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The Influence of Societal and Organizational Culture on Employment Equity:
The Case of the Public Sector in the Sultanate of Oman
A thesis submitted to The University of Manchester for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy in Human Resources Management
in the Faculty of Humanities
2012
by
Nasser Mohammed Ali Al-Badri
School of Environment and Development
Institute for Development Policy and Management
2
Contents
List of figures ........................................................................................................... 6
List of Tables ............................................................................................................ 7
List of Abbreviation ............................................................................................... 10 Abstract ........................................................................................................................... 13
Acknowledgements ................................................................................................ 17 Dedication ....................................................................................................................... 18 Chapter 1: Introduction .................................................................................................. 19
1.0 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 19 1.1 Defining the Main Concepts (The Terminology) ............................................. 22 1.2 Oman on the Map ............................................................................................. 24 1.3 Statement of the Problem ................................................................................. 24 1.4 Knowledge Gap and the Anticipated Contribution of the Study ...................... 26
1.4.1 Management and Cultural Studies ..................................................................... 26 1.4.2 Organizational Justice, Ethics and Employment Equity Studies ....................... 29 1.4.3 Middle Eastern and Arab World studies ............................................................ 30
1.5 Aims and Objectives ........................................................................................ 33 1.6 Structure of the Thesis ...................................................................................... 34
Chapter Two Literature Review of Culture .................................................................... 35
2.0 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 35 2.1 The Role of Culture .......................................................................................... 35
2.2 The Meaning of Culture ................................................................................... 36 2.3 National Culture ............................................................................................... 38 2.4 Organizational Culture ..................................................................................... 39
2.5 Cultural Dimensions ......................................................................................... 40 2.5.1 Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck cultural orientations ................................................ 41
2.5.2 Hofstede cultural dimensions ............................................................................. 42 2.5.3 World Values Survey (WVS) ............................................................................. 44 2.5.4 Schwartz's value dimensions .............................................................................. 45
2.5.5 GLOBE study ..................................................................................................... 46
2.5.6 Reasons for choosing GLOBE cultural dimensions in this study ...................... 46 2.6 Culture and management: ................................................................................. 59 2.7 Arab and Middle Eastern Culture ..................................................................... 61
2.8 The Dilemma of Culture and Management in the Middle East ....................... 65 2.9 Conclusion ........................................................................................................ 67
Chapter Three Literature Review of Employment Equity .............................................. 69
3.0 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 69 3.1 Organizational Justice (OJ) .............................................................................. 70
3.2 Employment Equity and Human Resource Management ................................ 73 3.3 The Importance of Equity in Employment ....................................................... 75 3.4 Employment Equity Approaches ...................................................................... 76
3.4.1 Conceptual introduction to EEO and AA ........................................................... 79 3.4.2 Diversity Management (DM) ............................................................................. 82
3.5 Employment Discrimination ............................................................................ 86 3.6 Effects of Discrimination at a Group Level ..................................................... 89
3.6.1 Gender ................................................................................................................ 89 3.6.2 Race, ethnicity, and class ................................................................................... 90 3.6.3 Age ..................................................................................................................... 91 3.6.4 Disability ............................................................................................................ 91 3.6.5 Personal orientation ............................................................................................ 91
3.7 Critical Factors Behind Successful Implementation of Equity in Employment92
3
3.7.1 Having a national policy for equal employment ................................................ 92 3.7.2 Management and leadership support .................................................................. 94
3.7.3 Eliminating corruption in the workplace ............................................................ 96 3.7.4 Social system support ......................................................................................... 97 3.7.5 Eliminating the negative impact of stereotype, prejudice and demographic role
..................................................................................................................................... 98
3.7.6 Positive psychological climate ......................................................................... 101 3.7.7 Eliminating wasta ............................................................................................. 102
3.8 Culture and EE ............................................................................................... 103 3.9 Conclusion ...................................................................................................... 106
Chapter Four The context of the study: Culture and equal employment opportunities in
Oman ............................................................................................................................. 109 4: 0 Introduction ................................................................................................... 109 4.1 Oman on the Map ........................................................................................... 110 4.2 Societal structure and Equality ....................................................................... 111
4.2.1 Historical influences ......................................................................................... 112
4.2.2 Islam from family to the state .......................................................................... 113 4.2.3 Grouping (tribes, ethnicity, and classes) .......................................................... 115 4.2.4 Gender .............................................................................................................. 119
4.2.5 Globalization .................................................................................................... 121 4.3 Institutional Structure and Equality ................................................................ 122 4.4 Demography ................................................................................................... 124
4.5 Economy and Human Development ............................................................... 126 4.6 Current Issues of EE in the Omani Public Sector .......................................... 127 4.7 The Administrative Judgment Court .............................................................. 131
4.8 Conclusion ...................................................................................................... 132 Chapter Five Research Methodology ............................................................................ 134
5.0 Introduction .................................................................................................... 134 5.1 Philosophical Assumptions ............................................................................ 135
5.2 Research Methods .......................................................................................... 136 5.3 Research Question .......................................................................................... 138
5.4 Research Framework ...................................................................................... 140 5.4.1 Hypotheses ....................................................................................................... 140
5.5 Using a Survey ............................................................................................... 144 5.5.1 Developing the questionnaire ........................................................................... 144
5.6 Using the Case Study ..................................................................................... 149 5.6.1 Why a single case study? ................................................................................. 150 5.6.2 Why Royal Court Affairs (RCA)? ................................................................... 152 5.6.3 Semi-structured interviews ............................................................................... 153
5.7 Pilot Study ...................................................................................................... 154
5.8 Research Population and Sampling ................................................................ 154 5.9 Data Analysis ................................................................................................. 158 5.10 Accessibility ................................................................................................. 159
5.11 Data Collection Process ................................................................................ 160 5.11.1 Collecting quantitative data (the questionnaire) ............................................ 160 5.11.2 Collecting Qualitative Data (Semi-Structured Interviews) ............................ 166
5.12 Conclusion .................................................................................................... 167
Chapter six Study result (1): Societal and organizational culture in Oman (analysis and
discussion) ..................................................................................................................... 168 6.0 Introduction .................................................................................................... 168
6.1 Cultural dimensions in Oman at societal and organizational levels ............... 171
4
6.1.1 Performance Orientation (PO) ......................................................................... 172 6.1.2 Future Orientation (FO) ................................................................................... 175
6.1.3 Gender Egalitarianism (GE) ............................................................................. 179 6.1.4 Assertiveness (AS) ........................................................................................... 181 6.1.5 Institutional Collectivism (C1) ......................................................................... 184 6.1.6 In-group Collectivism (C2) .............................................................................. 185
6.1.7 Power Distance (PD) ........................................................................................ 188 6.1.8 Humane Orientation (HO) ................................................................................ 191 6.1.9 Uncertainty Avoidance (UA) ........................................................................... 194
6.2 Discussion ...................................................................................................... 196 6.3 Oman societal culture and the GLOBE study ................................................ 200
6.4 Societal culture (Oman and Middle Eastern cluster) ...................................... 206 6.5 Correlation between cultural dimensions for societal and organizational
cultures ...................................................................................................................... 211 6.6: Managers and Employees .............................................................................. 215 6.7 Conclusion ...................................................................................................... 224
Chapter seven Study result (2): Employment Equity in Oman (Analysis and
Discussion) .................................................................................................................... 225 7.0 Introduction .................................................................................................... 225
7.1 Employment Equity in the Omani Public Sector ........................................... 228 7.1.1 Providing clear equal opportunities policy (CEOP) ......................................... 229 7.1.2 Providing leadership and organizational support (LOS) .................................. 230
7.1.3 Eliminating corruption (EC) ............................................................................ 232 7.1.4 Social system support (SSS) ............................................................................ 234 7.1.5 Eliminating the negative impact of Stereotype, prejudice and demographic role
(ESPDR) .................................................................................................................... 236 7.1.6 Enhancing Positive Psychological Climate (EPPC) ........................................ 239
7.1.7 Eliminating Wasta (EW) .................................................................................. 241 7.2 Correlation between critical success factors .................................................. 243
7.3 General view on adopting employment equity programs in the Omani public
sector ......................................................................................................................... 246
7.4 The Influence of Culture on Employment Equity .......................................... 251 7.4.1 Culture and critical success factors towards EE .............................................. 252 7.4.2 Employment equity in general ......................................................................... 257
7.5 Conclusion: ..................................................................................................... 264
Chapter Eight Summary of Results and Conclusion ..................................................... 265 8.0 Introduction .................................................................................................... 265 8.1 Culture and Employment Equity .................................................................... 267 8.2 The main results of the study ......................................................................... 269
8.2.1 First Objective .................................................................................................. 269
8.2.2 Second Objective ......................................................................................... 272 8.2.3 Third objective ................................................................................................. 273 8.2.4 Fourth objective ............................................................................................... 274
8.2.5 Fifth objective .................................................................................................. 275 8.2.6 Sixth Objective ................................................................................................. 276
8.3 Gap and Contribution to Existing Knowledge ............................................... 278 8.3.1 Management and Cultural Studies ................................................................... 279
8.3.2 Organizational justice, ethics and employment equity studies ........................ 281 8.3.3 Middle Eastern and Arab World Studies ......................................................... 282
8.4 Limitations of the Study ................................................................................. 283
8.5 Recommendations of the Study ...................................................................... 284
5
8.6 Recommendations for Further Study ............................................................. 285 8.7 Final Remarks ................................................................................................. 285
References ..................................................................................................................... 287 Appendix 1: Oman, the ongoing changes .................................................................... 305 Appendix 2 Letter and Guiding Questions for Interviewing General Managers .......... 306 Appendix 3 A Questionnaire Alpha: The Influence of Culture on Adopting Effective
Policies and Practices toward Employment Equity ...................................................... 308 Appendix 3 B Questionnaire Beta................................................................................. 331
6
List of figures
Figure 1: Middle Eastern cluster result in GLOBE study. ..................................... 64
Figure 2: Three models of justice ........................................................................... 73
Figure 3: Geographical situation of Oman ........................................................... 111
Figure 4: Distribution of Omani population among different governorates and
regions ....................................................................................................................... 125
Figure 5: Overall conceptual model for the study ................................................ 140
Figure 6: Components of Data Analysis: Interactive Model ................................ 159
Figure 7: Likert Scale ........................................................................................... 160
Figure 8: Culture absolute scale evaluation ......................................................... 160
Figure 9: EE Scale evaluation .............................................................................. 161
Figure 10: Distribution of sample size by age ...................................................... 163
Figure 11: Distribution of sample size by gender ................................................ 163
Figure 12: Distribution of sample size by place of birth ...................................... 164
Figure 13: Distribution of sample by place of work ............................................ 164
Figure 14: Distribution of sample by education level .......................................... 165
Figure 15: Distribution of sample by experience ................................................. 166
Figure 16: Distribution of sample by occupation ................................................. 166
Figure 17: Correlation between societal and organizational cultural dimensions
and EE at the level of practice................................................................................... 277
7
List of Tables
Table 1: McSweeney's Criticisms and Hofstede‘s Reply ....................................... 44
Table 2: The two versions of GLOBE study questionnaire ................................... 46
Table 3: Main differences between Hofstede and GLOBE studies ........................ 48
Table 4: High performance versus low performance orientation ........................... 51
Table 5: High future versus low future orientation ................................................ 52
Table 6: High versus low gender egalitarianism .................................................... 53
Table 7: High versus low assertiveness .................................................................. 54
Table 8: Individualism versus collectivism between societies ............................... 55
Table 9: Individualism versus collectivism between organizations ....................... 56
Table 10: High versus low power distance ............................................................ 57
Table 11: High versus low human orientation ....................................................... 58
Table 12: High versus low uncertainty avoidance ................................................. 59
Table 13: Types of organizational justice .............................................................. 71
Table 14: The differences between liberal and radical views of equal opportunities
policies ........................................................................................................................ 77
Table 15: Comparison between main features of EEO, AA, and diversity ............ 84
Table 16: A comparison between AA, EE, and MD .............................................. 85
Table 17: Relation between cultural dimensions and low corruption .................... 97
Table 18: Correlation between organizational culture (practice) and attitude toward
diversity ..................................................................................................................... 105
Table 19: Correlation between cultural dimensions and attitude toward diversity at
organizational practice level and CPI (low corruption) at national practice level .... 105
Table 20: Philosophical positions ......................................................................... 135
Table 21: Different Types of Mixed Methods Approach ..................................... 138
Table 22: Sub-divisions of Hypothesis 9 ............................................................. 143
Table 23: Divisions of Hypothesis 10 .................................................................. 144
Table 24: Influence of Omani national culture on HRM ..................................... 147
Table 25: Part B in section five of this study questionnaire ................................. 148
Table 26: Five misunderstanding points about using a single case study ............ 151
Table 27: Breakdown of Civil Service Employees (Including RCA) .................. 155
Table 28: Omani Civilian Employees in the CS and RCA .................................. 155
Table 29: Breakdown of RCA Employees ........................................................... 156
Table 30: Groupings of Civilian Employees at Supervisory and Leadership Levels157
Table 31: The Research Sample ........................................................................... 158
Table 32: Valid percentage of questionnaire respondents .................................... 162
Table 33: Measures of performance orientation societal culture practice (As Is) 173
Table 34: Items measuring performance orientation societal culture practice (As
