation. I. Title.k5258.g35 2010345'.025–dc22 2010030167

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Mais on ne se bat pas dans l’espoir du succès.

Edmond Rostand, Cyrano de Bergerac (1897) (Act V, Scene 6)

[O]ur experience of the revolutionary transformation of national societies has been that the past conditions the future but that it does not fi nally and inescapably determine it. We have shown that we can think ourselves out of the social jungle.

Philip Allott, Eunomia: New Order for a New World (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2001) (p. xxxii)











vii

Preface page xiii

Table of Cases xv

Table of Treaties and Other International Instruments xxiii

Table of Common Abbreviations lvii

Introduction 1

1. The International Legal Defi nition 12

1.1. History of a Defi nition 13 1.2. The 2000 Defi nition of Traffi cking 25

1.2.1. Key Issues During the Drafting Process 25 1.2.2. The “Action” Element 29 1.2.3. The “Means” Element 31 1.2.4. The “Purpose” Element 34

1.3. Post-2000 Developments 42 1.4. The Scope and Limits of the Defi nition 47

2. The International Legal Framework 54

2.1. A Brief History of Traffi cking in International Human Rights Treaty Law 54 2.1.1. Traffi cking and White Slavery 55 2.1.2. The 1949 Traffi cking Convention 58 2.1.3. The CEDAW Convention 64 2.1.4. The Convention on the Rights of the Child and Its

Optional Protocol 65 2.2. Traffi cking in Transnational Criminal Law 68

2.2.1. The Organized Crime Convention 74 2.2.2. The Traffi cking Protocol 77

Contents






Contentsviii

2.2.3. The Migrant Smuggling Protocol 89 2.3. Regional Legal Agreements 95

2.3.1. European Union Instruments 96 2.3.1.1. EU Framework Decision on Combating

Traffi cking (2002) 96 2.3.1.2. EU Council Directive on Short-Term

Residency Permits 100 2.3.1.3. Proposal for a Replacement to the 2002 Framework

Decision (2009–2010) 103 2.3.2. The Council of Europe Convention against Traffi cking 110 2.3.3. The SAARC Convention 127

2.4. Nontreaty Aspects of the International Legal Framework 132 2.4.1. Customary Law, Jus Cogens , and Traffi cking 132 2.4.2. Secondary and Subsidiary Sources of International Law 136 2.4.3. The “Soft” Law of Traffi cking 138

3. Specifi c Legal Issues 144

3.1. Traffi cked Persons as Noncitizens 144 3.1.1. Human Rights Protections for Noncitizens 145 3.1.2. A Note on Traffi cking and Statelessness 158

3.2. Traffi cked Persons as Migrants and Migrant Workers 159 3.2.1. Right to Leave and Return 160 3.2.2. Traffi cked Persons as Migrant Workers 165

3.3. Traffi cking and Slavery 177 3.3.1. The Defi nition and Indicia of Slavery 179 3.3.2. Traffi cking as Slavery? 189

3.4. Traffi cking as a Form of Discrimination and Violence against Women 191 3.5. Traffi cking and Asylum 197

3.5.1. Traffi cking and the Right to Seek and Receive Asylum 198 3.5.2. Traffi cking as the Basis of a Claim for Refugee Status 199 3.5.3. Conclusion on Traffi cking as a Basis for Asylum 205 3.5.4. A Note on Traffi cking and Internal Displacement 208

3.6. Traffi cking in International Humanitarian Law and International Criminal Law 209 3.6.1. Sexual Violence and Other International Crimes Related

to Traffi cking 210 3.6.2. Traffi cking as a Crime Against Humanity 214

4. State Responsibility for Traffi cking 218

4.1. A General Theory of International Responsibility 219 4.2. State Responsibility for Violations of International Law Associated

with Traffi cking 222






Contents ix

4.2.1. Requirement of Attribution 223 4.2.2. Requirement of a Breach of Obligation 230

4.3. State Responsibility for Traffi cking-Related Breach of Obligations Originating in the Conduct of Private Persons or Entities 235 4.3.1. Implications of the General Rule of Nonattribution of

Private Conduct 235 4.3.2. Moving Beyond the General Rule: State Responsibility to

Prevent, Protect, and Respond 236 4.3.3. Identifying Violations Giving Rise to Responsibility: The Due

Diligence Standard 241 4.3.4. Conclusion: The Primacy of the Primary Rules 248

4.4. Consequences of a Finding of State Responsibility 251 4.4.1. The Obligations of Cessation and Reparation 251 4.4.2. Consequences Attached to Serious Breaches of Peremptory

Norms 256 4.5. Invocation of Responsibility 259

4.5.1. General Rules Governing Invocation of Responsibility 259 4.5.2. Rules Governing Invocation of Responsibility for Violations

of Human Rights Norms 264 4.5.3. Countermeasures 266

4.6. A Note on Legal Responsibilities of International Organizations, Private Individuals, and Private Entities 269

4.7. Summary of the Key Principles of State Responsibility Relevant to Traffi cking 272

5. Obligations of Protection and Support 276

5.1. Rapid and Accurate Victim Identifi cation 278 5.1.1. The Importance of Identifi cation 278 5.1.2. An Obligation to Identify Victims 280

5.2. No Prosecution or Detention of Victims 283 5.2.1. Prosecution for Status Offenses 284 5.2.2. Detention of Traffi cked Persons 288

5.3. Protection and Support for Victims 297 5.3.1. Separating Protection and Support from Victim Cooperation 298 5.3.2. Protection from Further Harm 301 5.3.3. Privacy and Protection from Further Harm 303 5.3.4. Physical and Psychological Care and Support 305 5.3.5. Consular Access and Support 310 5.3.6. Noncoercion in the Provision of Care and Support 313

5.4. Legal Assistance, Participation, and the Right to Remain 315 5.4.1. Legal Information, Support, and Participation 315 5.4.2. Protection and Support for Victim-Witnesses 317






Contentsx

5.4.3. Right to Remain 320 5.5. The Rights and Needs of Child Victims 323

5.5.1. Identifi cation of Child Victims 324 5.5.2. Applying the “Best Interests” Principle 327 5.5.3. Protection and Support for Traffi cked Children 329

