THE INFLUENCE OF THE INDIAN OCEAN TSUNAMI ON CORAL REEFS OF WESTERN THAILAND, ANDAMAN SEA, INDIAN OCEAN.

BY

NIPHONPHONGSUWAN1andBARBARAE.BROWN2

ABSTRACT

CoralreefsofthewestcoastofThailandwereminimallyaffectedbytheIndianOceantsunamiofDecember26,2004.Resultsofrapidassessmentsurveyspriortothepresentstudyrevealedthatonly13%of174sitesvisitedalongthewestcoastofThailandwereseverelydamagedwith60%ofsitesshowinglittleornodamage.Thesepreliminaryresultswereconfirmedinthepresentstudybyanevaluationof17long-termmonitoringsiteswherereefassessmenthadbeenregularlymadeoverthelast15-25years.Onlyfourofthesesitesshowedmarkeddamagewithreductionsofcoralcoverintheorderof5-16%,thoughitwasestimatedthatcoralcoverhadbeenreducedbyapproximately40%onthesouthwesttipofPaiIslandinKrabiProvincewherelong-termmonitoringhadnotbeencarriedoutpriortothetsunami.Atimpactedsites,damageconsistedofoverturnedmassivecorals,brokenbranchingcoralsandsmotheringofcoralsbysedimentsandcoralrubblewiththeseeffectsbeinggreatestinshallowwaters.Noclearpatternswereobservedintermsofcoraldiversityatdamagedlocationspre-andpost-tsunami.

Overalldamagewasextremelylocalizedaffectingonlysmallsectorsofreefwhichwereexposedtothefullforceofthetsunamiwaves.Itisestimatedthatdamagedsiteswillrecovernaturallyinatimespanof5-10yearsprovidedthereisnomajorsetbacksuchasbleaching-inducedcoralmortality.

INTRODUCTION

Theeffectsofhurricanesandcyclonesarewelldocumentedintheliterature(Hughes,1993)butthereislittleornoreferencetotheeffectsoftsunamisoncoralreefecosystemsdespitethefactthattsunamishavebeengeneratedinthecoralseasaroundSumatraandtheAndamanandNicobarIslandsinthepast(Bilham,2005).Atapproximately09.55hon26December,2004,duringahighwaterspringtide,aseriesoftsunamiwavesstruckthewestcoastofThailandfollowingamajorearthquakeregistering9.3ontheRichterscaleoffnorthwestSumatra(SteinandOkal,2005).Fourdayslater,theThaiMinistryofNaturalResourcesandEnvironmentandstafffromninenationaluniversitieslaunchedarapidsurveyofmarinehabitatsalongtheentire700kmcoastline

1PhuketMarineBiologicalCenter,POBox60,Phuket83000,Thailand.2SchoolofBiology.UniversityofNewcastleuponTyneNE17RU,U.K.

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Figure 1. Maps showing the location of monitoring sites 1-18 along the west coast of Thailand.

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ofwestThailand.Theyvisitedcoralreefsat174sitesandnotedthatupto105siteswereunaffectedorshowedverylittledamagewhile30showedlowleveldamage(11-30%coralcoveraffected),16displayedmoderatedamage(31-50%coralcoveraffected)and23wereseverelydamaged(>50%coralcoveraffected)(DepartmentofMarineandCoastalResources,2005,Satapoominetal.,2006).

Thisinitialsurveyconcludedthatthenorthernmostcoastline(Ranong,andPhang-ngaProvinces)anditsoffshoreislands(SurinandSimilans)weremoreseverelyimpactedthanthesouth(e.g.,Phuket,KrabiexceptPhiPhiIsland,TrangandSatun)withshallowreefsonwave-exposedislandsandshorelinesbeingmorevulnerabletowave-induceddamage.Thedestructiveimpactofthetsunamiappearedtobedependentonthedegreeofexposuretothewaves,thesurroundingseabottomtopographyanddepthofwateroverthereef.

Unlikemanyothercountriesintheregion,Thailandboastsavaluablelong-termdatabaseoncoralcoveranddiversityoffringingreefsthatcharacterizethecoastlineborderingtheAndamanSea.Thisdatabaseincludesinformationfromshallowreefslopes(PhongsuwanandChansang,1992)andintertidalreefflats(Brownetal.,1990,2002,BrownandPhongsuwan,2004)thathavebeenmonitoredregularlyoverthelast10-25years.Usingthisdataandinformationfromtherapidassessmentsurveyof2005,thispaperevaluatestheimpactofthe2004tsunamiandpredictsthelikelyoutcomeforreefsthatwereseverelydamaged.