Is) .............................................................................................................................. 176
Table 35: Items measuring gender egalitarianism societal culture practice (As Is)180
Table 36: Items measuring assertiveness societal culture practice (As Is) .......... 182
Table 37: Items measuring institutional collectivism societal culture practice (As
Is) .............................................................................................................................. 185
Table 38: Items measuring in-group collectivism societal culture practice (As Is)186
Table 39: Items measuring power distance societal culture practice (As Is) ....... 190
Table 40: Items measuring human orientation societal culture practice (As Is) .. 192
Table 41: Items measuring uncertainty avoidance societal culture practice (As Is)195
Table 42: Main results for societal and organizational cultures in Oman ............ 197
Table 43: Main results for societal and organizational cultures in Oman ............ 197
Table 44: Main results for societal and organizational cultures in Oman ............ 198
8
Table 45: Omani Societal culture practice (As–Is): Practice scores of Omani
societal culture compared with GLOBE mid-scores ................................................. 201
Table 46: Omani Societal culture value (Should Be): Value scores of Omani
societal culture compared with GLOBE mid-scores ................................................. 202
Table 47: GLOBE study bands, societal culture practice .................................... 202
Table 48: GLOBE study bands, societal culture values ....................................... 203
Table 49: Societal culture practice and value ....................................................... 204
Table 50: Results of Oman and GLOBE study in societal culture practice ......... 205
Table 51: Result of Oman and GLOBE study in societal culture value ............... 205
Table 52: Oman and Middle Eastern cluster (societal practices) ......................... 209
Table 53: Oman and Middle Eastern cluster (societal values) ............................. 210
Table 54: Correlation between cultural dimensions of societal practice .............. 211
Table 55: Correlation between cultural dimensions of societal value .................. 212
Table 56: Correlation between cultural dimensions of organizational practice ... 213
Table 57: Correlation between cultural dimensions of organizational value ....... 214
Table 58: Levene test of homogeneity of variances (organization practice) ....... 216
Table 59: ANOVA test (organizational practice) ................................................. 217
Table 60: Levene test of homogeneity of variances (organization value) ........... 218
Table 61: ANOVA test (organizational value) ..................................................... 219
Table 62: Levene test of homogeneity of variances (societal culture practice) ... 220
Table 63: ANOVA test (societal practice) ........................................................... 221
Table 64: Levene test of homogeneity of variances (societal culture value) ....... 222
Table 65: ANOVA test (societal value) ............................................................... 223
Table 66: Providing clear equal opportunities policy (CEOP) ............................. 229
Table 67: Statements assessing providing leadership and organizational support
(LOS) ........................................................................................................................ 231
Table 68: Eliminating corruption (EC) ................................................................ 233
Table 69: Social system support (SSS) ................................................................ 235
Table 70: Eliminating the negative impact of stereotype, prejudice and
demographic role (SPDR) ......................................................................................... 237
Table 71: Enhancing Positive Psychological Climate (PC) ................................. 239
Table 72: Eliminating wasta ................................................................................. 241
Table 73: Critical Success Factors (As Is) versus Critical Success Factors (Should
Be) ............................................................................................................................. 243
Table 74: Correlation between critical success factors (As Is) ............................ 244
Table 75: Correlation between critical success factors (Should Be) .................... 245
Table 76: Employment equity programmes ......................................................... 246
Table 77: Additional factors to improve EE in the Omani public sector ............. 248
Table 78: Correlation between societal culture and critical success factors towards
EE at the level of practice ......................................................................................... 252
Table 79: Correlation between societal culture and critical success factors towards
EE at the level of value ............................................................................................. 253
Table 80: correlation between organizational culture and critical success factors
towards EE at the level of practice ............................................................................ 255
Table 81: Correlation between organizational culture and critical success factors
towards EE at the level of value ................................................................................ 256
Table 82: EE as viewed by questionnaire Beta participants ................................ 258
Table 83: EE as viewed by questionnaire Alpha's participants ............................ 258
Table 84: Pearson correlation (PC) between societal culture dimensions (SCD) and
organizational culture dimensions (OCD) with EE in general .................................. 259
Table 85: comparison between CADOP and CEEOP .......................................... 261
9
Table 86: Comparison between CLCSP, CWJEBSP, and CEESP ...................... 263
Table 87: Summary of objectives and findings .................................................... 266
Table 88: GLOBE cultural dimensions ................................................................ 269
Table 89: Main results for societal and organizational cultures in Oman ............ 270
Table 90: Main results for societal and organizational cultures in Oman (cont.) 270
Table 91: Main results for societal and organizational cultures in Oman (cont.) 271
Table 92: Critical Success Factors (As Is) versus Critical Success Factors (Should
Be) ............................................................................................................................. 274
Table 93: Employment equity programmes ......................................................... 275
01
List of Abbreviation
SC Societal Culture
OC Organizational Culture
EE Employment Equity
EEO Equal Employment Opportunity
EEP Employment Equity Programme
EOP Equal Opportunities Policy
AA Affirmative Action
DM Diversity management
ED Employment Discrimination
PO Performance Orientation
FO Future Orientation
GE Gender Egalitarianism
AS Assertiveness
In-C Institutional Collectivism
In-G In-Group Collectivism
PD Power Distance
HO Humane Orientation
UA Uncertainty Avoidance
POSP Performance Orientation Societal Practice
FOSP Future Orientation Societal Practice
GESP Gender Egalitarianism Societal Practice
ASSP Assertiveness Societal Practice
C1SP Institutional Collectivism Societal Practice
C2SP In-Group Collectivism Societal Practice
PDSP Power Distance Societal Practice
HOSP Humane Orientation Societal Practice
UASP Uncertainty Avoidance Societal Practice
POSV Performance Orientation Societal Value
FOSV Future Orientation Societal Value
GESV Gender Egalitarianism Societal Value
ASSV Assertiveness Societal Value
C1SV Institutional Collectivism Societal Value
C2SV In-Group Collectivism Societal Value
PDSV Power Distance Societal Value
HOSV Humane Orientation Societal Value
UASV Uncertainty Avoidance Societal Value
00
POOP Performance Orientation Organizational Practice
FOOP Future Orientation Organizational Practice
GEOP Gender Egalitarianism Organizational Practice
ASOP Assertiveness Organizational Practice
C1OP Institutional Collectivism Organizational Practice
C2OP In-Group Collectivism Organizational Practice
PDOP Power Distance Organizational Practice
HOOP Humane Orientation Organizational Practice
UAOP Uncertainty Avoidance Organizational Practice
POOV Performance Orientation Organizational Value
FOOV Future Orientation Organizational Value
GEOV Gender Egalitarianism Organizational Value
ASOV Assertiveness Organizational Value
C1OV Institutional Collectivism Organizational Value
C2OV In-Group Collectivism Organizational Value
PDOV Power Distance Organizational Value
HOOV Humane Orientation Organizational Value
UAOV Uncertainty Avoidance Organizational Value
CEOP Clear Equal Opportunities Policy
LOS Leadership and Organizational Support
EC Eliminating Corruption
SSS Social System Support
ESPDR Eliminating the negative impact of Stereotype, Prejudice and Demographic Role
EPPC Enhancing Positive Psychological Climate
EW Eliminating Wasta
CEOPP Clear Equal Opportunities Policy Practice
LOSP Leadership and Organizational Support Practice
ECP Eliminating Corruption Practice
SSSP Social System Support Practice
ESPDRP Eliminating the negative impact of Stereotype, Prejudice and Demographic Role
Practice
EPPCP Enhancing Positive Psychological Climate Practice
EWP Eliminating Wasta Practice Value
CEOPV Clear Equal Opportunities Policy Value
LOSV Leadership and Organizational Support Value
ECV Eliminating Corruption Value
SSSV Social System Support Value
02
ESPDRV Eliminating the negative impact of Stereotype, Prejudice and Demographic Role Value
EPPCV Enhancing Positive Psychological Climate Value
EWV Eliminating Wasta Value
03
Abstract This study aims to examine the degree of influence that societal and organizational
cultures, as specified by the GLOBE project, have on employment equity in the Omani
public sector. Therefore, a theoretical framework has been built and developed in two
main areas, which are culture and employment equity.
In addition, the methodology of the study has been designed to use both quantitative
and qualitative research approaches for triangulation. Quantitative data was collected
from a sample of 290 Omani civil servants representing several public organizations,
while qualitative data was collected in a single case study of Oman‘s Royal Court
Affairs (RCA) organization, 12 general managers from which were interviewed. The
independent variables were dimensions of societal and organizational culture, and the
dependent variables were employment equity in general, which includes seven critical
success factors behind employment equity. The analysis for the quantitative data was
carried out using SPSS software, while interviews were analysed manually due to the
small number of participants.
The results of the study confirm that societal and organizational cultures have
significant influence on employment equity (EE). However, not all cultural dimensions
have the same direction or degree of influence on employment equity. In fact, some of
these dimensions have no significant correlation with EE. Also, the study found that
there were no differences between managers‘ and employees‘ responses with regard to
34 cultural dimensions out of 36. The two dimensions in which the results differed
between these groups were Human Orientation and Future Orientation for
organizational culture value.
Additionally, the results show that participants believe that there is a real need for
higher EE in the Omani public sector as there were clear differences between current
practices of EE and how it should be. Moreover, there were significant positive
correlations between all seven critical success factors behind effective EE. This result
indicates that these factors are interacting between each other in a positive way.
Also, a suggested framework was developed to show how government and other
organizations could positively use and benefit from the influences of cultural
dimensions to enhance EE among employees. Researchers also could benefit from such
a framework as well as the overall findings of this thesis by using them as a starting
point for further research to fill the observed knowledge gap in this area.
04
Declaration
I hereby declare no part of this thesis has been submitted in support of another degree or
any other qualification of this or any other Institution.
05
Copyright
Copyright in the text of this thesis rests with the author. Copies (by any process) either
in full, or in part, may be made only in accordance with the instruction given by the
author. This page must form part of any such copies made. Further copies (by any
process) made in accordance with such instruction may not be made without the
permission (in writing) of the author.
06
Ownership of Intellectual Property Rights
The ownership of any intellectual property rights which may be described in this thesis
is vested in the University of Manchester, subject to any prior agreement to the
contrary, and may not be available for use by third parties without the written
permission of the University, which will prescribe the terms and conditions of any such
agreement.
07
Acknowledgements
My first thanks are to Allah, the most merciful, greatest Almighty.
I am indebted to my knowledgeable supervisor Dr. Chris Rees who exerted his great
efforts to consolidate this thesis as one united and valuable piece of work.
My extreme appreciation extends also to the government of Oman for the scholarship
award which has enabled me to pursue my PhD programme at the University of
Manchester.
In addition, I would also like to thank all the public sector organizations as well as all
Omani participants whom were engaged in the fieldwork and helped me in achieving
the targets of this thesis.
08
Dedication
I would like to dedicate this piece of work to my country Oman, my idealistic mother
Zanena Al-Rozaigi, my patient father Mohammed Al-Badri and my beloved children
Mohammed, Ghada, Munis, and Gharra.
09
Chapter 1:
Introduction
1.0 Introduction
This study examines the relationship between societal and organizational culture and
employment equity. This chapter first presents a general introduction to the main
concepts of the study. It will then define the terminology which will be used for the
purposes of the thesis. After that, the chapter will highlight gaps in the existing
literature on this subject as well as anticipated contributions from this study. Finally, the
main aim and the objectives of the research will be set out.
Social scientists, especially anthropologists and psychologists, take into
consideration the significant influences of culture when attempting to study
management and human behaviour (Segall et al., 1998; Aycan, 2000b; Nardon and
Steers, 2009; Wu, 2012). Therefore, culture has been considered as an essential
contributor in determining personal, managerial, and organizational behaviours (Ng et
al., 2007). Realising the importance of understanding national culture, during World
War II anthropologists were called in by the United States government to assist it in
understanding ‗the psyche of its enemy nations‘ (Hofstede and McCrae, 2004: 54).
Hofstede (1984) argues that several academic fields have paid a great amount of
attention to the complexity of societies since the middle of the nineteenth century.
Among the plurality of these disciplines, the nature of anthropology makes it the most
suitable discipline to act as the base of integrated contribution. However, the complexity
and the large differences between societies mean that anthropology in itself is
insufficient as a concept to provide an all-embracing framework for contributions from
the many other disciplines (Hofstede, 1984). Therefore, anthropologists, in parallel with
psychologists, tried to suggest a holistic approach that could be used to study either a
whole culture for one country, or the cross-cultural differences between
countries/societies. Mainly, two concepts were presented: ‗national character‘ and
‗national culture‘. The concept of ‗national culture‘, as Hofstede argues:
…is integrative and holistic; it uses information classified under any academic
discipline; it collects data by any method appropriate at the level of institutions
or individuals; but it tries to express the essence of cultural diversity among
different complex societies in a limited number of generally valid concepts.
(Hofstede 1984: 23)
21
National culture differs from national character as the former is able to explain
certain collective behaviours in one nation which might not necessarily represent the
national character.
An intense debate has arisen, and has not yet been resolved, in regard to the level of
analysis and whether, as one side of the debate argues, psychology deals only on the
level of the individual or small group, with anthropology being the discipline that deals
with large groups and the societal level (see, for example, Kessing, 1974; Hofstede,
1983b; Howard, 1991; Levine, 2007). Furthermore, although ‗psychological
anthropology‘ as a term was first suggested in the 1950s to bridge the gap between the
two academic fields as a cross-disciplinary dialogue in studying culture and population
behaviour, this cross-disciplinary combination still remains elusive (Levine, 2007).
Nevertheless, continuing attempts in this connection have been made by scholars from
different disciplines, including anthropologists, psychologists, psychological
anthropologists, business consultants, and political scientists, and each attempt has its
own criteria depending on the researcher‘s discipline and issues under investigation
(Hofstede and McCrae, 2004; Hofstede and Hofstede, 2005; Chokar et al., 2008).
Regardless of the variation in their disciplines, the theorists were in agreement on one
main goal which was to limit the concept of ‗culture‘ to a specific number of cultural
dimensions or preferences, which would then accordingly increase the capacity of
researchers to study or distinguish social behaviour as well as to solve societal
problems. As a result, several frameworks have been suggested as holistic approaches to
the study of national culture through valid, coherent, and measurable classified
dimensions. Interestingly, scholars have suggested different dimensions according to
which to study culture depending on the level of study and whether it targeted
individuals, societies, or organizations (see, for example, Hofstede, 1980; Schwartz,
1999; House et al., 2004). However, it is important to recognize, as Hofstede and
Hofstede (2005: 32) point out, that such multi-dimensional approaches do not in
themselves constitute a theory, but rather form a new paradigm, which is ‗one step
before a theory: a way of thinking that leads to developing theories‘. In the coming
chapters, the researcher will critically evaluate some of these attempts to develop
cultural theories as the study constructs its argument according to one of the latest of
such approaches, the GLOBE project. The GLOBE project will be discussed in more
detail in the context of other such studies, including Hofstede‘s cultural dimensions, in
Chapter 2.
20
The GLOBE study is a multi-phase, ten-year research project with the aim of
‗increasing available knowledge that is relevant to cross-cultural interactions‘ (House,
2004: 3). The study, as House states:
… has a very adequate dataset to replicate Hofstede‘s (1980) landmark study
and extend that study to test hypotheses relevant to relationships among
societal-level variables, organisational practices, and leader attributes and
behaviour. (House, 2004: xxv)
The data was collected from 62 different societies around the world with almost
17,000 responses involved in the project. For each country, the samples were chosen
from three main industries: food processing, financial services, and telecommunications
services (House et al., 2004). One of the important facts concerning the GLOBE study
is that its mechanism for the measurement of cultural dimensions in one society is not
based only on values, norms, and beliefs, but also on the economic, educational, and
legal systems, political attitude, and other institutional practices (Dickson et al., 2004).
As noted above, this study examines the relationship between societal and
organizational culture and employment equity. For the purpose of this thesis, societal
and organizational cultures are determined with reference to the dimensions of the
GLOBE project. As many authors have agreed, societal and organizational cultures
have great influence in directing people‘s behaviour and attitudes in a particular society
(Dickson et al., 2004). From a socio-psychological point of view, human behaviour, ‗is
a function of the person and the environment‘ (Triandis and Brislin, 1984: 1008) and
discrimination as a behaviour has therefore been categorized either under the social
psychology discipline (Linn, 1964) or as part of cognitive social psychology (Krieger,
1995). Furthermore, cultural dimensions like power distance, uncertainty avoidance,
individualism, and masculinity, ‗deal with issues that are relevant in psychology,
sociology, political science, and anthropology‘ (Hofstede, 1983b: 296). Hofstede noted
one empirical example of such influences when he observed the positive correlation
between secularization (loss of religion) in some Christian societies and the high degree
of femininity in these societies (Hofstede and Hofstede, 2005: 153). These associations
between culture and some phenomena ‗are not gratuitous, they are mostly based on a
validation of the index scores of the countries on the four dimensions against findings in
comparative studies in the various disciplines‘ (Hofstede, 1983b: 297).
On the basis of the considerations above, this study is clearly positioned as taking as
its overarching principle what can be best described as psychological anthropology.
22
However, although this broad category will serve as a significant starting point for the
critical analysis, the complexity of the ingredients contained in each cultural dimension
will provide a contribution to knowledge that reaches beyond the confines of one
particular discipline and even beyond an integrated area between two disciplines.
Therefore this study will necessitate not merely a cross-disciplinary but a multi-
disciplinary approach drawing on contributions from other disciplines, including among
others those identified by Hofstede and discussed above – anthropology, political
science, psychology and sociology (Hofstede, 1983b).
The remaining sections of this chapter will provide an overview of the study,
including a statement of the problem, aims and objectives, gaps in theliterature, the
main aim of the study and specific objectives. To begin with, the main concepts will be
outlined and terminology defined, followed by a brief description the country under
study.
1.1 Defining the Main Concepts (The Terminology)
This study revolves around discovering the extent of the influence that societal and
organizational culture have on employment equity within the context of the public
sector in the Sultanate of Oman. Inevitably, there are numerous possible definitions of
the complex concepts which the study will build its argument around. However, in order
to better understand these concepts within the context of this study, the following
definitions will be used:
Culture refers to the ‗shared motives, values, beliefs, identities, and interpretations or
meanings of significant events that result from common experiences of members
of collectives and are transmitted across generations‘ (House and Javidan, 2004:
15).