5.6. Conclusions on Obligations of Protection and Support 336

6. Obligations Related to Repatriation and Remedies 337

6.1. Repatriation of Victims 338 6.1.1. The Standard of Safe and Preferably Voluntary Return 339 6.1.2. Entitlement to Return 344 6.1.3. Expulsion, Due Process, and the Obligation of Non-refoulement 346 6.1.4. Repatriation and Legal Proceedings 349 6.1.5. Alternatives to Repatriation 351 6.1.6. Reintegration of Victims 352

6.2. Access to Remedies 354 6.2.1. Obligation to Remedy Violations of Human Rights Law 355 6.2.2. Right to a Remedy for Violence against Women 360 6.2.3. The Right to a Remedy in the Specifi c Context of Traffi cking 362 6.2.4. Standards and Forms of Remedy 364 6.2.5. Information and Other Means of Accessing Remedies 368

7. Obligations of an Effective Criminal Justice Response 370

7.1. The Obligation of Criminalization 371 7.1.1. The Conduct to be Criminalized 373 7.1.2. Exercise of Criminal Jurisdiction 379

7.2. Effective Investigation, Prosecution, and Adjudication 382 7.2.1. Practical Application of the Due Diligence Standard 382 7.2.2. Gender in the Investigation, Prosecution, and Adjudication

of Traffi cking Cases 389 7.2.3. Rights of Suspects and the Right to a Fair Trial 391

7.3. Effective and Proportionate Sanctions 392 7.3.1. Obligation to Impose Sanctions 392 7.3.2. The Standard: “Effective and Proportionate” Sanctions 395 7.3.3. Aggravated Offenses and Previous Convictions 396

7.4. Asset Confi scation and Use of Confi scated Assets 400 7.4.1. Obligation to Seize and Confi scate Proceeds of Traffi cking 401 7.4.2. Using Confi scated Assets to Compensate or Support Victims 403

7.5. International Cooperation 404 7.5.1. Obligations Related to Extradition 404 7.5.2. Mutual Legal Assistance in Traffi cking Cases 410 7.5.3. Informal Cooperation 412






Contents xi

8. Obligations to Prevent Traffi cking and Respond Lawfully 414

8.1. Prevention through Addressing Vulnerability 415 8.1.1. A Legal Obligation to Address Vulnerability to Traffi cking 416 8.1.2. Addressing Vulnerability Related to Inequality and to Poverty 418 8.1.3. Addressing Vulnerability Related to Discrimination and to

Violence against Women 423 8.1.4. Addressing the Special Vulnerabilities of Children 427 8.1.5. Addressing Increases in Vulnerability in Confl ict and

Postconfl ict Situations 430 8.2. Prevention through Addressing Demand 432

8.2.1. Understanding Demand in the Context of Traffi cking 432 8.2.2. Is There an International Legal Obligation to Address

Demand for Traffi cking? 434 8.3. Prevention through Addressing Corruption and Complicity 442

8.3.1. An Obligation to Address Traffi cking-related Corruption 443 8.3.2. Practical Application of the Due Diligence Standard 447 8.3.3. Due Diligence in Preventing Traffi cking-related

Corruption by International Offi cials 449 8.4. Obligation to Respond Lawfully 453

8.4.1. Obligation to Avoid Violations of Established Rights When Responding to Traffi cking 453

8.4.2. Obligation to Ensure Antitraffi cking Measures Do Not Violate the Prohibition on Discrimination 456

9. Issues of Compliance, Implementation, and Effectiveness 461

9.1. Compliance Theories and Variables 461 9.2. Formal Compliance Mechanisms under the Specialist Treaties 466

9.2.1. The Organized Crime Convention and Traffi cking Protocol 466 9.2.2. The European Traffi cking Convention 473

9.3. Promoting Compliance through the International Human Rights System 477

9.4. Unilateral Compliance Machinery: The U.S. Evaluation and Reporting System 480

9.5. Transnational Compliance Networks 486 9.5.1. Criminal Justice Networks 489 9.5.2. Human Rights Networks 492

9.6. Improving Compliance: Issues and Prospects 496

Epilogue 499

Select Bibliography 505

Index 529











xiii

This book is not a specialist treatise in the usual sense. More accurately, it represents an attempt to apply the science and tools of international law to a specifi c, contem-porary issue. From this perspective, it is as much about sources of international legal obligation, the formation of international law, the doctrines of responsibility, and theories of compliance as it is about traffi cking. The book’s focus is essentially a problem-solving one: The international community has identifi ed traffi cking as a problem and decided that law will be used to structure and enable at least part of the solution to that problem. By providing a clear and organized explanation of the law as it is, the capacity of those who are in a position to use international law to hold States and others to account is hopefully strengthened.

The book has evolved out of more than a decade of writing and practice. It refl ects experiences and insights from my working life as a UN offi cial, as a teacher and scholar of international law, and as a practitioner in the fi eld. From that perspective, more per-sons than can reasonably be named have contributed, in one way or another, to the fi nal product. I acknowledge in particular Mary Robinson. It was under her leadership as UN High Commissioner for Human Rights that I fi rst began working on traffi cking and it was from my time with her that I learned valuable lessons about the politics of international lawmaking. My work in Southeast Asia since 2003 has provided a unique opportunity to test complex theories of legal obligation and State responsibility in the real world. Thanks are due to my stellar ARCPPT/ARTIP team; to ASEAN and its Member States; and to government counterparts in Australia, Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, Lao PDR, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam for allowing me the benefi t of this collaboration. The police, prosecutors, and judges with whom I have worked over the past ten years were espe-cially infl uential in opening my eyes to the central importance of an effective criminal justice response to traffi cking for human rights and the rule of law. In this regard, a separate and special thanks is due to my friend and colleague, Paul Holmes.

Janie Chuang has been an intellectual companion on this journey, and I benefi ted greatly from our constant discussions and her review of parts of the draft manuscript.

Preface






Prefacexiv

Fiona David, Al Moskowitz, Anahred Price, Nina Vallins, Zelie Wood, and Andrea Zakarias also made substantial and much appreciated contributions, as did Cees Flinterman and Theo van Boven, my PhD supervisors at the University of Utrecht during the period 2002–2005. Angela Ha proved to be an exceptional research assis-tant, and I am grateful for her help in fi nalizing the manuscript.