METHODS

Figure1andTable1describethelocationsof18monitoringsitesvisitedinthestudy.Seventeenofthesesitesarelong-termmonitoringlocationswithover10yearsworthofregularcoral-reefsurveillancedatawhileonewasasitethathadbeenseverelyaffectedbythetsunamibutwhichhadnotpreviouslybeensubjecttoregularmonitoring.Allsites,apartfromsite10ontheLaemPanWaPeninsulaofsoutheastPhuket,werereefslopes.Site10wasanintertidalreefflatthatextendedapproximately150mfromtheshorelineandwasdominatedbymassiveporitidandfaviidcoralswithbranchingspecies(Acropora hyacinthus, Acropora aspera, Acropora pulchra, Acropora humilisandPocillopora damicornis)atthereefedge.Ofreef-slopesitesalllocations,apartfromsites8and15,wereupperreefslopesatdepthsrangingfromapproximately3-7m.Depthsatsites8and15wereapproximately10m.Reefslopesweregenerallymixedcommunitiesoftendominatedbyeithermassive(Poriteslutea)orbranching(Porites rus, Porites nigrescens)poritidcorals,togetherwithavarietyofbranchingAcroporaspp.

Permanentlymarked100mlongtransects,runningparalleltothecoastlineandalongaparticulardepthcontour,weremonitoredusingstandardmethods(PhongsuwanandChansang,1992)atallsitesapartfromsite10.Atthelatterlocationaseriesof12permanentlymarked10mlongreeftransectswereestablishedacrossthereefflatin1979at10mintervals(Brownetal.,1990).Forthepurposesofthisstudy,onlythefourouterreefflattransectswereconsidered.Measuresofcoralcoveranddiversity(H1

c)werecalculatedaccordingtothemethodsofLoya(1972)atalllocations.

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TidaldatawerecollectedfromtheKoTaphaoNoitidegaugelocatedontheeasternsideoftheLaemPanwaPeninsula,Phuket.HourlysealevelswerecomputedfromtherecordsforthisstationwhichareheldattheUniversityofHawaii/NationalOceanographicDataCenterJointArchiveforSeaLevel.

Table1.Showingnames,positionsandsitenumbersofcoral-reefmonitoringstations.

Site number Site name Latitude Longitude

SURIN ISLANDS

1 Stok 9o28.486'N 97o54.375'E

2 North Surin 9o27.290'N 97o51.872'E

3 North Mayai 9o25.473'N 97o53.864'E

4 Park Front 9o24.923'N 97o52.656'E

5 Mai-ngam Bay 9o26.309'N 97o51.199'E

6 South East Torinla 9o22.038'N 97o52.099'E

OFF-SHORE ISLANDS

7 Tachai 9o17.508'N 98o19.879'E

8 Bon 9o43.486'N 98o06.587'E

PHUKET AREA

9 Laem Panwa West 7o47.956'N 98o24.526'E

10 Laem Panwa East 7o48.539'N 98o24.692'E

11 Hae Island 7o44.725'N 98o22.740'E

PHI-PHI ISLANDS

12 Yoong 7o48.826'N 98o46.615'E

13 South West Pai 7o48.956'N 98o47.647'E

14 East Pai 7o48.970'N 98o48.050'E

15 Phi-Phi-Lana 7o45.845'N 98o45.960'E

16 Lodalum 7o44.764'N 98o46.360'E

17 Yongkasem 7o44.517'N 98o45.915'E

18 Phi –Phi-Tonsai 7o43.352'N 98o46.364'E

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RESULTS

Relativelyfewofthelong-termmonitoringsitesshowedanyeffectsofthetsunamiwiththemajorityofsitesalongtheThaicoastlineappearinginexceptionallygoodconditionaftertheevent(Fig.2).Themaindamageonreefsaffectedbythetsunamiincludedoverturnedmassivecorals(Fig.3a),brokenbranchingcorals(Fig.3b),andcoveringoflivecoralsurfacesbysediments(Fig.3c).

Thedamagecausedwasextremelylocalisedwithoverturnedcoralsatonepointanduntouchedcoralsonlymetresaway.OnshelteredintertidalreefflatswheretherehadbeenextensivestandsofdeadbranchingAcropora asperaonthereefedge,asaresultofloweredsealevelin1997-98,brokenbranchesofdeadAcroporawerecarriedinshorebythetsunamiwavestocoverhighlylocalisedareasoflivingmassivespecies.Insomecasespartialmortalityoflivingcoralsurfacesresultedfromsmotheringandabrasionbythesedeadcoralbranches.Oftheseventeen10mtransectssurveyedontheintertidalreefflatonlyonewasaffectedinthisway,highlightingtheverylimitedandlocalisednatureofdamagecausedbythetsunamiwaves.

Figure 2.AmixedcoralcommunityontheupperreefslopeatSite5intheSurinIslandsafterthetsunami.