Equity is defined here in the following terms: ‗All citizens are equal before the Law
and share the same public rights and duties. There is no discrimination between
them on the ground of gender, origin, colour, language, religion, sect, domicile, or
social status‘. (The Basic Statute of the State (Oman), Article 17).
Employment Equity: for the purposes of this thesis, Employment Equity is defined as
‗equal rights for and in employment for all individuals, focusing on all stages of
the employment relationship [application, recruitment, promotion, transfer,
training, health and safety, terms of employment, benefits, facilities and services,
grievances, disciplinary procedures and victimization, dismissals, redundancies,
23
and other unfavourable treatment of employees‘ (EOC, 1985, cited in Adams et
al., 1995: 88).
Equal Employment Opportunity (EEO) is defined here as ‗providing equal treatment
to all applicants and employees regardless of their race, colour, sex, religion,
national origin, age, or disability‘ (Kleiman, 2000: 23).
Employment Equity Programme (EEP) is defined as ‗a comprehensive planning
process by an employer to identify and remove discrimination in employment
policies and practices, and to ensure appropriate representation of target groups
throughout the organization‘ (Falkenberg and Boland, 1997: 964).
Equal Opportunity (EO) is defined as ‗the concept of ensuring fair treatment for all
employees (or prospective employees) throughout the organization. It emphasizes
the importance of judging people according to the qualities, skills, and
competencies they possess, rather than prejudging them because of characteristics
such as gender, race/ethnicity, disability, age, or sexuality‘ (Dictionary of Human
Resource Management, Oxford Reference Online).
Affirmative Action (AA) is defined as ‗a generic term for programmes which take
some kind of initiatives either voluntarily or under the compulsion of law, to
increase, maintain, or rearrange the number or status of certain group members
usually defined by race or gender, within a larger group‘ (Jonson, 1990: 77, cited
in Bacchi, 1996: x).
Diversity management (DM): ‗a process intended to create and maintain a positive
work environment where the differences of individuals are valued so that all can
reach their potential and maximize their contributions to the organisations
strategic goals‘ (Dhami, et al., 2006: 14).
Employment Discrimination (ED): according to Kleiman (2000: 28–29) there are two
kinds of ED as previously specified by Ledvinka and Scarpello (1991), which are:
Disparate treatment: defined as ‗treating people unfairly based on their
membership in a protected group‘.
Disparate impact: defined as ‗any practice without business justification that
has unequal consequences for people of different protected groups‘.
These complicated concepts will be investigated in greater depth in the following
chapters.
24
1.2 Oman on the Map
Although the study will present an extensive explanation of Omani society and
institutions, a short introduction to the Sultanate is provided in this chapter. In brief, the
Sultanate of Oman is one of six Arab countries which together comprise the Gulf Co-
operation Council (GCC). Geographically, Oman is located in southwest Asia on the
southeast coast of the Arabian Peninsula. The country borders the United Arab Emirates
on the northwest, Saudi Arabia on the west and Yemen on the southwest. The coast is
formed by the Arabian Sea on the south and east and the Gulf of Oman on the northeast.
According to the latest national population census held in 2003, the population of Oman
is approximately 2,340,815 and 23% of that number are non-Omanis
(www.mone.gov.om). The official language of the country is Arabic, and Islam is the
widespread religion.
1.3 Statement of the Problem
Job satisfaction, trust between employees and management, organizational commitment,
organizational citizenship and many other important issues are importantly related to
equality and organizational justice (Skitka et al., 2003; Colquitt et al., 2001). This
fundamental relation predetermines the quality of employees‘ performance and
organizational outcomes. Unfair discrimination in the workplace strongly and adversely
affects the quality of performance and leads to inefficient outcomes at different levels.
Avery et al. (2008: 235) state that:
…Perceived workplace discrimination can be quite costly for individuals and
employers. For individuals, it can increase work tension, detract from
psychological and physical health, diminish job satisfaction, and lead to
stigmatization. For organizations, perceived discrimination can undermine
employee commitment and lessen organizational citizenship behaviour,
morale, and job performance. (2008: 235)
The Omani government continues to face numerous obstacles in implementing its
strategy of human development. Besides the inadequate level of the local workforce
when compared to the growing demand on the labour market and the high level of
unemployment, the failure to provide employment equity, particularly in terms of
gender equality, is a major obstacle (www.moneoman.gov.om and Oman Human
Development Report, 2003). Nevertheless, the government from its highest level has
been endeavoring to encourage equality among employees. For instance, the Sultan
25
raised the gender equality issue in his annual speech for the year 2009 in the Council of
the State, saying:
…Since the beginning of this era, to the participation of Omani women in the
march of the blessed renaissance, so we have provided them with education,
training and employment opportunities and supported their role and status in
society. We have also stressed the need for their contribution in various
development spheres. We have facilitated this through regulations and laws
that guarantee their rights and explain their duties in order to be able to
develop their inner abilities, expertise and skills to build their country and
raise its status. We are continuing on this path. (ONA, 2009)
However, despite the growing interest in human rights in the Arab world,
declarations from the highest governmental level in regard to employment equality,
international pressure from the World Trade Organization (WTO) and some other
global organizations, and the increasing participation of women in the workforce,
discrimination continues to be part and parcel of daily management practices. As many
authors argue, the Middle Eastern region is one that suffers particularly from the
absence of employment equity policies and the lack of a clear equality statement, which,
in turn, increases the difficulty in ensuring fair management practices (Al-Ghailani,
2005; Al-Asmi, 2008; Rees and Althakhri, 2008; Syed et al., 2009). In such an
ambiguous environment, employees continue to face a high degree of workplace
discrimination. Favouritism and nepotism (or wasta as it called in Arabic) in
management activities such as recruiting, training, promoting, or appraising are routine
aspects of management practice.
In addition, societal and organizational culture plays an intensive role in forming
management policies and managerial practices, which are in themselves the key to
success for any organization. Many scholars have emphasized that culture is ‗an
underlying challenge‘ and widely responsible for different behaviours that cause
inequality in the working environment (Ryan, 2006: 265). Looking at the Middle
Eastern region in general and Muslim and Arab countries in particular, the belief is the
same, and culture is also considered as a dominant factor in those places (Ali, 1996;
Tayeb, 1997). Cultural elements, such as religion and tribalism, play a serious role in
characterising Arab values, norms and behaviours (Mohamed et al., 2008; Rees and
Althakhri, 2008), and this spills over into workplace practices.
In fact, the provision of employment equity policies in terms of gender, race, age,
disability, class, and personal orientation, does not merely enhance equality and justice
26
among employees, but, from a broader viewpoint, it reflects positively on a country‘s
economy and political system. However, advances in this direction cannot be made
without understanding the level of cultural contribution to current discriminatory
practices since inequality in the Arab world has been always related to national culture.
Given this problem, this study will try to theoretically explore the extent of cultural
involvement in determining the degree of readiness of the Omani public sector in
respect of the adoption of employment equity. The investigation will lead to a better
understanding of the relationship between cultural dimensions, as specified by the
GLOBE project, and the existence of the phenomenon of negative employment
discrimination. Such understanding will enhance the country‘s ability to develop a clear
equality agenda and overcome the current cultural obstacles. It will also encourage
organizations to exert strong control over those who engage in workplace discrimination
in order to eradicate such practices, and to encourage equal treatment among employees
or potential employees. Pucetaite and Lamsa assert such a possibility, stating that:
…the attitudes, behaviour norms and principles that constitute work ethic in a
certain context may be changing due to pressures of the external environment
(e.g. growing society‘s expectations towards product quality) or may be
changed by internal, for instance, management‘s endeavours (e.g. training
programmes to enhance employees‘ competences). (Pucetaite and Lamsa,
2008: 326)
1.4 Knowledge Gap and the Anticipated Contribution of the Study
This study examines the complexity of the relationship between culture and the
adoption of the effective policies and practices required for progress toward equity in
employment opportunities and treatment. Employment equity and equality have
received much attention from several academic disciplines over many years, and the
attention directed to this issue in this study will add a new dimension, the Omani
cultural context, and by looking at this under-researched region will advance
scholarship in this area. Hence, the literature relating to both culture and employment,
and Middle Eastern studies, will be complemented by the outcomes of this study.
Specifically, the study aims to fill the gaps outlined below.
1.4.1 Management and Cultural Studies
There are several theories which attempt to understand and explain the kind of impact
that culture has on management practices, either in general or in terms of specific issues.
Aycan (2005) and Aycan et al. (2007) refer to numerous theories which have tried to
27
contribute to both fields, such as general systems theory, institutional theory, and
societal effect theory. However, as Aycan et al. (2007: 14) argue, ‗none of these theories
explicitly discusses the role of culture in human resource management policies and
practices‘. Supporting such a statement, Stone et al. conclude that:
…there is a clear need for additional research on the moderating effects of
culture on the relation between (a) HRM processes and practices and (b) the
acceptance and effectiveness of such processes and practices. (Stone et al.,
2007: 163)
The available literature contains many studies on the impact of cultural attributes as
one set of components, or factors, which along with other factors partly influence
organizational processes or attitudes (see, for example, Al-Asmi, 2008; Al-Ghailani,
2005). Other studies have focused on one or two cultural dimensions, for example
individualism and collectivism, or masculinity and femininity (see, for example, Buda
and Elsayed-Elkhouly, 1998; Sims, 2009; Gardner, 2009). Some have explored the
impact of organizational culture only (such as Herrera, 2008), and others have looked at
the impact at the societal level only (for example, Kim and Gray, 2009). After
reviewing many such studies covering different managerial and organizational areas
such as motivation, culture and organizational commitment, and person-environment fit,
Gelfand et al. (2007: 499) suggest the need for further research in:
…multiple values simultaneously and the examination of neglected sources of
cultural differences (e.g. roles, norms, implicit theories, and beliefs) [and] the
examination of interactions between cultural variables and contextual factors
at multiple levels of analysis. (Gelfand et al., 2007: 499)
The authors argue that whilst the existing studies remain important and appreciated,
particularly in their own areas of study, the relevant types of cultural influence and their
quantitative effects remain unclear because the full set of cultural dimensions has rarely
been involved in the investigations undertaken. As discussed above, such studies have
mostly dealt with culture either under a single dimension or as one factor only,
controlled by religion, tribalism, and family. Additionally, the examination has been
mainly limited to the extent of cultural impact and hardly goes beyond that point to
understand how and why such an impact occurs. Furthermore, these studies have tended
not to separate cultural values from real practices in their discussions and results.
By using the GLOBE cultural dimensions, this study will make an even greater
contribution, since the GLOBE dimensions embody previous cultural theories and
28
dimensions (House et al., 2004) and are considered as ‗the first rigorous attempt to
empirically measure and verify the relationship between cultural values and practices‘
(Javidan et al., 2004: 730). The GLOBE dimensions provide researchers with a better
and deeper understanding of cultural dynamics than do Hofstede‘s dimensions
(Hutzschenreuter and Voll, 2008), and this is a valuable framework for this study to use
because, according to the researcher‘s knowledge, most of the studies in the Arab World
on the relationship between culture and management have primarily used Hofstede‘s
cultural dimensions. Therefore, this study might be considered as one of the first
attempts to use the GLOBE cultural dimensions in understanding the nature of cultural
impacts on management behaviour and employment equity in the Arab World. There
are many values in Arab culture which encourage equity and equality (Tayeb, 1997; Al-
Buraey, 2001; Ghafory-Ashtiany, 2009, Ilhaamie, 2009). By studying the relationship of
Arab culture with employment equity, this study is able to determine which of these
values is most clearly related to employment equity, and can therefore provide
recommendation towards improving the equal status of employees, not only in the Arab
world, but across the entire world as employment discrimination is a widespread
phenomenon.
Moreover, although Oman holds a strategic geographical position, has a historically-
rooted culture, and contains several different sub-cultural groups, it has not been
involved in a large cultural project such as that of Hofstede (1980) or GLOBE (2004).
So, despite the fact that the GLOBE project involved five Middle Eastern countries
(Egypt, Morocco, Kuwait, Qatar, and Turkey), this empirical study can participate in the
general assessment of the GLOBE dimensions for the Middle East region. So by re-
examining the nine cultural dimensions within the Omani context, the final result will
be compared carefully with the results from the five Middle Eastern countries which
were included in the GLOBE project. Clearly, the Omani result might vary from or
confirm the outcomes in respect of the Middle East cluster. Therefore, considering all
these critical points, this research will also make a significant contribution in this
broader area.
The GLOBE project itself has not, however, gone without criticism. Hofstede (2006)
pointed out that in the GLOBE project, managers were the only participants. In this
respect, he asks: ‗If you want to find out about the quality of a product, do you ask the
producer or the consumers?‘ (Hofstede, 2006: 884). In this study, the researcher will
29
seek to involve both managers and employees in regard to the research topic, and the
two sets of findings will be analysed and compared. Moreover, the GLOBE sampling
was mostly chosen from commercial industries (House and Javidan, 2004: 22), whereas
this study takes as its research subject a non-profit organization in the public sector.
To sum up, by identifying the previous gaps in that the relevant literature as well as
bearing in mind several important issues such as the lack of in-depth investigation of
cultural involvement in previous studies, the necessity of differentiating between
societal and organizational culture, and the different degree of impact that each
dimension has on critical factors behind adopting employment equity, the researcher
believes that this study is the first of its kind in the Arab World. Bridging these gaps
will provide this study with uniqueness and offer a sufficient contribution to knowledge,
theories, and managerial practices in the studied area in general and the specific context
of the topic in particular.
1.4.2 Organizational Justice, Ethics and Employment Equity Studies
Although research in organizational justice (OJ) is considered as one of the most
dynamic areas in organizational behaviour, the investigations conducted thus far have
barely touched the reality of ongoing practices in organizations, as has been argued by
Fortin and Fellenz (2008: 416), who noted that, ‗[t]he way that justice judgments are
influenced by ideologies, value judgments and power has received very little attention‘.
Given that organizational justice, as Pearson (2009: 50) states, ‗is socially constructed,
as is the social world of the institution in which justice is evaluated‘, it is essential to
understand how societal and organizational cultures, in a particular context, influence
the process of justice among the people involved within that context.
Another problem with the applied studies is that most of them have been very limited
in scope. They have been conducted to investigate either only one issue in employment
equity, such as gender (see for example, Krause, 2009; Keddie, 2007; and Rizzo et al.,
2007), a single Human Resource Management (HRM) practice such as the impact of
principals on recruitment procedures (see for example, Al-Ghailani, 2005), or one
cultural aspect, such as religion, to measure its effect on determining ethical behaviour
(for example, Parboteeah et al., 2008). Therefore, in spite of several recent research
efforts exploring different types of discrimination, York et al. (2008: 123) argue that
some areas like ‗the impact of organizational culture and leadership‘ remain
questionable. Also, Barclay and Markel (2009: 333) state that ‗[o]ne relatively ignored
31
research area in ethical decision-making is how organizations treat individuals with
disabilities during their employment‘.
Furthermore, ethical issues in management and the influences that culture has on
these issues have also been overlooked, as noted by Jackson, who states that:
…despite growing interest in the field of cross-cultural differences in
management ethics, there is still a lack of empirical work in this area … there
is a lack of connection in the literature between such values and management
ethics. (Jackson, 2001: 1268)
Organizational corruption is another vital element involved in increased employment
discrimination. Seleim and Bontis (2009) recently conducted a comparative analysis
between cultural dimensions, as quantified in the GLOBE project, and the findings of
the Corruption Perception Index (CPI) in order to explore the relationship between
culture and corruption. Identifying a vital interaction between the two variables, they
suggest that:
Future research may emphasize some other determinants of national
corruption such as the dominant religion, and people‘s understanding of their
religions, national language, quality of governance, human development
indicators, and availability of information. (Seleim and Bontis, 2009: 181)
These researchers therefore suggest that, ‗further research is needed regarding
corruption at the organizational level of analysis in both private and public
organizations‘ (Seleim and Bontis, 2009: 181).