Writing is a solitary, if not selfi sh, occupation, particularly for an independent scholar who insists on maintaining her day job. It is therefore to my family that I owe the greatest debt of gratitude. Thanks to Cees for his critical eye and generous, steadfast support, and to Ruby and Elodie, for providing the perfect reason to hurry and fi nish up each day.

Anne T. Gallagher Australia June 2010






xv

I. International Decisions

International Court of Justice

Anglo-Norwegian Fisheries (United Kingdom v. Norway), [1951] ICJ Rep 116 133 n. 522 Armed Activities in the Territory of the Congo (Democratic Republic

of Congo v. Uganda), (2005) ICJ Gen. List No. 116, decided Dec. 19, 2005 229 n. 57 Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the

Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Serbia and Montenegro), (2007) ICJ Gen. List No. 91, decided Feb. 26, 2007 228–229, 237, 238 n. 96

Arrest Warrant of 11 April 2000 (Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Belgium), [2002] ICJ Rep 3 379 n. 40

Avena and Other Mexican Nationals (Mexico v. the United States), [2004] ICJ Rep 12 312 n. 191, 312 n. 193, 368 n. 174

Barcelona Traction, Light and Power Company Limited (Belgium v. Spain), [1970] ICJ Rep 3 136 nn. 537–538, 178 nn. 197–198, 256 n. 200, 262

Continental Shelf (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya v. Malta), [1985] ICJ Rep 13 134 n. 529 Corfu Channel (United Kingdom v. Albania), Merits, [1949] ICJ Rep 4 222 n. 19 , 223 n. 24 Corfu Channel (United Kingdom v. Albania), Assessment of the

Amount of Compensation, [1949] ICJ Rep 224 256 n. 196 Difference Relating to Immunity from Legal Process of a Special

Rapporteur of the Commission on Human Rights, [1999] ICJ Rep 87 224 n. 31 East Timor (Portugal v. Australia), [1995] ICJ Rep 90 257 n. 205 Elettronica Sicula S.p.A (ELSI) (United States v. Italy), [1989] ICJ Rep 15 222 n. 22 Fisheries Jurisdiction (United Kingdom v. Iceland), [1974] ICJ Rep 3 135 n. 531 Gabcikovo-Nagymaros Project (Hungary v. Slovakia), [1997] ICJ Rep 7 135 n. 531, 222 n. 18 Interpretation of the Agreement of 25 March 1951 between the WHO

and Egypt, [1980] ICJ Rep 73 271 n. 287 LaGrand (Germany v. United States), [2001] ICJ Rep 466 255, 312, 367 Legal Consequences for States of the Continued Presence of South

Africa in Namibia (South West Africa) Notwithstanding Security Council Resolution 276 (1970), [1971] ICJ Rep 16 135 n. 531

Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons, [1996] ICJ Rep 226 257 n. 205 Maritime Delimitation and Territorial Questions (Qatar v. Bahrain), [1995]

ICJ Rep 6 135 n. 531

Table of Cases






xvi Table of Cases

Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States), Jurisdiction, [1984] ICJ Rep 392 194 n. 284

Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States), [1986] ICJ Rep 14 132–133 n. 522, 134 n. 528, 222 n. 19, 228

North Sea Continental Shelf Cases (Federal Republic of Germany v. Denmark; Federal Republic of Germany v. Netherlands), [1969] ICJ Rep 3 132 n. 521

Nuclear Tests (Australia v. France), Merits, [1974] ICJ Rep 253 63 n. 52 Nuclear Tests (Australia v. France), Request for Interim Measures, [1973]

ICJ Rep 99 63 n. 52 Reparation for Injuries Suffered in the Service of the United Nations, [1949]

ICJ Rep 174 222 n. 19, 222 n. 22, 271 n. 289 South West Africa Cases (Ethiopia v. South Africa; Liberia v. South Africa),

Second Phase, [1966] ICJ Rep 6 158 n. 69 United States Diplomatic and Consular Staff in Tehran

(United States v. Iran), [1980] ICJ Rep 3 237 n. 92, 247 n. 146, 256 Vienna Convention on Consular Relations (Paraguay v. United States),

Request for the Indication of Provisional Measures, [1998] ICJ Rep 248 312 n. 191

Permanent Court of International Justice

Factory at Chorzow (Germany v. Poland), Jurisdiction, [1927] PCIJ Rep, Series A, No. 9 252

Factory at Chorzow (Germany v. Poland), Merits, [1928] PCIJ Rep, Series A, No. 17 367 n. 172, 253

German Settlers in Poland, [1923] PCIJ Rep, Series B, No. 6 223 n. 29 Mavrommatis Palestine Concessions (Greece v. Great Britain), [1924]

PCIJ Rep, Series A, No. 2 145 n. 3 Treatment of Polish Nationals in the Danzig Territory, [1932] PCIJ,

Series A/B, No. 44 146 n. 8

UN Committee against Torture

Shek Elmi, Sadiq v. Australia, CAT Comm. No. 120/1998, UN Doc. CAT/C/22/D/120/1998, decided May 14, 1999 349 n. 53

VL v. Switzerland, CAT Comm. No. 262/2005, UN Doc. CAT/C/37/D/262/2005, decided Jan. 22, 2007 390 n. 87

UN Committee on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women

AT v. Hungary, CEDAW Comm. No. 2/2003, UN Doc. CEDAW/C/32/D/2/2003, decided Jan. 26, 2005 193 n. 279, 361 n. 132, 391 n. 94

Goekce, Şahide (deceased) v. Austria, CEDAW Comm. No. 5/2005, UN Doc. CEDAW/C/39/D/5/2005, decided Aug. 6, 2007 246 n. 143, 386 n. 72, 399 n. 125

Yildirim, Fatma (deceased) v. Austria, CEDAW Comm. No. 6/2005, UN Doc. CEDAW/C/39/D/6/2005, decided Oct. 1, 2007 193 n. 279, 246 n. 143, 392 n. 94, 399 n. 125






xviiTable of Cases

Zheng v. Netherlands, CEDAW Comm. No. 15/2007, UN Doc. CEDAW/C/42/D/15/2007, decided Oct. 27, 2008 265 n. 252