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Figure 3.Typesoftsunami-relateddamagetocoralreefs(a)OverturnedmassivePoritescolony(b)verturnedandbrokenAcropora floridacolony(c)Sediment-coveredPoritescolony.

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PercentageofcoralcovermonitoredovertimeatselectedsitesisshowninTable2andFigure4.SitesshowninTable2representlocationswherecoverdatahavebeencollectedirregularlyoverthelast16years.Figure4illustrateschangesincoralcoveratfivesiteswheremonitoringhasbeencarriedoutonamorefrequentbasisovera16-26yearperiod.Lowercoralcoverbetweenpre-andpost-tsunamisurveyswasnotedatsites6,7,15and16(Table2).Thesewerealsositeswheretsunami-relatedcoraldamagehadbeenobserved.Noquantitativedataareavailablepre-tsunamiforsite13thoughcoralcoverestimatesfrommantasurveyssuggestanapproximatecoralcoverof40-50%inmid2004(PhongsuwanandArunwattana,2005).Significantdamage,intermsofoverturnedmassivecoralsandbrokenAcroporabranches,wasnotedatthiswave-exposedlocationandtheseeffectsarereflectedinthelowcoverobservedafterthetsunami.Atsites15and16,reducedcoralcoverwasattributedtodamagecausedbyincreasedsedimentloads,generatedbythetsunamiwaves,whichsmotheredcoraltissues.

Table 2. Percentage coral cover over time at selected monitoring stations. (n/a = data not available)a) Surin Islands

Site No. 1989 1990 1993 1998 2001 2005

1 n/a 37.7 n/a 11.7 16.9 27.1

2 50.0 60.0 29.0 19.1 22.6 25.0

4 42.0 49.7 36.0 15.3 20.2 48.2

6 n/a 48.7 n/a 32.4 n/a 23.6

b) Offshore Islands

Site No. 1988 1989 1995 2001 2005

7 n/a 5.4 n/a 40.3 32.4

8 46.0 n/a 51.3 30.1 28.0

c) Phi-Phi Islands

Site No. 1988 1991 1995 1997 2000 2003 2005

12 n/a n/a n/a n/a 28.5 n/a 37.2

13 n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a 13.1

14 n/a n/a n/a n/a 28.2 n/a 44.2

15 28.3 n/a 34.2 n/a 29.1 n/a 14.5

16 n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a 28.0 23.8

17 n/a n/a 30.1 35.8 29.4 30.6 34.2

18 63.5 68.6 50.5 59.4 47.2 52.8 51.6

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Figure 4.Changesinpercentagecoralcoverovertimeata)Sites3and5b)Sites9and11c)Site10.

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InFigure4a,adecreaseincoralcoverin2005isevidentonlyatSite5butthiscannotbeattributedtothetsunamiandismostlikelyrelatedtoamildbleachingeventin2003.Atsite3,coralcoverisashighin2005ashaseverbeenrecordedatthislocationsince1989.Figure4bshowsnolossofcoverasaresultofthetsunamiatsites9and11althoughtherewasamarkeddropincoralcoveratsite9between1990and1991asaresultofanextensivebleachingeventin1991.Therehasbeenverylittlerecoveryatthislocationinsubsequentyears.Atintertidalsite10,coralcoverwaslowestin1997-98duringaperiodofexceptionallylowsealevel.Fieldobservationsatthislocationrevealednophysicaldamageasaresultofthetsunamiandthiswasreflectedinthehighcoral-covervaluesof2005.

Generallydiversityindicesshowedverylittlechangeovertimeatbothaffectedandunaffectedsites(datanotshown)withnoclearpatternsemergingatsitesaffectedbythetsunami.

DISCUSSION

TheIndianOceantsunamiof2004clearlyhadalimitedeffectuponthecoralreefsoftheAndamanSeacoastofThailand.Remarkably,thereappearstobefewreferencestotheeffectsoftsunamisoncoralreefsintheliteraturedespiteahistoryofrepeatedtsunamisintheIndo-Pacificregion.Forexample,atotalof35tsunamishavebeenestimatedtohaveimpactedtheIndonesianarchipelagosincetheKrakatautsunamiof1833(Careyetal.,2001)whilesignificanttsunamiwaveswerereportedfollowingearthquakesatCarNicobarin1881andintheAndamansin1941(Bilhametal.,2005).CoralreefswerementionedinareportofatsunamiinitiatedasaresultofanearthquakeinthePhilippineFaultZoneinS.EMindanaoin1992butonlyintermsoftheiramelioratingeffectsinreducingthewaveheightfinallyreachingtheshore(Besanaetal.,2004).