In general, researchers rarely expand their empirical investigation to go beyond the
limitations of the above studies. Hence, the wider picture pertaining to culture and its
influences on equity in employment policies and practices remain undiscovered. By
linking the societal and organizational cultural dimensions to management practices,
organizational justice, and employment equity, this empirical study will seek to narrow
such a large gap in this aspect of the literature.
1.4.3 Middle Eastern and Arab World studies
For many years, authors and scholars have continued to state that management studies
in the Middle East and the Arab World are few and insufficient (Behery, 2009; Leat and
El-Kot, 2008; Budhwar and Mellahi, 2007; Leat and El-Kot, 2007; Kabasakal, et al.
2012). For example, Klein et al. (2009: 48) emphasize that ‗research results on OC
[organizational culture] in Arab countries are very scarce‘. Also, Smith, et al. (2007:
276), after pointing to the large ignorance of Arab societies in cultural studies, stated
30
that ‗[g]iven this lacuna in the literature and the emerging political importance of Arab
societies, there is a need for greater inclusion of Islamic cultural groups in multicultural
studies‘. In addition, Metcalfe (2006: 97) observed that ‗Arab nations strongly support
gender equality in education but not equality in employment‘. She suggests that
‗[f]urther research encompassing a wider range of organizations in both the private and
public sectors would enable a more comprehensive understanding of cross-cultural
aspects of management in the Middle East‘ (ibid: 105).
Another problem is that most cultural studies are US-based (Aycan, 2000b), and
consequently their focus is on areas of management that are still overlooked in the Arab
World, such as the influences of national culture on HRM practices, equal opportunities
policy, discrimination, and wasta or favouritism (Al-Asmi, 2008; Aycan et al., 2007;
Al-Ghailani, 2005). Miles (2002: 413) claims that ‗[c]ultural and religious factors loom
large in explanations for the low rates of female labor force participation typical of the
region‘. Cunningham and Sarayrah (1993) highlight the role of wasta in determining
everyday decisions in the Arab World. Until recent years, as Hutchings and Weir (2006:
273) mentioned, ‗the Arab World‘s wasta has not been adequately researched‘.
More precisely, in the Arabian Gulf region, which is considered as the wealthiest
area amongst the Arab countries, the situation is similar. Moideenkutty, Al-Lamki and
Murthy (2011) argue that researchers need to focus more intently on Gulf countries
because of their unique culture and geographical location. Also, in his article regarding
management in Bahrain and Oman, Common (2008: 190) concludes that ‗most of the
preconditions for public management reform are largely absent in Bahrain and Oman‘.
He also emphasizes that the movement toward reforming administrative practices,
especially in the public sector, is slow in general (Common, 2008). So, despite the
presence of general equality statements in some Omani regulations (Al-Lamky, 2007),
the country, like all Arab countries, lacks a detached equal opportunities policy which
can be referred to in management practices. Al-Asmi notes that factors like favouritism,
loyalty, and social values ‗have been rarely addressed by researchers on the national
level‘ in Oman (2008: 325). This lack of receptiveness to a discussion of what is clearly
an important topic is encouraged by the culture both of society and individual
organizations, especially when the government does not seem to have or allow the free
space required for such an argument. Al-Ghailani (2005), in his unpublished PhD thesis,
recommended that the complexity of the relationship between principals, policies, and
32
practices in the Omani public sector and the unjust results of such a relationship are
worthy of in-depth study.
Finally, the standardization of HRM principles and practices to an accepted global
level has become more of an international requirement, but such standardization cannot
be accomplished without the announcement of a clear policy toward employment
equity. In addition, most of the well-known HRM models are formulated with the
Western context in mind (Katou and Budhwar, 2010). However, there is no blueprint or
universally-acknowledged strategy which can be transferred to a different culture and
implemented without some modification. Thus, it is important to know not only in a
general sense what management policies may consist of and what practices result from
such policies, but it is also crucial to reach outside of the US/UK context generally and
take account of the Omani cultural context in particular. In Oman there is an increasing
interest in improving HRM practices and eliminating the predispositions and
opportunities for gender discrimination, especially in employment, yet cultural
imperatives remain significant obstacles to any sincere efforts, particular so in regard to
equal opportunities and treatment. Rutledge et al., (2011) argue that gender awareness
could enhance certain national policies in Gulf countries, for example as localization.
For example, Aycan et al., after referring to the increasing interest in localization in
Oman (Omanization) and the influence of Islamic principles on one side and the
international pressures toward effective HRM practices and policies on the other side,
stated that:
[t]he most important issue to tackle in future research and practice is to find
out the ways in which the gap between the actual and desired HRM practices
could be minimized. (2007: 30)
However, this issue is, in fact, not confined to Oman only, but it is a challenge to all
developing countries including Arab and Muslim countries.
In conclusion, given the above discussion which has pinpointed the gaps in the
literature, the researcher believes that this study will shed light on the level of
interaction of several important aspects in regard to management, employment equity,
and societal and organizational culture. It will also distinguish the dividing line between
values as a mindset and practices as real-world activities. By choosing the public sector
in the Sultanate of Oman as a case study, the results of this research will benefit not just
the country itself, but by linking these different areas together will provide a
contribution to knowledge that will benefit both sociology and management scholars.
33
Additionally, the study will provide multi-national companies (MNCs), which are
interested in the Middle Eastern areas in general and Oman in particular, with sufficient
knowledge of the prevailing culture to be able to operate effectively in this context.
Rose et al., after studying the impact of culture on organizational performance in
MNCs, conclude that ‗[c]ulture of the host countries could be tackled tactically to
improve business performances‘ (2008: 51). Therefore, the outcomes of this study will
improve the ability of MNCs to adapt their international policies such that they achieve
a better cultural-fit model in this particular region. It will also help these companies in
creating a balance between their own broader culture and the societal and organizational
culture, thereby making for smoother business operation and improved performance,
and lastly but not least, preventing any cultural-related conflicts. Finally, this study will
contribute to refining the cultural model used in the GLOBE study by extending it to a
country (Oman) not included in the countries chosen to create the model and also by
looking beyond managers in commercial industries to include employees and managers
in the public sector.
1.5 Aims and Objectives
The overall aim of this study is to explore and examine the degree of influence that
societal and organizational cultures, as specified by the GLOBE project, have on
employment equity in the Omani public.
To reach such a goal, the following objectives are established:
1. To measure Omani cultural preferences within society, and public sector
organizations; and to identify the main differences between the cultural
practice (As Is) and cultural values (Should Be) in both society and public
sector organizations.
2. To identify the main critical success factors that contribute to employment
equity.
3. To critically explore the degree of application of the critical success factors
behind the adoption of EE in the Omani public sector.
4. To assess the most applicable employment equity programmes (merit based
programme, quota based programme diversity based programme), which
have been implemented in Western countries, from the perspective of Omani
employees.
34
5. To identify and investigate the relationship between cultural dimensions and
the critical success factors that contribute employment equity.
6. To add to the body of literature by developing a grounded theory in regard to
exploring the relationship at the level of practice between the dimensions of
organizational and societal culture, as specified by the GLOBE project, and
employment equity, with specific reference to the public sector in Oman.
7. To provide recommendations and suggestions which will help management
practitioners in the Arab World in general and Oman in particular to
eradicate, or limit the current discrimination in employment, and encourage
the development of positive cultural influences in this respect.
1.6 Structure of the Thesis
This chapter has sought to provide a clear indication of the issue motivating this PhD
study, a statement of the problem, the knowledge gap in the existing literature and the
anticipated contribution of the study, and the study‘s specific aims and objectives. The
next chapter, Chapter 2, will shed light on the main theoretical background of the
concept of ‗culture‘. It will highlight some important areas such as definitions of
culture, cultural dimensions, and other related aspects. Equal employment opportunities,
definitions and approaches, will be discussed in Chapter Three. The conduct of the
study will be detailed in Chapter Four. Chapter Five will discuss the proposed research
methodology in depth, including research questions, hypotheses constructed by the
researcher, and the applicable methods which will be used to answer the research
questions and thereby achieve the aims and objectives. Chapter Six will then present the
findings that relate to Omani culture, including description, analysis, and discussion of
the issues revealed. Subsequently, the findings of the employment equity and the
relationship between culture and employment equity will be presented and analysed in
Chapter Seven. Finally, Chapter Eight will present the conclusion, provide
recommendations, discuss the limitations of the research and offer suggestions for
further research in this area.
35
Chapter Two
Literature Review of Culture
In the 14th century, the great Muslim scholar Ibn Khaldûn – considered by
some as the founder of sociology – ... argued that the mind in its original state
is ready to absorb any influence, good or bad: ‗As Mohammed [peace upon
him] has said: ‗‗Every child is born in a natural state. It is his parents who
make him into a Jew, Christian or Zoroastrian. (Hofstede and McCrae, 2004:
53)
2.0 Introduction
Many authors agree that societal and organizational cultures have great influence on
how people‘s behaviours and attitudes are directed in a particular society (Dickson et
al., 2004). As mentioned in the previous chapter, this study is going to examine the
relationship between both societal and organizational cultural dimensions, as specified
by the GLOBE project, and employment equity. In this chapter, the study will focus on
setting out an adequate explanation of one of the main concepts that is central to the
study, which is culture. The chapter will begin by giving an overview of the role of
culture: in general terms, as a powerful ideological tool, and in particular, in its impact
on management practices. Subsequently, a number of widely accepted definitions of
culture in literature will be stated and discussed. The chapter will further discuss the
literature on how societal culture and industrial environment contribute to the formation
of organizational culture and will then go on to highlight the most significant attempts
which have been proposed by culture and management scholars to delineate specific
dimensions of the concept of ‗culture‘. Finally, this chapter will describe the general
attributes of Arab culture as recorded in the relevant literature.
2.1 The Role of Culture
Carnevale and Kwok (2002) argue that culture plays an essential role in discovering two
important anthropological factors regarding how individuals interact: etic (universal)
and emic (culture specific). Culture is the main contributor in determining an
individual‘s personality and behaviour either in the society or in the workplace. Under
the concept of national culture, Budhwar and Mellahi (2006: 10) include the following
elements and operations:
…socialization process, common values, norms of behaviour and customs,
influence of pressure groups, assumptions that shape managers perceptions,
36
insights and mindset, management style, meaning of work and values,
personal dispositions, attitudes and manners, approaches to cultural diversity,
mach to organizational culture. (Budhwar and Mellahi, 2006: 10)
Keesing (1974) differentiates between two main theoretical areas which have been
designed by anthropologists as part of their attempts to define, negotiate, and
conceptualize the term culture. The first area is ‗culture as adaptive system‘ which
views culture from an evolutionary point of view. The majority of scholars who
subscribe to this theory agree on four main areas: (1) culture serves as an interaction
system between humans and their surrounding ecology; (2) culture is changeable, but
mainly to adapt with the environmental change and human needs; (3) technology,
economy, and social productive organizations are the most changeable elements in
culture; and (4) the consequences of cultural adaption are controlled by vital factors
such as population and necessarily to existence.
The second theoretical area is the ‗ideational theories of culture‘ which includes
three main approaches. The first approach is ‗cultures as cognitive systems‘ which
views culture as a society‘s epistemological way of living, interacting, and reacting. The
second approach is ‗culture as structural systems‘ which tries to structuralize culture
into mind-store domains such that people always react according to what has been
stored in these domains. The third approach is ‗culture as symbolic systems‘ which
treats culture as shared symbols and meaning.
As can be seen, the main difference between the two areas is that the first focuses on
institutional influences such as government, education, and economic institutions. The
second concentrates mainly on ideas and social institutions such as religion, family and
education. However, both areas are important to this study as it deals with cultural
influences from societal and organizational perspectives.
2.2 The Meaning of Culture
Because of its complexity, importance, and massive influence on social science and
management studies, the term ‗culture‘ has been subject to a wide range of definitions
from many social science and management authors. Additionally, the gap between
values and practices in some situations has increased such complexity. Thus it has been
always hard to give one consensus definition of culture (Triandis and Brislin, 1984;
Agourram and Ingham, 2007). Groeschl and Doherty emphasized the complexity of the
term ‗culture‘ and state that:
37
…Culture consists of several elements of which some are implicit and others
are explicit. Most often these elements are explained by terms such as
behaviour, values, norms, and basic assumptions. (Groeschl and Doherty,
2000: 14)
For decades, scholars have repeatedly tried to set a proper definition for the term
‗culture‘. Kroeber and Kluckholm (1952) catalogue over 160 different definitions of
culture and categorize those definitions in six areas: descriptive, historical,
psychological, structural, and genetic definitions. Accordingly, they offer the following
definition, which has been largely used:
…Culture consists of patterns, explicit and implicit of and for behavior
acquired and transmitted by symbols, constituting the distinctive achievement
of human groups, including their embodiment in artifacts; the essential core of
culture consists of traditional (i.e. historically derived and selected) ideas and
especially their attached values; culture systems may, on the one hand, be
considered as products of action, on the other hand as conditioning elements of
future action. (Kroeber and Kluckholm, 1952: 181, cited in Blundel, 2004: 38)
Boyd and Richerson (1985: 2) similarly look at culture as a transmission process and
define it as ‗transmission from one generation to the next, via teaching and imitation, of
knowledge, values, and other factors that influence behavior‘. Again, Kotter and
Heskett (1992: 4) cited the American Heritage Dictionary definition which describes
culture as: ‗The totality of socially transmitted behavior patterns, arts, beliefs,
institutions, and all other products of human work and thought characteristic of a
community or population‘.
Moreover, Hofstede (1993), after a deep involvement in studying culture over many
years, formulated his own definition for this complicated concept. His frequently-
referenced definition for culture is: ‗the collective programming of the mind that
distinguishes one group or category of people from another‘ (Hofstede 1993: 89). A
more recent definition was suggested by Guiso et al. when they referred to culture as,
‗those customary beliefs and values that ethnic, religious and social groups transmit
fairly unchanged from generations to generations‘ (2006: 23).
However, as is apparent from observation of the previous definitions, most of them
look at culture as a mechanism that facilitates the interaction between values and
practices to produce human behaviours. MacNab et al. analysed the common themes
that most cultural definitions share and found the following:
38
(1) human-made elements; (2) shared through communication; (3) increase the
probability for survival; and (4) result in greater satisfaction for those in the
community. (MacNab et al. 2007: 10)
So culture goes beyond being just a one simple word to become that kind of mental
and imagination creation which is configured as a result of the direct or indirect
interaction between individuals or groups and the transition of values, norms, morals
and behaviours between generations, which are subsequently expressed through ideas or
practices, and thereby form the concept ‗culture‘. However, still it can be argued that
culture is too large and complex to find a precise and widely accepted definition (Tayeb,
1994).
2.3 National Culture
Although Hofstede (1991: 5) defines national culture as ‗the collective programming of
the mind which distinguishes the members of one group or category of people from
another‘, it does not follow that this is the only role of national culture. In fact, cultural
influences go beyond distinguishing one country or nation from other nations or
countries to powerfully influence the characteristics of management and business
entities. In his later work, Hofstede (2001: 12) emphasized that external influences on
culture, such as economics and trade, can eventually shift cultural perspectives.
Nevertheless it is clear that, as countries differ from one to another according to many
aspects, culture inevitably varies from country to country. National culture for an
individual country is defined according to its region, ethnicity, religion, gender,
generation, and class (Hofstede, 2005). Therefore, what seems to be acceptable in one
country/culture, may not be received in the same way by another country/culture, and
vice versa. Alas emphasizes this point, stating that:
…what one ethnic group thinks about what is right or wrong depends on
culture and environmental circumstances and is different across the cultures.