UN Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination

LK v. Netherlands, CERD Comm. No. 4/1991, UN Doc. CERD/C/42/D/4/1991, decided Mar. 16, 1993 247 n. 144

UN Human Rights Committee

A v. Australia, UNHRC Comm. No. 560/1993, UN Doc. CCPR/C/59/D/560/1993, decided Apr. 30, 1997 292 n. 68

AP v. Italy, UNHRC Comm. No. 204/1986, UN Doc. CCPR/C/31/D/204/1986, decided Nov. 2, 1987 407 n. 164

El Ghar, Loubna v. Socialist People’s Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, UNHRC Comm. No. 1107/2002, UN Doc. CCPR/C/82/D/1107/2002, decided Nov. 2, 2004 163 n. 98

Simunek et al v. Czech Republic, UNHRC Comm. No. 516/1992, UN Doc. CCPR/C/54/D/516/1992, decided July 19, 1995 157 n. 68

Van Alphen v. The Netherlands, UNHRC Comm. No. 305/1988, UN Doc. CCPR/C/39/D/305/1988, decided July 23, 1990 292 n. 68

International Criminal Court

Prosecutor v. Bemba, Case ICC-01/05–01/08, ICC Pre-Trial Chamber II, June 15, 2009 224 n. 34

International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia

Prosecutor v. Aleksovski, Case IT-95–14/1-T, ICTY Trial Chamber, June 25, 1999 225 n. 34

Prosecutor v. Blaskic, Case IT-95–14-T, ICTY Trial Chamber, Mar. 3, 2000 224 n. 34, 225 n. 34

Prosecutor v. Delalic et al, Case IT-96–21-T, ICTY Trial Chamber, Nov. 16, 1998 225 n. 34

Prosecutor v. Delalic et al, Case IT-96–21-T, ICTY Trial Chamber, Decision on the Prosecution’s Motion for the Redaction of the Public Record, June 5, 1997 391 n. 90

Prosecutor v. Delalic et al, Case IT-96–21-A, ICTY Appeals Chamber, Feb. 20, 2001 225 n. 34

Prosecutor v. Erdemovic, Case IT-96–22-T, ICTY Trial Chamber, May 31, 1996 225 n. 34

Prosecutor v. Erdemovic, Case IT-96–22, ICTY Trial Chamber II, Sentencing Judgment, Mar. 5, 1998 397 n. 121

Prosecutor v. Furundzija, Case IT-95–17/1-T, ICTY Trial Chamber, Dec. 10, 1998 257 n. 205

Prosecutor v. Hadzihasanovic, Case IT-01–47-T, ICTY Trial Chamber, Mar. 15, 2006 224 n. 34






Table of Casesxviii

Prosecutor v. Halilovic, Case IT-01–48-T, ICTY Trial Chamber, Nov. 16, 2005 224 n. 34

Prosecutor v. Kordic and Cerkez, Case IT-95–14–2, ICTY Trial Chamber, Feb. 21, 2001 225 n. 34

Prosecutor v. Krnojelac, Case IT-97–25-T, ICTY Trial Chamber, Mar. 15, 2002 185 nn. 234–235, 225 n. 34

Prosecutor v. Kunarac, Kovac and Vukovic, Cases IT-96–23-T and IT-96–23/1-T, ICTY Trial Chamber, Feb. 22, 2001 178 n. 196, 184 n. 226, 185–186, 187 n. 244, 187 n. 248, 188, 212 n. 387, 217

Prosecutor v. Kunarac, Kovac and Vukovic, Cases IT-96–23-T and IT-96–23/1-T, ICTY Appeals Chamber, June 12, 2002 186–187, 217, 390 n. 89

Prosecutor v. Kvocka et al., Case IT-98–30/1, ICTY Trial Chamber, Nov. 2, 2001 225 n. 34

Prosecutor v. Naletilic and Martinovic, Case IT-98–24-A, ICTY Appeals Chamber, May 3, 2006 224 n. 34

Prosecutor v. Plavsic, Cases IT-00–39 and IT-00–40/1-S, ICTY Trial Chamber III, Sentencing Judgment, Feb. 27, 2003 397 n. 121

Prosecutor v. Rajic, Case No. IT-95–12-S, ICTY Trial Chamber 1, Sentencing Judgment, May 8, 2006 397 n. 121

Prosecutor v. Sikirica et al, Case No. IT-95–8, ICTY Trial Chamber III, Sentencing Judgment, Nov. 13, 2001 397 n. 121

Prosecutor v. Simic, Case No. IT-95–9/2, ICTY Trial Chamber II, Sentencing Judgment, Oct. 17, 2002 397 n. 121

Prosecutor v. Tadic, Case No. IT-94–1, ICTY Trial Chamber II, Sentencing Judgment, Nov. 11, 1999 397 n. 121

Prosecutor v. Tadic, Case IT-94–1-A, ICTY Appeals Chamber, July 15, 1999 228 n. 50, 229

Prosecutor v. Todorovic, Case No. IT-95–9/1, ICTY Trial Chamber I, Sentencing Judgment, July 3, 2001 397 n. 121

International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda

Prosecutor v. Akayesu, Case No. ICTR-96–4-T, ICTR Trial Chamber, Sept. 2, 1998 211 n. 385, 212 n. 386

Prosecutor v. Baglishema, Case ICTR-95–1A-A, ICTR Appeals Chamber, July 3, 2002 224 n. 34

Prosecutor v. Kajelijeli, Case ICTR-98–44A-A, ICTR Appeals Chamber, May 23, 2005 224 n. 34

Prosecutor v. Kayishema and Ruzindana, Case ICTR-95–1-T, ICTR Trial Chamber, May 21, 1999 225 n. 34

Prosecutor v. Ntagerura et al, Case ICTR-99–46-T, ICTR Trial Chamber, Feb. 25, 2004 224 n. 34