AlthoughtheheightsofthetsunamiwavesarenotreflectedinthetidalmeasurementsobtainedfortherelevantperiodatKoTaphaoNoi,Harada(2005)estimatestsunamiwaveheightstohavebeenapproximately10monthemainlandinshorefromsites7and8,3matsites9,10and11and5matsites15and16.Theseheightsweremeasuredonsitewithinfourdaysofthearrivalofthetsunamiwaves.Coralreefdamageappearstohavebeenmainlyrestrictedtositesonthewest-to-southwestsidesofislandswhicharefrequentlyexposedtosouthwestmonsooninfluences.Coastaltopographyandaspectofsitesimilarlyplayedanimportantroleininfluencingtsunami-relateddamagetocoralreefsinnorthernSumatrainDecember2004(Bairdetal.,2005).WhilepoorlyattachedmassivecoralsatdepthweredisplacedinSumatra(Bairdetal.,2005)damagewasmainlyrestrictedtoshallowreefsitesinThailand.

AtthefewlocationswherenegativeimpactswereobservedalongtheThaicoastline,thetypeofdamagenotedwassimilartothatofhurricanesandcycloneswithbrokenbranchingcorals(Woodleyetal.,1981,Woodley,1993;Rogers,1993)anddislodgementofoftenweaklyattachedmassivecolonies(MasselandDone,1993)inshallowwaters.SimilardislodgementoflargecoloniesofAcropora paliferahasbeen

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notedinFloresineasternIndonesiafollowingatsunami(Tomasciketal.,1997).Theextremelylocalizednatureofthedamageobservedinthepresentstudywasalsosimilartothatnotedduringhurricaneswithonlysectorsofareefaffected(Woodleyetal.,1981;Rogers,1993)wheresusceptibilityvariedmarkedlybetweendifferentcoralspecies(Bythelletal.,1993).AtimpactedsitesinThailand,branchingAcroporaspecieswereparticularlysusceptible(bothplate-likevarietiesandarborescentforms)aswereweaklyattachedmassivePorites colonies.

Thereappearstobeverylittlementionofdeleteriouseffectsofsedimentmobilisationoncoralreefsasaresultofhurricanedamageinthescientificliterature.Rather,hurricane-mediatedflushingofsedimentshasbeendescribedasbenefitingcoralreefdevelopment(Hubbard,1986,1992;HillisandBythell,1998).AlthoughsedimentationhascausedsomecoralmortalityattwositesaroundPhiPhiIsland,sedimenteffectsasaresultofthetsunamihavebeenlimited.Thereareatleasttworeasonswhythisshouldbethecase.Firstly,manyofthecoralswhicharedominantonThaireefsarecapableofefficientremovalofsedimentfromtheirsurfaces(Stafford-Smith,1993)andsecondly,flushingasaresultofthetsunamiwavesandthespringtidesoccurringatthetimewouldaidcleansingofcoralsurfaces.Indeed,improvedwaterqualitywasnotedatmanysitesfollowingthetsunamialongtheThaicoastlineprobablyasaresultofstrongflushing(DepartmentofMarineandCoastalResources,2005).InBandaAcehlocalizedsedimentdamagetocoralswasreportedafterthetsunami,togetherwithchangesinsedimentregimesthatcausedincreasedturbidityaroundcoralreefs(Bairdetal., 2005).

Wherelimitedtsunami-inducedreefdamagehasoccurredontheAndamanSeacoastofThailand,itislikelythatnaturalrecoverywilltakeplacewithinthenext3-5yearsatlowimpactsitesandwithin5-10yearsatlocationswithseveredamage.Thereasonsforsuchaconfidentprognosisarisefromthreefactors:firsttheexceptionallyhighgrowthratesofdominantcoralsintheregion(Scoffinetal.,1992;LoughandBarnes,2000);previousevidenceofrapidreefrecoveryfollowingdamagefromstormsurges(Phongsuwan,1991),sedimentationandloweredsealevels(Clarkeetal.,1993;Brownetal.,2002;BrownandPhongsuwan,2004);andthepresentgenerallygoodconditionofreefsinthearea.Sucharapidrecoverydoes,however,dependonreefsnotsufferingfromwidespreadmortalityfromothersourcessuchaselevatedseatemperatures.AlthoughHoegh-Guldberg(2004)haspredicted,fromtheoreticalmodels,annualbleachingandhighcoralmortalityontheThaicoastlinefromthelate1970’sonwards,theonlymarkedbleachingmortalitythathasactuallytakenplacetodateoccurredin1991and1995withverylimitedbleachingsincetheseevents(Phongsuwan,unpubl).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

WewouldliketoacknowledgetheeffortsofGovernmentofThailandandThaiUniversitystaffandvolunteersintherapidassessmentsurveyoftheThaicoastlineandalsothesupportofB.E.Brown’spost-tsunamimonitoringofselectedreefsitesbytheNaturalEnvironmentResearchCouncil,UnitedKingdom.

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