Therefore, national culture plays a fundamental role in forming cultural
values. (Alas 2006: 237)
As the literature reflects, the power of culture influences almost every aspect of
human life. It takes its importance from human daily aspects as it shapes the way that
people look at their families, friends, and colleagues at work, and determines the
individual‘s willingness to justify and accept others‘ behaviours. Even advertising
companies are using cultural dimensions, in one way or another, in order to attract
people according to their societies‘ preferences, as noted by Terlutter et al. (2006). So
39
from politics, business and marketing arenas to the fields of social science and human
rights, culture is always a key element which needs to be essentially considered and
deeply investigated.
2.4 Organizational Culture
Defining organizational culture also remains a complex issue (Schein, 1990; Jung et al.,
2009). One of the difficulties is that the term ‗organization‘ is in itself difficult to
define. According to Schein (1990), a group of individuals with common values could
create a subculture within an organization while an organization could create its own
culture through experiences. Nevertheless, both cultures are interacting with each other
since they are learned, dynamic, and influenced by environmental changes. This
assumption is clearly reflected in the definition that Schein gives of organizational
culture:
as (a) a pattern of basic assumptions, (b) invented, discovered, or developed by
a given group, (c) as it learns to cope with its problems of external adaptation
and internal integration, (d) that has worked well enough to be considered
valid and, therefore (e) is to be taught to new members as the (f) correct way
to perceive, think, and feel in relation to those problems. (Schein, 1990: 111)
Pothukuchi et al. (2002) argue that the culture of an organization cannot be separated
from the environment in which it operates, which is national culture. Though some
authors differentiate between the two cultures, ‗it is also widely accepted that national
culture is nested in national culture‘ (Pothukuchi et al., 2002: 244). Therefore, it is
always recommended that organizations carefully consider the surrounding national
culture as this could lead to unrecognized and unresolved cultural conflicts. To
empirically test such a relation, Klein et al (2009) conducted a study to measure the
influences of Arab national culture on the perception of what constituted the ideal
organizational culture in the United Arab Emirates. They included 17 firms in their
study and used 12 cultural dimensions, combining Hofstede, Schwartz, and
Trompenaars‘ dimensions. The results confirmed that Arab culture has a significant
impact on organizational culture.
In addition, Dickson et al. (2004) discussed the influences that societal culture and
the type of industry have on organizational cultures. They stated that:
…because national culture and industry are integral parts of the environment
in which organizations functions, organizational culture by implication should
41
be influenced by the broader societal culture and by the industry in which they
operate. (Dickson et al. 2004: 74)
That being said, the authors argued that the influences on organizational culture are
not limited to these two factors only. Other factors which play an important role in
shaping organizational culture include level of competition, economic condition, and
the nature of the business (Dickson et al., 2004: 75). These additional factors may also
have an impact on societal culture, but the processes by which this occurs may be
significantly slower.
Hofstede (1998) suggested that national culture can best be interpreted in terms of
dimensions of values, while organizational culture is better reflected through
dimensions of practices. However, Hanges and Dickson (2004) disagreed with
Hofstede‘s position. All the societal and industrial theories which they referred to
(cultural immersion theory, societal network theory, resource dependency theory,
institutional theory, and other potential mechanisms at micro, meso, and macro levels)
emphasize complex mechanisms for societal and industrial influences on organizational
culture. This conclusion led the GLOBE team to study each culture (societal and
organizational) at the level of both values and practices. The empirical evidence from
the GLOBE study shows that values and practices are integrated with each other and
both levels can be used to distinguish one culture from another, either between societies
or organizations (Hanges and Dickson, 2004).
As this chapter will clearly justify later, this research will build its argument on the
GLOBE project and the cultural dimensions proposed in that study. So despite the
numerous definitions of societal and organizational culture as discussed above, this
study will relay on the definition of culture adopted by the GLOBE project (2004),
which can be applied at both societal and organizational levels. The GLOBE definition
of culture is: ‗shared motives, values, beliefs, identities, and interpretations or meanings
of significant events that result from common experiences of members of collectives
and are transmitted across generations‘ (House and Javidan, 2004: 15). As can be seen,
this definition is based on an anthropological point of view as well as psychological
attributes (Trindis, 2004; Chhokar et al., 2008).
2.5 Cultural Dimensions
Scholars have always tried to segment the concept ‗culture‘ into dimensions in order to
be able to differentiate and compare one country culture to others. Raymond B. Cattell,
a psychologist who lived between 1905 and 1998, was the first scholar to set out certain
40
dimensions for societal culture, under descriptions such as historical, political, and
religious, in such a way as to study cultural differences between more than 40 countries
(Hofstede and McCrae, 2004: 59). Paul et al. (2006: 30) state that. ‗Cultural dimensions
characterize particular groups of people, which take on a supraidentity that constitutes
the framework for each individual in the group.‘
Dimensioning culture can serve to clarify the differences between countries better
than cruder measures such as the geographical location of those countries. Meeuwesen
et al. (2009) state that: ‗Cultural dimensions like power distance, uncertainty avoidance,
individualism and masculinity, together with countries‘ wealth, seem to be better and
more nuanced predictors of cross-national differences in health care communication
than explanations along the north–south or east–west division of Europe‘. Besides, this
distinguishability provides a solid description concerning each country under study.
Therefore, the following sections will review the main attempts in this area as well as
illustrating the reasons behind choosing one of these attempts to serve the purpose of
this thesis.
2.5.1 Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck cultural orientations
Encouraged by the earlier work of Parsons and Shils (1951), Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck
(1961) studied five communities in the United States. Based on their results, they came
up with five cultural orientations. Nardon and Steers (2009: 27) provide a summary
explanation of these dimensions which can be summarized as follows:
Human nature orientation is about classifying what people believe about themselves
and others in terms of being bad, good, or neutral in nature.
The person-nature orientation is about classifying the relationship between people
and their surrounding environment in terms of mastery, harmony, or subjugation.
The activity orientation is about classifying people‘s performance in terms of being
(living the moment), becoming (integrated development), or doing (setting goals
and accomplishments).
The relational orientation is about classifying the relationship between human
themselves in terms of hierarchy, collectivism, or individualism.
The orientation in time is about classifying what influence people while making
decisions in terms of their past, present, or future orientation.
42
However, Hofstede (1984: 26) criticized Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck‘s (1961) work,
and some other previous attempts to categorize national cultural differences, believing
that ‗they had too much data and not enough theory, and the conceptual contributions…
represent too much theory based on too few data‘.
2.5.2 Hofstede cultural dimensions
Based on a questionnaire distributed by IBM in 66 countries and collecting 117,000
responses during the period 1967 to 1973, Hofstede suggested four cultural dimensions
which defined the culture of organizations, these are Power Distance, Uncertainty
Avoidance, Individualism-collectivism, and Masculinity-femininity (Hofstede, 1980;
1991). In his later work, Hofstede added a fifth dimension, Long Term Orientation or
Confucian Dynamism (Hofstede and Bond, 1988). Hofstede and McCrae (2004: 62-63)
further describe these five dimensions as follows:
Large versus small Power distance: the extent to which the less powerful members
of organizations and institutions (such as the family) accept and expect that power
is distributed unequally.
High versus low uncertainty avoidance: to what extent a culture programs its
members to feel either uncomfortable or comfortable in unstructured situations.
Individualism versus collectivism: refers to the degree to which individuals are
integrated into groups.
Masculinity versus femininity: refers to the distribution of emotional roles between
the sexes, another fundamental problem for any society to which a range of
solutions are found.
Long-term versus short-term orientation: values associated with long-term
orientation are thrift and perseverance; values associated with short-term
orientation are respect for tradition, fulfilling social obligations, and protecting
one‘s face.
In addition, Hofstede differentiated between national culture and organizational
culture, as discussed above, considering the first to be more concerned with values,
while the second is more about practice (Hofstede and Hofstede, 2005). Therefore, the
above dimensions were associated with national culture and called the dimensions of
values, while an additional set of dimensions was suggested for organizational culture
(dimensions of practices). These were the following:
43
Process oriented versus results oriented
Employee oriented versus job oriented
Parochial versus professional
Open system versus closed system
Loose control versus tight control
Normative versus pragmatic. (Hofstede and Hofstede, 2005: 292)
Hofstede‘s work has not been totally without criticism. Baskerville (2003: 11)
considered Hofstede‘s work on national culture to be linked more to ‗national character,
rather than national culture‘. She argued that national culture cannot be studied through
nations. Hofstede (2003: 812) generally assented to this point, as he had already
mentioned in the 2001 edition of his book ‗Culture‘s Consequences‘, but stated that:
‗[nations] are usually the only kind of units available for comparison and better than
nothing.‘
McSweeney criticized Hofstede‘s research methodology, stating that:
…the average number per country was small and that for some countries it
was minuscule… not all the questionnaires were used – although the survey
covered 66 countries, the data from only 40 countries were used in
characterizing national cultures. (McSweeney 2002: 94)
In general, the main criticisms made by McSweeney, and the replies of Hofstede, are
stated in Table 1, below:
44
Table 1: McSweeney's Criticisms and Hofstede’s Reply
No. McSweeney criticisms Hofstede commentaries
1 Surveys are not a suitable way
of measuring cultural
differences
They should not be the only way.
2 Nations are not the best units
for studying cultures
True, but they are usually the only kind of units
available for comparison and better than nothing
3 A study of the subsidiaries of
one company cannot provide
information about entire
national cultures
What were measured were differences between
national cultures. Any set of functionally equivalent
samples from national populations can supply
information about such differences.
4 IBM data are old and therefore
obsolete
The dimensions found are assumed to have
centuries-old roots; only data which remained stable
across two subsequent surveys were maintained; and
they have since been validated against all kinds of
external measurements; recent replications show no
loss of validity
5 Four or five dimensions are
not enough
Additional dimensions should be both conceptually
and statistically independent from the five dimensions
already defined and they should be validated by
significant correlations with conceptually related
external measures; candidates are welcome to apply
Source: Hofstede (2002: 1356)
Despite these criticisms, and although many other researchers have suggested other
dimensions, Hofstede‘s cultural dimensions for national culture continue to be
considered a seminal work and has been extensively applied by management scholars
(Terlutter et al., 2006) and Hofstede‘s work continues to be the most significant study,
influencing management and social researchers around the world over the last thirty
years (Gales, 2008).
2.5.3 World Values Survey (WVS)
According to Bruni et al. (2006), the European Values Survey group initiated the World
Values Survey in 1981, investigating ten societies from Western Europe. During the
subsequent 25 years, the survey was repeated five times and expanded to include almost
80 per cent of the world‘s population. The survey divided values according to two main
dimensions. The first one is traditional authority versus secular-rational orientations
toward authority, which is linked to the impact of several elements such as religion,
family, norms, economy, and self-achievement. The second dimension is survival
45
versus well-being values which reflects the shift of norms that can occur because of the
process of modernization (Inglehart and Baker, 2000; Inglehart et al., 1998).
2.5.4 Schwartz's value dimensions
Schwartz (1999: 25) defined value as ‗conceptions of the desirable that guide the way
social actors (e.g. organizational leaders, policy-makers, individual persons) select
actions, evaluate people and events, and explain their actions and evaluations‘. To
identify his own dimensions, Schwartz (1999) collected data from 49 nations around the
world. At the cultural level, Schwartz addresses three main issues that confront all
societies: 1) to define the nature of the relation between the individual and the group; 2)
to guarantee responsible behaviour that will preserve the social fabric, 3) the relation of
humankind to the natural and social world. In addition, each issue consists of seven
national value types (dimensions). These dimensions can be identified as the following:
Conservatism: a cultural emphasis on maintenance of the status quo, propriety, and
restraint of actions or inclinations that might disrupt the solidarity of the group or
the traditional order.
Intellectual Autonomy: a cultural emphasis on the right of individuals to
independently pursue their own ideas and intellectual directions.
Affective Autonomy: a cultural emphasis on the right of individuals to independently
pursue affectively positive experience.
Hierarchy: a cultural emphasis on the legitimacy of an unequal distribution of power,
roles and resources.
Egalitarianism: a cultural emphasis on transcendence of selfish interests in favour of
voluntary commitment to promoting the welfare of others.
Mastery: a cultural emphasis on seeking to actively master and change the world.
Harmony: a cultural emphasis on accepting the world as it is rather than attempting
to change or exploit it. (Terlutter et al., 2006: 425–426)
Nevertheless, neither of these last two studies, WVS or the Schwartz cultural
framework, has received the same amount of attention as that proposed by Hofstede
(Terlutter et al., 2006). One reason for this may be related to the level of analysis of
each study. For instance, the cultural dimensions proposed by Schwartz measure values
only at the individual level (Bond and Smith, 1996).
46
2.5.5 GLOBE study
GLOBE study is a multiphase, ten-year research project which was undertaken with the
aim of ‗increasing available knowledge that is relevant to cross-cultural interactions‘
(House, 2004: 3). The term ‗GLOBE‘ is an acronym for ‗the Global Leadership and
Organizational Behaviour Effectiveness‘ study (House and Javidan, 2004: 9). The
study, as House (2004: xxv) states, ‗has a very adequate dataset to replicate Hofstede's
(1980) land mark study and extend that study to test hypotheses relevant to relationship
among societal-level variables, organizational practices, and leader attributes and
behaviour‘. Data was collected from 62 different societies around the world, with
almost 17,000 responses received by the project. For each country, the samples were
chosen from three main industries: food processing, financial services, and
telecommunications services (House et al., 2004).
In addition to interviews and archive analysis, two questionnaires were designed
(Alpha version and Beta version) to collect the study's primary data. Each of the nine
cultural dimensions was assessed in two levels, organizational level (form alpha) and
societal level (form beta). Therefore, half of the respondents were given the Alpha
version which consists of 75 questions about organizational culture, while other half
received Beta version which consist of 78 questions in regard to societal culture. Both
questionnaires included the same 112 questions asking about leadership attributes
(House and Hanges, 2004). Table 2 below illustrates both versions:
Table 2: The two versions of GLOBE study questionnaire
Alpha
version Organizational level
As is
(actual practice)
Should be
(values) leadership
attributes Beta
version Societal level
As is
(actual practice)
Should be
(values)
2.5.6 Reasons for choosing GLOBE cultural dimensions in this study
While not ignoring the importance of all attempts at dimensioning culture which have
been discussed above, it is obvious that the work of Hofstede (1980) has been the most
cited and widely appreciated approach. However, in addition to including the Hofstede
cultural dimensions, the GLOBE project is the only attempt which has academically
reviewed previous attempts and tried to professionally replicate Hofstede‘s work while
incorporating a more consistent structure. Therefore, based on the critical review of
different approaches to defining culture and cultural dimensions in this chapter, this
47
study will frame its analysis based on the GLOBE cultural dimensions, recognizing that,
as Maseland and van Hoorn state:
Almost a quarter century after Hofstede‘s seminal contribution, the GLOBE
team‘s thorough and innovative study can therefore be applauded for,
unintentionally, highlighting some of the so far neglected difficulties with the
values surveys approach to measuring culture. (Maseland and van Hoorn,
2009: 531)
The researcher believes that GLOBE dimensions can best serve the purposes of this
study for a number of critical reasons. One of these is that the GLOBE dimensions have
their origins in a number of cultural studies. Uncertainty avoidance and power distance
reflect Hofstede‘s (2001) dimensions of the same names, and Hofstede‘s dimension of
individualism has been divided into two dimensions in the GLOBE study, in-group
collectivism and institutional collectivism, to differentiate between loyalty to families
(in-group collectivism) and the encouragement of social institutions and programmes to
be collective (institutional collectivism), which it is claimed has not received enough
attention in the literature (House and Javidan, 2004).