Special Court for Sierra Leone

Prosecutor v. Brima, Kamara and Kanu (the AFRC Accused), Case SCSL-04–16-T, SCSL Trial Chamber, June 20, 2007 224 n. 34, 390 n. 89






xixTable of Cases

International Labour Organization Committee on Freedom of Association

ILO Committee on Freedom of Association, Case No. 2227 (United States): Report in which the Committee Requests to Be Kept Informed of Developments, Complaints against the Government of the United States presented by the American Federation of Labor and the Congress of Industrial Organizations (AFL-CIO) and the Confederation of Mexican Workers (CTM), in 332nd Report of the Committee on Freedom of Association, ILO Doc. GB.288/7 (Part II), 288th Session, November 2003 168 n. 133

II. Regional Decisions

African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights

Social and Economic Rights Action Center and the Center for Economic and Social Rights v. Nigeria, ACHPR Comm. No. 155/96 (African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights, May 27, 2002) 238 n. 97, 244 n. 133

Union Inter Africaine des Droits de l’Homme, Fédération Internationale des Ligues des Droits de l’Homme and Others v. Angola, ACHPR Comm. No. 159/96 (African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights, Nov. 11, 1997) 346 n. 46

European Commission on Human Rights

De Wilde, Ooms and Versyp v. Belgium, Admissibility, (1967) Yearbook of the European Convention on Human Rights 420 (Eur Comm’n on HR, Apr. 7, 1967) 28 n. 66

De Wilde, Ooms and Versyp v. Belgium, 10 Eur. Ct. H.R. (ser. B) (1969) 28 n. 66 Iverson v. Norway, (1963) Yearbook of the European Convention

on Human Rights 278 (Eur Comm’n on HR, Dec. 17, 1963) 35 n. 91 Van Droogenbroeck v. Belgium, (1982) 4 EHRR 443 (Eur Comm’n

on HR, June 24, 1980) 182 n. 218

European Court of Human Rights

A and Others v. United Kingdom, Dec. No. 3455/05 (not yet reported) (ECHR, Feb. 19, 2009) 293 n. 72

Airey v. Ireland, (1979) 2 EHRR 305 (ECHR, Oct. 9, 1979) 238 n. 99 Akkoç v. Turkey, (2002) 34 EHRR 51 (ECHR, Oct. 10, 2000) 244 Aksoy v. Turkey, (1997) 23 EHRR 553 (ECHR, Dec. 18, 1996) 448 n. 154 Assenov and Others v. Bulgaria (1999) 28 EHRR 652

(ECHR, Oct. 28, 1998) 448 n. 154 Behrami and Behrami v. France; Saramati v. France,

Germany and Norway, (2007) 45 EHRR 10 (ECHR, May 2, 2007) 271 n. 290 Beldjoudi v. France, (1992) 14 EHRR 801 (ECHR, Feb. 26, 1992) 156 n. 65 Çakici v. Turkey, [1999] ECHR 43 (ECHR, July 8, 1999) 448 n. 154 Conka v. Belgium, (2002) 34 EHRR 54 (ECHR, Feb. 5, 2002) 156 n. 65






Table of Casesxx

Costello-Roberts v. United Kingdom, (1995) 19 EHRR 112 (ECHR, Mar. 25, 1993) 238 n. 99

Cruz Varas and Others v. Sweden, (1991) 14 EHRR 1 (ECHR, Mar. 20, 1991) 348 n. 51

D v. United Kingdom, (1997) 24 EHRR 423 (ECHR, May 2, 1997) 348 n. 51

Edwards, Paul and Audrey v. United Kingdom, (2002) 35 EHRR 487 (ECHR, Mar. 14, 2002) 399 n. 127, 448 n. 154

Ergi v. Turkey, [1998] ECHR 59 (ECHR, July 28, 1998) 448 n. 154 Ertak v. Turkey, [2000] ECHR 193 (ECHR, May 9, 2000) 448 n. 154 Finucane v. United Kingdom, (2003) 37 EHRR 29

(ECHR, July 1, 2003) 383 n. 60 , 384 n. 68 HLR v. France, (1997) 26 EHRR 29 (ECHR, Apr. 29, 1997) 348 n. 53 Ilaşcu and Others v. Moldova and Russia, (2005) 40 EHRR 46

(ECHR, July 8, 2004) 228 n. 50 Kaya v. Turkey, [1998] ECHR 10 (ECHR, Feb. 19, 1998) 448 n. 154 Kurt v. Turkey, [1998] ECHR 44 (ECHR, May 25, 1998) 448 n. 154 Lopez Ostra v. Spain, (1995) 20 EHRR 277 (ECHR, Dec. 9, 1994) 238 n. 98 MC v. Bulgaria, (2005) 40 EHRR 20 (ECHR, Dec. 4, 2003) 246 McCann v. United Kingdom, (1995) 21 EHRR 97 (ECHR, Sept. 27, 1995) 383 n. 60 Mehemi v. France, (2000) 30 EHRR 739 (ECHR, Sept. 26, 1997) 156 n. 65 Mentes and Others v. Turkey, [1997] ECHR 98 (ECHR, Nov. 28, 1997) 448 n. 154 Moustaquim v. Belgium, (1991) 13 EHRR 802 (ECHR, Jan. 18, 1991) 156 n. 65 Opuz v. Turkey, Dec. No. 33401/02 (not yet reported)

(ECHR, June 9, 2009) 246, 392 n. 94 Osman v. United Kingdom, (2000) 29 EHRR 245

(ECHR, Oct. 28, 1998) 244 Ozkan, Ahmet and Others v. Turkey, [2004] ECHR 133

(ECHR, Apr. 6, 2004) 448 n. 154 Platform “Ärtze Für das Leben” v. Austria, (1991) 13 EHRR 204

(ECHR, June 21, 1988) 239 n. 100 Rantsev v. Cyprus and Russia, Dec. No. 25965/04 (not yet reported)

(ECHR, Jan, 7, 2010) 188–189, 240 n. 107, 241, 246, 265 n. 253, 383, 384 n. 68, 411 n. 189, 439 n. 104, 448 n. 154, 480 n. 83, 492 nn. 124–125, 493 n. 130, 499