In addition, Hofstede‘s masculinity dimension ‗was seen to be confounded by
numerous factors judged irrelevant to the concept and was also seen to be lacking in
face validity‘ (Terlutter et al., 2006: 342). Therefore, instead of masculinity, two
GLOBE cultural dimensions were offered: gender egalitarianism and assertiveness.
The latter dimension was not well covered by Hofstede or other cultural researchers
(Terlutter et al., 2006). Further, the future orientation dimension has combined
Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck‘s (1961) past, present, future orientation dimension with,
marginally, Hofstede‘s (2001) long-term orientation. Performance orientation was
developed from McClelland‘s (1961) work related to the need for achievement, and
Seginer (2005) has argued that this has not received enough academic attention. Finally,
humane orientation has its roots in Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck‘s (1961) dimension of
human nature as good vs. human nature as bad, as well as in work by Putnam (1993) on
civic society and the concept of affiliative motive introduced by McClelland (1985)
(Terlutter et al., 2006: 432; House and Javidan, 2004: 13).
Although Hofstede‘s dimensions are, according to many scholars, those most used in
cultural studies, as discussed above, the GLOBE study is designed to replicate
Hofstede‘s dimensions as well as overcoming the major criticisms which many authors
have levelled at Hofstede‘s work. The main differences between Hofstede's study and
the GLOBE study were clarified by Rao (2009: 301) and are given in Table 3, below.
48
Table 3: Main differences between Hofstede and GLOBE studies
No. Points of difference GLOBE study Hofstede's study
1 Time frame 1994-1997 1967-1973
2 Primary researchers involved 170 1
3 Respondents Managers Non-managers and
managers
4 Organizations surveyed 951 1
5 Type of organization Non-multinational Multinational (and its
subsidiaries)
6 Industries Food processing, financial
and telecommunication
services
Information
technology (IBM)
7 Number of societies surveyed 62 72
8 Research analysis Team effort Single person’s effort
9 Project design US-based Dutch-based
10 Cultural dimensions identified Nine dimensions Five dimensions
Source: Adapted from Rao (2009: 301)
Looking at these differences, the most important elements are that GLOBE is the
most recent cultural project and is designed according to a team effort rather than an
individual project. As Rao (2009) points out, GLOBE is a theory-driven research which
project established on a rigorous and extensive academic background.
It should also be noted that the five well-known cultural dimensions suggested by
Hofstede deal only with national culture, while there are another six dimensions which
he proposed to measure organizational cultural practices (Hofstede and Hofstede, 2005).
Another major reason for the choice of GLOBE is that it is considered to be one of
the first attempts to separate cultural values from cultural practices. House et al. (2004:
730) stated that ‗GLOBE is the first rigorous attempt to empirically measure and verify
the relationship between cultural values and practices and it shows counterintuitive
result‘. As mentioned in the Chapter 1 of this study, understanding how culture affects
employment equity and the type of insights are essential components of this study.
Therefore the researcher believes that looking at Omani culture at two separate levels,
values and practices, will help to enrich the study purposes. Terlutter et al. (2006: 433)
support such a decision as they comment that:
Given the fact that values and practices in a society may be inconsistent and
sometimes even contradictory, it is a major strength that GLOBE clearly
distinguishes between both levels of cultures. (Terlutter et al., 2006: 433)
Furthermore, the techniques of the GLOBE survey have gone beyond just describing
societal or organizational culture (Dorfman et al., 2012).
49
The study has also provided explanations of how and why culture influences several
societal phenomena which it is suggested are the main reasons behind different
managerial behaviours. For instance, Javidan and Dastmalchian (2009: 55) stated that:
Societies that are highly performance oriented tend to be more economically
prosperous and competitive, have governments that better follow the rule of
law and are more organized and transparent. They also have happier and more
satisfied citizenry who have more confidence in their public institutions.
(Javidan and Dastmalchian, 2009: 55)
However, Hofstede (2006) criticized the GLOBE study, casting doubt on the
usefulness of dividing culture into values and practices. Javidan et al. (2006) disagree
with such a view, pointing out the negative correlation between values and practices in
seven dimensions out of nine. Also, the results of their study showed that:
Cultural practices (but not values) are associated with a large variety of
societal phenomena such as economic health, national competitiveness,
societal health, life expectancy, and the Human Development Index… [while]
cultural values and not practices are associated with reported attributes of
outstanding leadership across GLOBE countries. (Javidan et al., 2006: 903).
In addition, Maseland and Hoorn stated that:
The negative correlation between values and practices reported by GLOBE is
not such a puzzle as might appear at first sight. These findings are perfectly
compatible with fundamental microeconomic insights concerning diminishing
marginal utility: the more an objective is satiated, the less we value the further
realization of that objective. (Maseland and Hoorn, 2009: 530)
Up to now the academic literature has reached no final consensus on this point and,
as Fischer (2009: 26) pointed out, ‗the meaning of the GLOBE dimensions and the
adequacy of their analyses remain in dispute‘.
Hofstede (2006) further criticized the validity of the GLOBE dimensions as he
argued that they could be reduced to five; however Javidan et al. (2006) strongly refuted
this assertion. Conversely, Myers and Tan (2002) criticized Hofstede‘s study as his data
was not collected for the purpose of studying national culture, while Jeffrey et al. (2008)
provided some evidence in their own study that Hofstede‘s cultural instrument has an
inherent lack of validity; however, researchers have not been able to reach to a final
consensus on this point (Smith, 2006; Hutzschenreuter and Voll, 2008).
Many authors have appreciated the contribution of the GLOBE project from several
viewpoints. Alas (2006: 238) stated that: ‗The GLOBE study could be considered one
51
of the most comprehensive studies of national cultures‘. Also, Gerhart (2008: 260)
describes the GLOBE study as a tool with the ‗promise to be widely used in cross
cultural research‘, while Kim and Gray (2009: 61) describe it as ‗an attempt to move
beyond Hofstede‘s approach‘ and a large number of recent studies have preferred to use
the GLOBE dimensions as they believe that these can better serve their studies‘
purposes. For example, Hutzschenreuter and Voll (2008) used the GLOBE dimensions
to study performance effects of ‗added cultural distance‘ in the process of the
international expansion of German multinational enterprises. Another study was carried
out by Gupta and Fernandez (2009) using GLOBE data to study the cultural
characteristics of entrepreneurs in a three-nation study looked at the USA, India and
Turkey. Also, Seleim and Bontis (2009) conducted a comparative analysis between
cultural dimensions as they were evaluated in the GLOBE project and the findings of
the Corruption Perception Index (CPI) in order to explore the relationship between
culture and corruption.
Others criticisms of the GLOBE findings are possible. The number of participants
varied from 75 to 1,700 per country, and the type of sampling can be questioned as it
was limited to managers only (Fischer, 2009; Terlutter et al., 2006; Hofstede, 2006).
However, in this study the researcher will depend primarily on the dimensions, not on
the study‘s result. Nevertheless, the researcher will compare his finding with the
GLOBE finding for other countries in the Middle East cluster.
2.5.6.1 GLOBE cultural dimensions
As mentioned earlier in this chapter, the GLOBE study has nine cultural dimensions.
These dimensions were designed to replicate Hofstede‘s (1980) seminal work on culture
as well as reflecting other important cultural dimensions which were not included in
Hofstede‘s work. This section of the study will introduce these dimensions with
additional explanation based on the illustrations given in the GLOBE project book
(House et al., 2004). For each dimension, a definition will be given along with the main
attributes by which societies which score high in that dimensions can be differentiated
from those which score low. However, it is important to understand at this point that
providing such differences does not mean that societies should typically fallen in one
category or on one side. It is naturally accepted that some societies have a mixture of
these attributes, as cultures are far too complex to be separated according to a set of
single categories (Ashkanasy et al., 2004).
50
Performance Orientation (PO) reflects ‗the degree to which an organization or society
encourages and rewards group members for performance improvement and excellence‘
(House and Javidan, 2004: 11). As Javidan (2004) argues, the literature, including
Hofstede‘s study, has not paid enough attention to this dimension. In general, Table 4
provides the most common differences between societies with high performance
orientation and those with low performance orientation.
Table 4: High performance versus low performance orientation
Societies that score higher on performance orientation tend to:
Societies that score lower on performance orientation tend to:
Value training and development
Emphasize results more than people
Reward performance
Value assertiveness, competitiveness, and
materialism
Expect demanding targets
Believe that individuals are in control
Have a can-do attitude
Values and reward individual achievement
Have performance appraisal system that
emphasize achieving results
View feed back as necessary for
improvement
Value taking initiative
Value bonuses and financial rewards
Believe that anyone can success if he or
she tries hard enough
Believe that schooling and education are
critical for success
Value what you do more than who you are
Attach little importance to age in
promotional decisions
Value being direct explicit and to the point
in communications
Have a monochronic approach to time
Have a sense of urgency.
Value societal and family relationship
Emphasize loyalty and belongingness
Have a high respect for quality of life
Emphasize seniority and experience
Value harmony with environment rather
than control
Have performance appraisal system that
emphasize integrity loyalty and
cooperative spirit
View feedback and appraisal as
judgmental and discomforting
View assertiveness as socially
unacceptable
Regard being motivated by money as
inappropriate
View merit pay as potentially
destructive to harmony
Value ‗attending the right school‘ as an
important success criterion
Emphasize tradition
Have high value for sympathy
Associate competition with defeat and
punishment
Value who you are more than what you
do
Pay particular attention to age in
promotional decisions
Value ambiguity and subtlety in
language and communications
Have a polychromic approach to time
Have a low sense of urgency.
Source: Adapted from Javidan, 2004: 245.
With regard to organizational culture, Javidan (2004: 265-266) asserts that
organizations get affected by their surrounding culture for two main reasons. First, to
52
achieve success, organizations need to ‗assimilate‘ or at least ‗respect and appreciate‘
their surrounding culture. Second, societal values are brought to these organizations by
their employees, since societal values are part and parcel of their assumptions and
reactions in the workplace.
Future Orientation (FO) is defined as ‗the degree to which individuals in organizations
or societies engage in future-oriented behaviours such as planning, investing in the
future, and delaying individual or collective gratification‘ (House and Javidan, 2004:
12). Table 5 provides the most common differences between societies with high future
orientation and those with low future orientation.
Table 5: High future versus low future orientation
Societies that score higher on future
orientation tend to:
Societies that score lower on future
orientation tend to:
Achieve economic success
Have a propensity to save for the future
Have individuals who are psychologically
healthy and socially well adjusted
Have individuals who are more intrinsically
motivated
Have organization with a longer strategic
orientation
Have flexible and adaptive organizations
and managers
View materialistic success and spiritual
fulfilment as an integrated whole
Value the deferment of gratification,
placing a higher priority on long-term
success
Emphasize visionary leadership that is
capable of seeing pattern in the face of
chaos and uncertainty.
Have lower levels of economic success
Have a propensity to spend now, rather
than to save for the future
Have individuals who are
psychologically unhealthy and socially
maladjusted
Have individuals who are less
intrinsically motivated
Have organizations with a shorter
strategic orientation
Have inflexible and maladaptive
organizations and managers
See materialistic success and spiritual
fulfilment as dualities, requiring trade-
offs
Value instant gratification and place
higher priorities on immediate rewards
Emphasize leadership that focuses on
repetition of reproducible and routine
sequences.
Source: Adapted from Ashkanasy et al., 2004: 302.
Gender Egalitarianism (GE) refers to ‗the degree to which an organization or a society
minimizes gender role differences while promoting gender equality‘ (House and
Javidan, 2004: 12). Table 6 below provides the most common differences between
societies with high GE and those with low GE.
53
Table 6: High versus low gender egalitarianism
Societies that score higher on gender
egalitarianism tend to:
Societies that score lower on gender
egalitarianism tend to:
Have more women in positions of authority
Accord women a higher status in society
Afford women a greater role in community
decision making
Have a higher percentage of women
participating in the labour force
Have less occupational sex segregation
Have higher female literacy rates
Have similar levels of education of females
and males.
Have fewer women in positions of
authority
Accord women a lower status in society
Afford women on or a smaller role in
community decision making
Have a lower percentage of women
participating in the labour force
Have more occupational sex segregation
Have lower female literacy rates
Have a lower level of education of females
relative to males.
Source: Adapted from Emrich et al., 2004: 359.
Assertiveness (AS) is defined as ‗the degree to which individuals in organizations or
societies are assertive, confrontational, and aggressive in social relationships‘ (House
and Javidan, 2004: 12). Table 7 below provides the most common differences between
societies with high assertiveness and those with low assertiveness.
54
Table 7: High versus low assertiveness
Societies that score higher on
assertiveness tend to:
Societies that score lower on assertiveness
tend to:
Value assertive dominant and tough
behaviour for everyone society
Have a sympathy for the strong
Value competition
Believe that anyone can succeed if he or
she tries hard enough
Value success and progress
Value direct and unambiguous
communication
Value being explicit and to the point in
communication
Value expressiveness and revealing
thoughts and feeling
Have relatively positive connotation for
the term aggression (e.g. aggression helps
to win)
Have a just-world belief
Try to have control over the environment
Stress equity competition and
performance
Have a ‗can-do: ‘ attitude
Emphasize results over relationship
Value taking initiative
Reward performance
Expect demanding and challenging
targets
Believe that individuals are in control
Value what you do more than who you
are
Build trust on the basis of capabilities or
calculation
Act and think of others as opportunistic.
View assertiveness as socially unacceptable
and value modesty and tenderness
Have a sympathy for the week
Value cooperation
Associate competition with defeat and
punishment
Value people and warm relationships
Speak indirectly and emphasize ‗face-saving‘
Value ambiguity and subtlety in language and
communications
Value detached and self-possessed conduct
Have far more negative connotation with the
term aggression(e.g. aggression leads only to
negative out comes)
Have an unjust-world belief
Value harmony with the environment rather
than control
Stress equality solidarity and quality of life
Emphasize tradition seniority and quality of
life
Emphasize integrity loyalty and cooperative
spirit
View ‗merit pay‘ as potentially destructive to
harmony
Value who you are more then what you do
Build trust on the basis of predictability
Think of other as inherently worthy of trust.
Source: Adapted from Hartog, 2004: 405.
Collectivism and individualism has been divided into two dimensions. The first one of
these is Institutional Collectivism (InC) and reflects ‗the degree to which organizational
and societal institutional practices encourage and reward collective distribution of
resources and collective action‘ (House and Javidan, 2004: 12). The second dimension
is In-group Collectivism (IgC) which reflects ‗the degree to which individuals express
pride, loyalty and cohesiveness in their organizations or families‘ (House and Javidan,
55
2004: 12). Table 8 provides the most common differences between societies with high
collectivism and those with high individualism.
Table 8: Individualism versus collectivism between societies
Feature of cultures that score higher on
collectivism
Feature of cultures that score higher on
individualism
Individuals are integrated into strong
cohesive groups
The self is viewed as interdependent with
groups
Group goals take precedence over
individual goals
Duties and obligation are important
determinants of social behaviour
People emphasize relatedness with
groups
Ecologies are agricultural and countries
are often developing
There is a slower pace of life
There are lower heart-attack rates
There is lower subjective well-being
There are more extended family
structures
Love is assigned less weight in marriage
decisions
There are lower divorce rates
Communication is indirect
Individuals are likely to engage in group
activities
Individuals have fewer social interaction
but interactions tend to be longer and
more intimate
Individuals make greater distinction
between in-groups and out-groups.
Individuals look after themselves or their
immediate families
The self is viewed as autonomous and
independent of group
Individual goals take precedence over
group goals
Attitudes and personal needs are
important determinants of behaviour
People emphasize rationality
Ecologies are hunting and gathering, or
industrial and wealthy
There is faster pace of life
There are higher heart-attack rates
There are higher subjective well-being
There are more nuclear family structures
Love is assigned greater weight in
marriage decisions
There are higher divorce rates
Communication is direct
Individuals are likely to engage in
activities alone
Individuals have more social interactions,
but interactions tend to be shorter and less
intimate
Individuals make fewer distinctions
between in-group and out-groups.
Source: Adapted from Gelfand et al., 2004: 454.
In addition, Table 9 below provides the most common differences between
organizations with high collectivism and those with high individualism.
56
Table 9: Individualism versus collectivism between organizations
Organizations that score higher on
collectivism:
Organizations that score higher on
individualism:
Members assume that they are highly
interdependent with the organization and
believe it is important to make personal
sacrifices to fulfil their organization
obligation
Employees tend to develop long-term
relationship with employers from
recruitment to retirement
Organization take responsibility for
employee welfare
Important decision tend to be made by
groups
Selection can focus on relation attributes
of employees
Jobs are designed in groups to maximize
the social and technical aspects of the job
Training is emphasized more than
selection
Compensation and promotion are based
on what is equitable for the group and on
considerations of seniority and personal
needs
Motivation is socially oriented, and is
based on the need to fulfil duties and
obligations and to contribute to the group
Organizational commitment is based on
expectations of loyalty and in-group
attitudes
Prosocial behaviours ,or organizational
citizenship behaviours, are more
common
Avoidant, obliging, compromising, and
accommodating conflict resolution
tactics are preferred
Accountability for organizational
successes and failures rests with groups,
Members assume that they are
independent of the organization and
believe it is important to bring their
unique skills and abilities to the
organization
Employees develop short-term
relationships, and change companies at
their own discretion
Organizations are primarily interested in
the work that employees perform and
not their personal or family welfare
Important decisions tend to be made by
individuals
Selection focuses primarily on
employees knowledge, skills, and
abilities
Jobs are designed individually to
maximize autonomy
Selection is emphasized more than
training
Compensation and promotions are
based on an equity model in which an
individual is rewarded in direct
relationship to his or her contribution to
task success
Motivation is individually oriented and
is based on individual interests, needs,
and capacities
Organizational commitment is based on
individuals rational calculations of costs
and benefits
Prosocial behaviours, or organizational
citizenship behaviours, are less common
Direct and solution-oriented conflict
resolution tactics are preferred
Accountability for organizational
successes and failures rests with
individuals.
Source: Adapted from Gelfand et al., 2004: 459.
Power Distance (PD) is defined as ‗the degree to which members of an organization or
society expect and agree that power should be stratified and concentrated at higher level
57
of an organization or government‘ (House and Javidan, 2004: 12). Table (2.10) below
provides the most common differences between societies with high PD and those with
low PD.
Table 10: High versus low power distance
Parameters Higher power distance Lower power distance
Social inequities Society differentiated into classes on
several criteria
Society has large middle class
Power bases Power bases are stable and
scare(e.g., landownership)
Power bases are transient and
sharable (e.g., skill, knowledge)
Role of power Power is seen as providing social
order, relational harmony, and role
stability
Power is seen as a source of
corruption, coercion, and
dominance
Social mobility Limited upward social mobility High upward social mobility
Information
control
Information is localized Information is shared
Governance Different groups (e.g., women)have
different involvement, and democracy
does not ensure equal opportunities
All the groups enjoy equal
involvement, and democracy
ensures parity in opportunities
and development for all
Indigenous
orientation and
independence
Strong non-native historical influences
and recent independence of the
society
Strong native historical
influences and long standing
independence of the society
Civil freedom Civil liberties are weak and public
corruption high
Civil liberties are strong and
public corruption low
Resources and
capabilities
Only a few people have access to
resources, skill, and capabilities,
contributing to low human
development and life expectancies
Mass availability of tools,
resources, and capabilities for
independent and entrepreneurial
initiatives, as reflected in wide
educational enrolment
Consumption Higher growth rates of consumption
and high need for resource
coordination
Mature growth rates of
consumption and high per capita
purchasing power
Technology Mass use of technology, which
supports general power distance
reduction
Need for specialized technology,
adapted to each user
Source: Adapted from Carl et al., 2004: 536.
Humane Orientation (HO) is defined as ‗the degree to which individuals in
organizations or societies encourage and reward individuals for being fair, altruistic,
friendly, generous, caring, and kind to others‘ (House and Javidan, 2004: 13). Table 11
below provides the most common differences between societies with high HO and those
with low HO.
58
Table 11: High versus low human orientation
High humane orientation societies Low humane orientation societies
Others are important (i.e. family, friends,
community, strangers).
Self-interest is important
Fewer psychological and pathological problems. More psychological and pathological
problems.
Values of altruism, benevolence, kindness, love,
and generosity have high priority.
Values of pleasure, comfort, self-enjoyment
have high priority.
Need for belonging and affiliation motivate
people.
Power and material possessions motivate
people.
Personal and family relationships induce
protection for the individuals.
Welfare state guarantees social and
economic protection of individuals.
Close circle receives material, financial, and
social support; concern extends to all people and
nature.
Lake of support for others; predominance of
self-enhancement.
Members of society are responsible for
promoting well-being of others: the state is not
actively involved
State provides social and economic support
for individuals, well-being.
The state supports the private sector and
maintains a balance between public and private
domains.
The state sponsors public provisions and
sector.
Public policymakers establish sanctions against
child labour practices.
Public policymaker considers child labour
practices as a somewhat less-important
issue.
Members of society are urged to be sensitive to
all forms of racial discrimination.
Member of society are not sensitive to all
forms of racial discrimination.
People are expected to promote paternalistic
norms and patronage relationship.
Formal welfare institutions replace
paternalistic norms and patronage
relationship.
People are urged to provide social support to
each others.
People are expected to solve personal
problem on their own.
The children less-developed societies are
expected to give material support to their parents
in their old age.
The children of more
Developed societies are not expected to
give material support to their parents in their
old age.
The children less-developed societies can
participate in the labour force to help out their
families.
The children of more
Developed societies are not expected to
participate in labour force to help out their
families.
Children should be obedient.
Children should be autonomous.
Parents should closely control their children.
Family members are independent.
Source: Adapted from Kabasakal and Bodur, 2004: 570.
Finally, Uncertainty Avoidance (UA) reflects: ‗the extent to which members of an
organization or society strive to avoid uncertainty by relying on established social
norms, rituals, and bureaucratic practices‘ (House and Javidan, 2004: 11). Table 12
59
below indicates the most common differences between societies with high UA and
those with low UA.
Table 12: High versus low uncertainty avoidance
Societies that score higher on uncertainty
avoidance tend to:
Societies that score lower on uncertainty
avoidance tend to:
Have a tendency toward formalizing their
interactions with others
Document agreements in legal contracts
Be orderly, keeping meticulous records,
documenting conclusions drawn in meeting
Rely on formalized policies and procedures,
establishing and following rules, verifying
communications in writing
Take more moderate calculated risks
Inhibit new product development but
facilitate the implementation stage through
risk aversion and tight controls
Show stronger resistance to change
Show stronger desire to establish rules
allowing predictability of behaviour
Show less tolerance for breaking rules.
Have a tendency to be more informal in their
interaction with others
Rely on the word of others trust rather than
contractual arrangements
Be less concerned with orderliness and the
maintenance of records; often do not
document the conclusions drawn in meetings
Rely on informal interaction and informal
norms rather than formalized policies,
procedures and rules
Be less calculating when taking risks
Facilitate the new product development
especially in the initiation phase through
higher risk taking and minimal planning or
controls
Show less resistance to change
Show less desire to establish rules to dictate
behaviour
Show more tolerance for breaking rules.
Source: Adapted from Luque and Javidan, 2004: 618.
2.6 Culture and management:
Many studies confirm that management styles as well as managerial attitudes are highly
associated with national culture (see, for example, Wu, 2012). This association can be
noticed immediately through the linkage between people and tasks in one of the most
general definitions of management, which is ‗getting things done through other people‘
(Hofstede, 2007). Since his earliest work, Hofstede (1983) has argued that the
relationship between management and national culture may not be apparent to
everybody. He suggests three main factors involved in making nationality important to
management. The first one is political – that nations play an essential role in forming
governmental systems like the legal system and educational, labour and employer's
association systems. The second is sociological, as nationality carries our symbolic
value of who we are. The third reason is psychological, in that an individual‘s way of
61
thinking is partly dominated by national culture factors (Hofstede, 1983: 75–76).
Hofstede (1983: 88) concluded that ‗[b]oth management practitioners and
management theorists over the past 80 year have been blind to the extent to which
activities like ‗management‘ and ‗organizing‘ are culturally dependent‘.
Many researchers have emphasized the impact of culture on employees‘ behaviours
and attitudes in addition to the effect of different management practices such as change
management, decision making, HRM, work-related attitude, negotiation, reward
management, and leadership (Kirkman et al., 2006; Elsaid and Elsaid, 2012). Culture
also plays a positive role in organizational effectiveness and innovation (Denison and
Mishra, 1995). Furthermore, Smith et al. (2002: 190) argue that culture affects even the
meaning of some management concepts like teamwork, participation, and leadership,
and therefore no equivalence can be assumed in what these terms actually mean. For
example, in collective societies, the meanings of such concepts are more contextualized
than they are in individualist societies.
Moreover, several arguments have been made in regard to the importance of culture
to organizational behaviour, management studies, and human resource management. For
example, Kedia and Bhagat (1988) presented a conceptual model which confirmed the
role of national culture as an important element in transferring technology across
nations. Moreover, a study by Mohammed et al. (2008) found significant links between
the cultural dimensions of Individualism, Masculinity and Uncertainty Avoidance and
effective project management.
In fact, Hofstede (1983) came to the conclusion in the early 1980s that ‗management
and organization are penetrated with culture from the beginning to the end‘, arguing
that management is a ‗symbolic activity‘ (Hofstede, 1984: 82) where managers‘
attitudes influence and motivate employees. Excluding national culture from
consideration in the workplace might lead to managerial conflict and misunderstanding.
He further emphasized this view in his later work, arguing the importance of culture as
an essential factor to be considered when studying an organization as it shapes the way
in which the employees interact and behave in the workplace (Hofstede, 1993).
Adler and Bartholomew (1992: 558) performed a survey of articles concerned with
organization behaviour (OB) and human resources management (HRM) in an
international context in the major academic and professional journals. They found that
70.6 per cent of these articles included the concept of ‗culture‘ in their studies and most
of these articles (93.8 per cent) emphasized the cultural influence on different issues.
60
Also, Landes (2000) placed emphasis on the comprehensive role of culture, claiming
that it is culture which constitutes almost all of the observable differences between
societies. DeCenzo and Robbins, (2002) argued for the importance of understanding
cultural environments in ensuring business success, and Cullen (2002: 381) stated that:
‗The cultural differences inherent in all forms of international strategic alliances operate
at all levels of culture, especially the national, business and organizational levels‘.
Consequently, by applying this point across cultures, we can understand why many
international investments and projects face problems, and this is reflected in the
statement of Ali that:
[T]he failure of transferring Western management approaches to other cultures
is often attributed to the lack of understanding that these management
techniques were based on a different frame of mind and different cultural
assumptions. (Ali et al., 2005: 3)
Aycan et al. (2000) conducted a cross-cultural study where 1,954 employees from 10
countries completed a 57-items questionnaire to investigate the influence of culture on
HRM. Their findings assert the significant impact of cultural dimensions on HRM
practices in the majority of the countries studied. More recently, Rao (2009) used five
of the GLOBE dimensions (power distance, uncertainty avoidance, in-group
collectivism, gender egalitarianism, and performance-orientation) to conduct a study
examining the role of national cultural dimensions on staffing practices. The findings
confirm the importance of cultural influences on staffing practices in general and e-
recruitment in particular.
To conclude, all the previous studies discussed in this section have confirmed that
the influence of culture on management is sufficiently apparent to be considered
seriously in management studies. No better summary of this position can be given than
that of Gales (2008: 20), given in the conclusion of his article investigating the role of
culture in technology management research in today's global environment, who stated
that: ‗To create good theory, to conduct sound research, and to efficiently manage, we
must do a better job of understanding the role of national culture in that environment‘.
2.7 Arab and Middle Eastern Culture
All of the Arab countries, including Oman, have common shared cultural components
such as Islam as a dominant religion, Arabic as a dominant and official language, and
tribalism as a social system. Islam is considered to be a very powerful element which
62
has an obvious impact on societal and political systems in the Arab world and
individuals‘ behaviours are dominated by their religious affiliation in the entire Arab
world (Ali, 1996). Tayeb (1997: 354) agrees with such a view, stating that, ‗[i]n the
countries which are expressly modelled after a religious ideal, this influence is of course
far more extensive and inclusive‘.
An additional influence is tribalism, which plays an important role in characterizing
Arab culture (Mohamed et al., 2008; Rees and Althakhri, 2008). Mohamed et al. define
tribal knowledge as:
[A]n eternal knowledge that can be transferred from generation to generation
through traditional, socially facilitational means such as storytelling, but to
some extent also exists in inertia and is rarely tapped for transformative
capacities. (Mohamed et al., 2008: 112)
This ‗eternal knowledge‘ is endowed with a high degree of mutual by members of
Arab societies. To Arabs, the tribe is a reference point for their personality and a sign of
social cohesiveness. It conveys an individual‘s historical rotes, pedigree, privilege, and
class.
As a result of these common attributes, Arabs generally share the same traditions and
attitudes (practices), and norms and beliefs (values). However, this does not mean that
these societies are undifferentiated. Indeed, each country has its own historical
background, political agenda, state economy, laws and regulations, and even different
degrees of religiosity. In addition, scholars have observed that any technological or
economical transformations in the surrounding environment affect cultural values in
that environment (Fertig, 1996). Agreeing with this view, Tsui et al. (2007: 466) argued
that: ‗Recognizing and incorporating the likelihood of cultural change is especially
important for those scholars who study nations with rapid economic, technological, and
social development‘.
However, the Arab world was not originally included in Hofstede‘s seminal work on
culture. Later, data collected from only 141 respondents from seven countries (Egypt,
Lebanon, Libya, Kuwait, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, and United Arab Emirates) was used to
represent the entire Arab region with its population of over 300 million (Smith et al.,
2007). The results of this limited data set were used to categorize Arab countries as high
in power distance, high in uncertainty avoidance, low in individualism, and high in
masculinity (Hofstede, 1980).
63
Some empirical management studies have confirmed Hofstede‘s findings on Arab
culture, for example Ali et al. (1997), Ali et al. (2006) and Whiteoak et al. (2006), while
several other studies have also followed Hofstede‘s methodology but with results that
are not in agreement with his findings. For instance, Bjerke and Al-Meer (1993: 35)
concluded that their findings were not consistent with Hofstede‘s data as their study
showed that, ‗Saudi Arabia scores considerably higher on power distance and
uncertainty avoidance; considerably lower on individualism and relatively lower on
masculinity‘. Another empirical study whose findings varied from Hofstede‘s results
was that undertaken by Al-Twaijri and Al-Muhaiza (1996) to measure Hofstede‘s
cultural dimensions in GCC countries. The study found that, compared to those Arab
countries studied by Hofstede, Oman scored higher on the dimensions of power distance
and high uncertainly avoidance and lower on masculinity. However, Mujtaba et al.
(2009) argued that such variation could be related to processes of cultural change and
the increased participation of Omani females in the workplace.