Saadi v. Italy, [2008] ECHR 179 (ECHR, Feb. 28, 2008) 348 n. 51 Salah Sheekh v. Netherlands, (2007) 45 EHRR 50 (ECHR, Jan. 11, 2007) 348 n. 53 Selçuk and Asker v. Turkey, [1998] ECHR 36 (ECHR, April 24, 1998) 448 n. 154 Siliadan v. France, (2006) 43 EHRR 16 (ECHR,

July 26, 2005) 187–188, 265 n. 253, 493 n. 130 Soering v. United Kingdom, (1989) 11 EHRR 439 (ECHR, July 7, 1989) 347 n. 51 Tanrikulu v. Turkey, [1999] ECHR 55 (ECHR, 8 July 1999) 448 n. 154 Tekin v. Turkey, [1998] ECHR 53 (ECHR, June 9, 1998) 448 n. 154 Timurtas v. Turkey, [2000] ECHR 222 (ECHR, June 13, 2000) 448 n. 154 X and Y v. Netherlands, (1986) 8 EHRR 235 (ECHR, Mar. 26, 1985) 238 n. 99, 239 Yasa v. Turkey, (1999) 28 EHRR 408 (ECHR, Sept. 2, 1998) 448 n. 154 Young, James and Webster v. United Kingdom, (1981) 4 EHRR 38

(ECHR, Aug. 13, 1981) 240






xxiTable of Cases

Inter-American Commission on Human Rights

Maria Gives Penha Maia Fernandes v. Brazil, Case 12.051, Report No. 54/01, Inter-AmCHR Doc. OEA/Ser.L/V/II.111 Doc. 20 rev. at 704 (Inter-Am Comm HR, Apr. 16, 2000). 361 n. 132, 245

Raquel Martín de Mejía v. Peru, Case No. 10.970, Report No. 5/96, Inter-AmCHR Doc. OEA/Ser.L/V/II.91 Doc. 7 (Inter-Am Comm HR, Mar. 1, 1996) 448–449 n. 154

Inter-American Court of Human Rights

Godínez Cruz v. Honduras, Inter-Am Ct. H.R. (ser. C) No. 5, Jan. 20, 1989 242 n. 116 Godínez Cruz v. Honduras, Interpretation of the Compensatory Damages,

Inter-Am Ct. H.R. (ser. C) No. 10, Aug. 17, 1990 365–366 n. 162 Juridical Conditions and Rights of Undocumented Migrants,

Advisory Opinion OC-18/03, Inter-Am Ct. H.R. (ser. A) No. 18, Sept. 17, 2003 157 n. 68, 176–177, 346 n. 46

Miguel Castro-Castro Prison v. Peru, Inter-Am Ct. H.R. (ser. C) No. 160, Nov. 25, 2006 195 n. 291, 196 n. 299, 440 n. 107

The Right to Information on Consular Assistance in the Framework of the Guarantees of the Due Process of Law, Advisory Opinion OC-16/99, Inter-Am Ct. H.R. (ser. A) No. 16, Oct. 1, 1999 312

Sánchez v. Honduras, Inter-Am Ct. H.R. (ser. C) No. 99, June 7, 2003 384 n. 68 Velásquez Rodríguez v. Honduras, Inter-Am Ct. H.R. (ser. C)

No. 4, July 29, 1988 357 n. 101, 226, 241 n. 109, 242–243, 244 n. 128, 247, 382 n. 59 Villagrán Morales et al. v. Guatemala (The Street Children Case),

Inter-Am Ct. H.R. (ser. C) No. 63, Nov. 19, 1999 448 n. 154

International Arbitral Tribunals

Brown, Robert E., Case (United States v. Great Britain), (1955) 6 UNRIAA 120 (Great Britain–United States Arbitral Tribunal, Nov. 23, 1923) 263 n. 244

Caire (France v. Mexico), (1952) 5 UNRIAA 516 (French-Mexican Claims Commission, June 7, 1929) 226

Island of Palmas Case (Netherlands v. United States), (1949) 2 UNRIAA 829 (Permanent Court of Arbitration, Apr. 4, 1928) 232

Janes Case (United States v. Mexico), (1951) 4 UNRIAA 82 (Mexican–United States General Claims Commission, Nov. 16, 1926) 241 n. 109

Lusitania (United States v. Germany), (1956) 7 UNRIAA 32 (United States–Germany Mixed Claims Commission, Nov. 1. 1923) 254 n. 188

Noyes, W.A., Case (Panama v. United States), (1955) 6 UNRIAA 308 (United States–Panama General Claims Commission, May 22, 1933) 243 n. 127

Petrolane Inc. v. Islamic Republic of Iran (1991) 27 Iran-USCTR 64 (Iran-US Claims Tribunal, Aug. 14, 1991) 226 n. 39

Spanish Zones of Morocco Claims Case (Spain v. Great Britain) (1949) 2 UNRIAA 615 (May 1, 1925) 137






Table of Casesxxii

Zafi ro Case (Great Britain v. United States), (1955) 6 UNRIAA 160 (Great Britain–United States Arbitral Tribunal, Nov. 30, 1925) 240 n. 108

ECOWAS Community Court of Justice

Koraou v. Republic of Niger, Judgment No. ECW/CCJ/JUD/06/08 (ECOWAS Community Court of Justice, Oct. 27, 2008) 187–188 n. 248 , 265 n. 253, 493 n. 130

III. National Decisions

Australia

R v. Tang, (2008) 249 ALR 200 (Aus. HC, Aug. 28, 2008) 48 n. 156, 188 n. 248, 377 n. 35

United Kingdom

AM and BM (Traffi cked Women) Albania CG [2010] UKUT 80 (IAC) (UK Upper Tribunal (Immigration and Asylum Chamber), Mar. 18, 2010) 205, 206 n. 350

R v. Bow Street Metropolitan Stipendiary Magistrate, ex parte Pinochet Ugarte (No. 3), [1999] 2 All ER 97 (UK HL, Mar. 24, 1999) 257 n. 205

United States

United States v. Tecum, 48 Fed. Appx 739 (US CA11, Aug. 28, 2002) 48 n. 162






xxiii

1814

May 30 France-Austria, Great Britain, Portugal, Prussia, Russia, Spain, Sweden, Defi nitive Treaty of Peace of Paris (63 CTS 171) 179 n. 199

1815

June 9 Declaration and Final Act of the Congress of Vienna (64 CTS 453) 179 n. 199

Nov. 20 France-Austria, Great Britain, Prussia, Russia, Defi nitive Treaty of Peace of Paris (65 CTS 251) 179 n. 199

1841

Dec. 20 Treaty of London for the Suppression of the African Slave Trade (92 CTS 437) 179 n. 199

1862

Apr. 7 Treaty between the United States of America and the United Kingdom of Great Britain for the Suppression of the African Slave Trade (Treaty of Washington) (12 Stat 1225, TS No. 126) 179 n. 199

1885

Feb. 26 General Act of the Berlin Conference Regarding Africa (10 Martens NRG, 2nd ser. 409) 179 n. 199 Art. 9 179 n. 199

Table of Treaties and Other International Instruments






Table of Treatiesxxiv

1890

July 2 General Act of the Brussels Conference (173 CTS 293) 179 n. 199

1904

May 4 International Agreement for the Suppression of the White Slave Traffi c (1 LNTS 83), revised Dec. 3, 1948 (30 UNTS 23) 13, 57

1910

May 4 International Convention for the Suppression of the White Slave Traffi c (3 LNTS 278) 32 n. 78, 57 Art. 2 13–14

1919

June 28 Covenant of the League of Nations (225 CTW 195) Art. XXIII 57 n. 17

Sept. 10 Treaty of Peace between the Allied and Associated Powers and Austria (Convention of St. Germain-en-Laye) (226 CTS 186) 179 n. 199

1921

Sept. 30 International Convention for the Suppression of Traffi c in Women and Children (9 LNTS 415), revised Oct. 20, 1947 (53 UNTS 13) 14, 57 n. 16, 58

1926

Sept. 25 Convention to Suppress the Slave Trade and Slavery (60 LNTS 253) 49–50 n. 163, 179–181, 183–187, 190, 215 Art. 1 35 n. 92, 179, 180–181, n. 208, 187 Art. 2 179 n. 202

1930

June 28 Convention Concerning Forced and Compulsory Labour (39 UNTS 55; ILO No. 29) 49–50 n. 163, 166 n. 118 Art. 2(1) 35 n. 91

1933

Oct. 11 International Convention for the Suppression of Traffi c in Women of Full Age (150 LNTS 431) 14, 57 n. 16, 58, 59 n. 24






Table of Treaties xxv

1945

June 26 Charter of the United Nations (1 UNTS 16) 146 n. 12 Preamble 191 n. 261 Art. 1(3) 191 n. 261

June 26 Statute of the International Court of Justice (961 UNTS 183) Art. 38(1) 54 n. 1, 137 n. 543 Art. 38(1)(b) 132 n. 520

1947

Nov. 12 Protocol Amending the International Convention for the Suppression of Traffi c in Women and Children and the International Convention for the Suppression of Traffi c in Women of Full Age (53 UNTS 13) 57 n. 16

1948

July 9 Convention Concerning Freedom of Association and Protection of the Right to Organise (68 UNTS 17; ILO No. 87) 166 n. 118

Dec. 9 Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (78 UNTS 227) 270 n. 279, 408 n. 167 Art. 3 442 n. 120

Dec. 10 Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UNGA Res. 217A(III)) 37, 146, 152, 162, 165, 181, 355, 357, 412 Preamble 146 nn. 9–10 Art. 2(1) 146 n. 11, 147 n. 13 Art. 4 181 n. 215 Art. 8 355 n. 85, 357 n. 98 Art. 9 165 n. 113 Art. 13(2) 162 n. 90, 165 n. 108, 340 n. 15, 344 n. 34 Art. 14 198 n. 304 Art. 29 162 n. 90

1949

May 4 Protocol Amending the International Agreement for the Suppression of the White Slave Traffi c, and Amending the International Convention for the Suppression of the White Slave Traffi c (30 UNTS 23) 57 n. 16

July 1 Convention Concerning Migration for Employment (Revised) (20 UNTS 79; ILO No. 97) 166–167 Art. 8 167 n. 121 Art. 6 167 n. 125 Art. 13 167 n. 121






Table of Treatiesxxvi

July 1 Convention Concerning Right to Organise and Collective Bargaining (96 UNTS 257; ILO No. 98) 166 n. 118

Aug. 12 Geneva Convention Relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War (Fourth Geneva Convention) (75 UNTS 287) Art. 3(2) 210 n. 375 Art. 27 210 nn. 376–377 Art. 146 409 n. 173 Art. 147 210 n. 378

Dec. 2 Convention for the Suppression of the Traffi c in Persons and of the Exploitation of the Prostitution of Others (96 UNTS 271) 14–15, 27, 30, 38, 58–64, 132, 477 Preamble 59 n. 25 Art. 1 14–15, 59 n. 26 Art. 2 15, 59 n. 27 Art. 4 60 n. 35 Art. 5 60 n. 34 Art. 6 15, 59 n. 28 Art. 8 60 n. 32 Art. 9 60 n. 32 Art. 13 60 n. 31 Art. 14 60 n. 31, 60 n. 33 Art. 15 60 n. 31 Art. 16 59 n. 29, 60 n. 36 Art. 17(1) 61 n. 42 Art. 17(2) 61 n. 39 Art. 17(3) 61 n. 41 Art. 18 60 n. 31, 60 n. 35 Art. 19(1) 60 n. 37 Art. 19(2) 60 n. 38 Art. 20 60 n. 40

1950

Nov. 4 Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (213 UNTS 221; ETS 005) 35 n. 91, 157, 190 n. 159, 239, 246, 249, 347, 356, 458 n. 189, 459, 499 Art. 1 156 n. 63, 232 n. 72, 238 n. 96, 240 Art. 3 347–348 n. 51, 348 n. 53 Art. 4 182 n. 218, 187 nn. 245–246, 189, 240 n. 107 Art. 5 293 n. 72 Art. 5(1) 291 n. 63 Art. 6 399 n. 125






Table of Treaties xxvii

Art. 8 239 Art. 13 356 n. 89 Art. 14 156 n. 62, 191 n. 261 Art. 15 231 n. 66 Art. 16 156 n. 64 Art. 24 264 n. 248 Art. 25 265 n. 251 Art. 26 263 n. 244 Art. 48 264 n. 248

1951

June 19 Convention Concerning Equal Remuneration for Men and Women Workers for Work of Equal Value (165 UNTS 303; ILO No. 100) 166 n. 118

July 28 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees (189 UNTS 137) 93–94, 95 nn. 293–294, 198–200, 203–205, 349, 454 Art. 1 199 n. 311 Art. 1A(2) 197 n. 302, 203 n. 331, 203 n. 335 Art. 21 306 n. 142 Art. 31 198 n. 305, 287 n. 44, 290 n. 56 Art. 33 347 n. 50 Art. 33(1) 347 n. 47

1953

Oct. 19 Constitution of the International Organization for Migration (1560 UNTS 440) 19 n. 30 Art. 1(3) 160 n. 84

1954

Sept. 28 Convention Relating to the Status of Stateless Persons (360 UNTS 117) 159 Art. 1(1) 158 n. 71

1956

Sept. 7 Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery, the Slave Trade and Institutions and Practices Similar to Slavery (226 UNTS 3) 28 n. 66, 36, 40–41, 49–50 n. 163, 115 n. 415, 181–182, 185, 216 Preamble 181 n. 211






Table of Treatiesxxviii

Art. 1 36 n. 98, 181 n. 209, 181 nn. 212–213 Art. 1(a) 36 n. 99 Art. 1(b) 36 n. 100 Art. 1(c) 36 n. 101 Art. 1(d) 37 n. 102, 41 n. 126 Art. 7(b) 181 nn. 213–214

1957

June 25 Convention Concerning the Abolition of Forced Labour, (320 UNTS 291; ILO No. 105) 166 n. 118

Dec. 13 European Convention on Extradition (ETS 24) 405 Art. 2 405 n. 152, 407 n. 162 Art. 3(1) 408 n. 166 Art. 3(2) 409 n. 170 Art. 9 407 n. 164 Art. 11 396 n. 115, 409 n. 170 Art. 14 408 n. 165

1958

June 25 Convention Concerning Discrimination in Respect of Employment and Occupation (362 UNTS 31; ILO No. 111) 166 n. 118

1959

Apr. 20 European Convention on Mutual Assistance in Criminal Matters (472 UNTS 185; ETS 30) 499

1961

Apr. 24 Vienna Convention on Consular Relations (596 UNTS 261) 311–312 Art. 36(1)(b) 311 n. 186

Aug. 30 Convention on the Reduction of Statelessness (989 UNTS 175) 159 Art. 8(1) 159 n. 77

Oct. 18 European Social Charter (529 UNTS 89; ETS 35) 419–420

1963

Sept. 16 Protocol No. 4 to the Convention of 4 November 1950 for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (1496 UNTS 263) Art. 2 290 n. 52






Table of Treaties xxix

Art. 2(2) 162 n. 94 Art. 2(3) 162 n. 95 Art. 3 290 n. 52 Art. 3(2) 165 n. 112, 340 n. 15, 344 n. 34 Art. 4 290 n. 52

1965

Dec. 21 International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (660 UNTS 195) 152–153, 162, 165, 356 Art. 1(1) 152 n. 37 Art. 1(2) 152 Art. 1(3) 152 n. 38 Art. 1(4) 152 Art. 2(1) 232 n. 73 Art. 5(d)(ii) 162 n. 92, 165 n. 110 Art. 5(e)(iii) 306 n. 143 Art. 5(e)(iv) 306 n. 142 Art. 6 356 n. 92 Art. 11(3) 263 n. 244 Art. 14 265 n. 251 Art. 14(7)(a) 263 n. 244

1966

Dec. 16 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (999 UNTS 171) 28 n. 66, 36 n. 99, 37, 147–150, 152, 162–163, 165, 182–183, 290–291, 293, 345, 356, 364, 398, 412, 477 Art. 1(3) 232 n. 71 Art. 2 191 n. 261, 348 n. 52, 232 n. 70, 246 n. 144 Art. 2(1) 147 n. 13 Art. 2(3) 356 n. 88 Art. 3 191 n. 261 Art. 4 231 n. 66 Art. 4(1) 148 Art. 6 348 Art. 6(1) 238 n. 96 Art. 7 347 n. 50, 348, 409 n. 171 Art. 8 183, 477 n. 73 Art. 8(1) 181 n. 215 Art. 8(2) 181 n. 215 Art. 9 291 n. 62






Table of Treatiesxxx

Art. 9(1) 290 Art. 9(4) 293 n. 73 Art. 9(5) 293 n. 74, 356 n. 88 Art. 12 148 n. 17, 290 n. 51 Art. 12(1) 149 n. 19, 290 n. 55 Art. 12(2) 162 n. 91 Art. 12(3) 162 n. 95, 163, 291 nn. 57–58 Art. 12(4) 165 n. 109, 340 n. 15, 344 n. 34 Art. 13 149 n. 20, 346 n. 44 Art. 14 312, 399 n. 125 Art. 14(3) 320 n. 234 Art. 14(6) 356 n. 88 Art. 14(7) 407 n. 164 Art. 19 148 n. 17 Art. 21 148 n. 17 Art. 22 148 n. 17 Art. 24 159 n. 76, 294 n. 77, 324 n. 250 Art. 25 149 n. 21 Art. 26 147 n. 14, 149 n. 23, 191 n. 261, 191 n. 264 Art. 27 148 Art. 41 264 n. 248 Art. 41(1)(c) 263 n. 244

Dec. 16 First Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (999 UNTS 302) 265 n. 251

Dec. 16 International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (993 UNTS 3) 149–152, 250 n. 156, 355–356, 365, 419 Art. 2 191 n. 261 Art. 2(2) 149 n. 24, 150 n. 25 Art. 2(3) 150 n. 26, 151 Art. 3 191 n. 261 Art. 4 150 n. 28 Art. 5(2)(b) 263 n. 244 Art. 6 150 Art. 7 191 n. 261 Art. 11 306 n. 143 Art. 12 306 n. 142 Art. 13 150

1967

Jan. 31 Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees (606 UNTS 267) 93, 95 nn. 293–294, 197 n. 302, 454






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