In the GLOBE project, the Middle East was one of the regional clusters, represented
through samples from five countries: Egypt, Morocco, Kuwait, Qatar, and Turkey, with
a total sample size of 905 respondents. For the purpose of their project, GLOBE
grouped the study countries into a set of ten clusters according to two main elements:
region and climate (Gupta and Hanges, 2004). When compared to other regions in the
world, the average score of the Middle East group in societal cultural practice (As Is)
was high only in the In-group Collectivism dimension, while the score was mid-level in
the following dimensions: Performance Orientation, Assertiveness, Human Orientation,
Institutional Collectivism, and Power Distance. Future Orientation, Gender
Egalitarianism, and Uncertainty Avoidance dimensions were rated low. On the other
hand, the average score of the Middle East region in cultural values (Should Be) was
high in the following dimensions: Future Orientation, Institutional Collectivism, Power
Distance, and Uncertainty Avoidance, while the score was mid-level in the following
dimensions: Performance Orientation, Human Orientation, and In-group Collectivism.
The dimensions of Gender Egalitarianism and Assertiveness were rated low (see Figure
1).
64
Figure 1: Middle Eastern cluster result in GLOBE study.
Source: Javidan et al., 2004: 34.
However, each of the 62 societies has a rank in each cultural dimension as well as
having been placed in a certain band. This represents that the differences between
countries are so small as to be insignificant, so they could all be considered to have the
same level of presence in that dimension, and so can be banded together. This technique
was used to prevent initial misinterpretations which might be caused by the ranking
method (Hanges et al., 2004). An illustrative example was provided by Hanges et al.
(2004). Although Thailand has the top ranking among societies in the uncertainty
avoidance dimension while Greece was ranked 17, they both fall within the same band.
Such a methodology indicates that there are variations even between countries within
one cluster. Taking societal practices in the Gender Egalitarianism dimension as an
example, it can be seen that each individual country in the in Middle Eastern region has
a different score. Qatar scored 3.63 and was placed in Band A, Turkey (2.89), Morocco
(2.84), and Egypt (2.81) were placed in Band B, and, lastly, Kuwait scored 2.58 and
was placed in Band C (Emrich et al., 2004). Such findings may help explain the
findings of the comparative study undertaken by Buda and Elsayed-Elkhouly (1998)
which showed that employees in Gulf States are more collectivistic compared to their
Egyptian counterparts. Another example of this variation between countries in one
65
cluster is the interesting finding by Hofstede with regard to the higher degree of
masculinity in Islamic Sunni communities compared to Shia communities (Hofstede and
Hofstede, 2005: 153).
2.8 The Dilemma of Culture and Management in the Middle East
For management science, being a country from the third world where there is not even a
single established academic journal (Cooke, 2004) is a dilemma in itself. In addition,
Robertson et al. (2001: 224), after reviewing all articles published in a ten year period
(1990–1999) in the Journal of International Business Studies for their subject region,
observed that the Middle East‘s share in these articles was less than 1 per cent. This
ignorance concerning such an important area impacts management growth in both
literature and practices. In reality most management and cultural studies concentrate on
western countries (Rao, 2009), while research in the Middle East is still insufficient
(Kabasakal et al., 2012). Indeed, it is hard to find any article that tackles Arab
management without referring to Islam, tribalism and family as the main components of
Arab culture. Wines and Napier (1992: 835) stated that ‗values reflected through
religious affiliation in some cases may influence management practice‘. As they argue,
critical points that management should understand and consider throughout the
decision-making process include cultural values and attributes.
In Arab and Muslim countries the authoritarian administrative system, in conjunction
with the influence of social attributes such as tribalism and religion, have a large
influence on public administration systems (Haque, 1997). As an example of this
influence, Bakhtari (1995) carried out a comparative study between American and
Middle Eastern management to discover the cultural effects on management style. The
results showed that Arab managers prefer to practise a coercive management style more
than do their American colleagues. However, even within these very limited studies, the
role of Islam in ethical management has rarely been investigated (Whiteoak et al.,
2006). In terms of time orientation, Zaharna (1995) argued that Arab culture is past-
oriented while American is future-oriented. Therefore, Arab managers, unlike
American, are not familiar with future activities like planning and organizing as they
believe that future is at the same time both uncertain and unchangeable. The term
‗insha'a Allah‘ or ‗God willing‘ predominately follows any proposal for a future task or
plan, with the sense that ‗only God who knows for sure if an action will or will not
occur‘ (Zaharna, 1995: 251).
66
From a management studies point of view, Arabs in general share the same cultural
attributes. Rees and Althakhri (2008: 128) characterize Arab culture as ‗strongly group
oriented, male-oriented and dominated by large power distance, strong uncertainty
avoidance, and long term orientation‘. Similarly, Al-Yahya et al. (2009), discussing the
importance of national culture in forming management practices, described Arab culture
as ‗sharing relatively high collectivist and power-distance orientations, as well as highly
centralized hierarchal decision making‘ and Dedoussis (2004) argued that, while Arab
managers respect friendly relationships and group harmony, they assert the importance
of loyalty and obedience from their employees. Tribal culture has also contributed to
building particular work values with Arab managers, for example face-saving (Gregg,
2005). Bakhtari (1995: 102) described Middle Eastern management as traditional,
appearing to be religious; family-oriented; consultative; conservative in risk taking;
individualistic (in the context of their own culture) and less participative; and finally
male-dominated. Individuals, in cultures such as those of Japan and the Arab countries,
are more concerned with ‗what he is‘ than ‗what he does‘ (Zaharna, 1995: 243–244).
Such studies give an indication about how individuals appreciate someone‘s position
within the societal or organizational system of hierarchy more than his/her performance.
Indeed, this strong collectiveness of Arab society has created another conflict in the
workplace as employees usually overlap between their personal relationships and their
professional life (Alawadhi and Morris, 2009).
The dilemma of management in the Arab countries is multifaceted and further
complicated by a number of other factors. The poor standard of knowledge and
experience, as well as the economic revolution, have each made the problem even
worse. Robertson et al. (2001) argue that rapid movement toward industrialization in the
Arab world without having a strong managerial infrastructure in place have
differentiated Arab managerial thought from that of the rest of the world, leading it to
become fragmented and directionless. Furthermore, the influence of tribalism,
patriarchal family structure, and strong top-down authority through what is called
‗Bedo-aucracy‘ or ‗Sheikocracy‘, foreign rules and oil revenue have made the
management dilemma differ from one Arab country to another. It is over ten years since
Robertson et al. (2001) published their research, and to this day these mixed, and in
many cases conflicted, elements are shaping today‘s so-called Arab management.
In addition, it could be argued that, to a large extent, there is a complex relationship
between Arab cultural values and real practices. For instance, Rizzo et al. (2007), after
67
looking at several studies which traced democracy in the Muslim world, stated that,
‗Individuals‘ identification with Islamic religion and culture does not seem to be a
barrier to the democratization process‘. Rice (1999) noted such a conflict between
values and philosophy while studying Islamic ethics in Egypt. Islamic values promote
unity and non-discriminatory attitudes in the workplace, while nepotism, favouritism,
and social relation are the landmark of Egyptian practices. Also, in the management
area, Islam itself reinforces many positive attitudes in management such as trust
between mangers and subordinates, honesty at work, loyalty, consultation in decision-
making, co-operation and team working (Tayeb, 1997; Al-Buraey, 2001; Ghafory-
Ashtiany, 2009). Furthermore, Ilhaamie (2009: 228) stated that:
Through Islamic human resource practices, manpower that is high achiever,
creative, innovative and most importantly; God fearing and sound moral
characters will be produced… [Islam also] does not endorse high power
distance. (Carl et al., 2004: 521)
In Shariah law, all Muslims, women and men, are equal in front of Allah and the best
one is the best in taqwa’ (righteousness and piety). While Islam encourages
collectiveness as one community, it also emphasizes individualism in performance. In
general, all Islamic principles consider equality and justice as their main bases and
strengths.
Nevertheless, in real-world practice, Muslim societies have strongly hierarchical
systems and high power distance. Discrimination issues in employment, particularly
nepotism, favouritism, gender inequality, and wasta, are widespread in Arab
management. It is apparent that these many forms of inequality in employment equity
are not derived from Islam. Although Islam emphasizes the importance of family
relations and kinship (Seleim and Bontis, 2009), this does not imply discrimination
against others in favour of family or friends. Such attitudes may be more related to
tribalism or incorrect interpretation of the religion‘s doctrines. Indeed, these conflicts
between values and real practice deserve to be studied to reveal the whole picture of
management culture.
2.9 Conclusion
As is apparent from the discussion above, culture in its general sense, either societal or
organizational, has a significant impact on human life and activities. Scholars have
always been trying to quantify such influence, firstly by understanding the term culture,
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then dividing it into measurable dimensions, and finally applying it through an
empirical methodology to gain a better understanding of the system under study.
Nonetheless, such a process is not as easy as might at first sight be thought. Culture
cannot be simply divided into separate boxes as it is a complicated concept, and each
country usually differs from others in many aspects. Javidan reinforces this point,
stating that:
[S]ocietal culture is too complex to be presented in black and white... it should
also be clear that most cultures do not neatly fit into the extremes in any
typology stereotype. (Javidan, 2004: 246)
Within this chapter, the study has addressed some important issues which have been
discussed by the literature, to introduce a solid base of the research in this area. The
chapter first introduced the term ‗culture‘ as viewed by management authors. It then
explained in depth the reasons behind the choice of the GLOBE study as the most
relevant of the available models of cultural dimensions, and therefore the one which will
be used as part of this study instrument. After that, the chapter gave a clear overview of
the GLOBE cultural dimensions followed by a discussion of the influence of culture on
management.
In addition, one important point was raised in this chapter about the possible
variations between countries within one cluster. This analysis supports the need, as part
of this research study, to do a country-specific analysis to discover the Omani cultural
dimensions. This will enhance the study by allowing it to achieve more accurate results.
Also, the chapter analysed the dilemma of management and culture in Arab countries
from different perspectives.
In the next chapter, the study will focus in more details on a discussion of
employment equity, as this will be one area, among others, that this research will
investigate in more detail.
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Chapter Three
Literature Review of Employment Equity
I have a dream that my four little children will one day live in a nation where
they will not be judged by the color of their skin but by the content of their
character. (Martin Luther King Jr., Washington, DC, August 1963)
3.0 Introduction
Managing diversity in a workplace and providing employment equity in treatment and
opportunity have always been placed at the centre of organizational justice. Therefore,
organizations have adopted different programmes to reach such a goal and to avoid any
legal accountability. Employment equity (EE) programmes or policies occur ‗whenever
an organization devotes resources (including time and money) to making sure that
people are not discriminated against on the basis of their gender or their ethnic group‘
(Crosby et al., 2006: 587). Academically, the topic has become a cross-disciplinary
interest among several academic disciplines such as sociologists, economists, and
psychologists. Accordingly, different administrative applications and approaches appear
in the field, mainly in Western countries such as the US, Canada, and UK. Some of
these policies deal with the phenomena in a proactive manner, for example Affirmative
Action, while others apply a passive policy approach such as Equal Employment
Opportunities (ibid.).
Because all of these approaches are originally based on state legislation, they are not
operating in a vacuum. In the main they interact with, and sometimes form part of,
several organization mechanisms. Different disciplines have proposed different
approaches toward equality and justice in the workplace. However, a topic like
discrimination might be called a never-ending dilemma. According to Walsh (2009: 59),
‗employment discrimination is a continuing reality, but its nature has shifted in
accordance with changes in the workplace and societal attitudes‘. This endless presence
of discrimination requires the continuous upgrading of equality legislation as well as
solid implementation of that legislation in the workplace.
In the discussion in this chapter, the study will focus on highlighting the main
attempts to conceptualize the terms ‗organizational justice‘ and ‗employment equity‘.
After that, it will clarify three controversial equality approaches which are widely
recognized as the main contributors to forming management policies and practices
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concerned with employment equity. The main critical factors behind employment
discrimination phenomena will then be introduced and described in detail.
3.1 Organizational Justice (OJ)
Since Adams‘ theory of equity (1963, 1965), organizational justice (OJ) has received
intensive attention among organizational scientists and organizational behaviour
scholars (Greenberg, 1990). As these studies have emphasized, OJ has both direct and
indirect impacts on employees‘ behaviours, attitudes, and perceptions (Ambrose et al.,
2007). Such impacts can positively or negatively affect the degree of their performance
and commitment, depending on the effectiveness of the implemented programme and to
what degree it is appreciated by the employees. Scholars in organizational justice argue
that organizational justice is motivated by three set of variables, which are:
(a) economic or instrumental factors (also referred to as ‗control‘ factors), (b)
those that affirm their standing within valued groups, and (c) values deemed
essential to the individual (ethical, moral virtue, or deontic values). (Goldman
et al., 2008: 954)
As a concept, organizational justice ‗is about the conditions of employment that lead
individuals to believe they are being treated fairly or unfairly‘ (Folger and Cropanzano,
1998: xii). To understand the mechanism of its application, organizational justice
scholars have sub-divisions for the main concept such as distributive justice theory,
procedural justice theory, and interactional justice theory (see, for example, Greenberg,
1990; Goldman, 2001; Roberson and Stevens, 2006; Goldman et al., 2006). According
to Folger and Konovsky (1989: 115), ‗Distributive justice refers to the perceived
fairness of the amounts of compensation employees receive; procedural justice refers to
the perceived fairness of the means used to determine those amounts‘. In addition,
interactional justice ‗focuses on interpersonal treatment received during enactment of a
procedure‘ (Goldman et al., 2006: 801). This latter type has been also divided into two
types, interpersonal justice and informational justice. Cropanzano et al. (2007: 36)
distinguished between these types, as shown in Table 13.
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Table 13: Types of organizational justice
Distributive Justice: Appropriateness of outcomes.
● Equity: Rewarding employees based on their contributions.
● Equality: Providing each employee roughly the same compensation.
● Need: Providing a benefit based on one‘s personal requirements.
Procedural Justice: Appropriateness of the allocation process.
● Consistency: All employees are treated the same.
● Lack of Bias: No person or group is singled out for discrimination or ill-
treatment.
● Accuracy: Decisions are based on accurate information.
● Representation of All Concerned: Appropriate stakeholders have input into a
decision.
● Correction: There is an appeals process or other mechanism for fixing
mistakes.
● Ethics: Norms of professional conduct are not violated.
Interactional Justice: Appropriateness of the treatment one receives from authority
figures.
● Interpersonal Justice: Treating an employee with dignity, courtesy, and respect.
● Informational Justice: Sharing relevant information with employees.
Source: Cropanzano et al., 2007: 36.
As illustrated above, distributive justice is based on differentiation, recognizing
employees based on their merits and rewarding their contributions accordingly.
Although employees with higher performance will receive greater compensation in
comparison to other employees (equity), the compensation will nevertheless be
generally be equivalent between employees (equality), and this compensation will be
related to their personal requirement (need). On the other hand, procedural justice is
structured around six rules, starting with designing a fair process by providing all
employees, without any bias, with the means to carry out their assigned tasks. Decisions
are made according to accurate information, while each individual has the right to
appeal. Professional stakeholders are assigned to ensure representative judgments and
so that the voices of all groups are represented. Ethics and morals are highly respected
as they are at the centre of the whole process.
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Interactional justice is about dealing with people sensitivity and interactional
treatment. It has been divided into interpersonal and informational justice. Interpersonal
justice is linked with personal treatment, as individuals seek to be given politeness,
courtesy, respect, and dignity. In contrast, informational justice is related to fairly
sharing the relevant information, as well as providing a proper explanation of how and
why the process of decision-making has been carried out.
However, it has been argued that each of these theories is relevant to the attitudes of
different kind of employees, and accordingly has a different outcome. For instance,
distributive justice is mainly related to specific events or attitudes such as pay
satisfaction and performance appraisal satisfaction, whereas procedural justice and
interactional justice are more likely to increase system-related attitudes such as trust and
commitment towards organizational systems and authority (Ambrose et al., 2007).
Therefore, scholars like McFarlin and Sweeney (1992) argued that the latter two justice
types might be more of more benefit, to organizations, while the first type is more
related to employees‘ personal satisfaction. To gain the most comprehensive and
beneficial result among these types, scholars have suggested several models of OJ.
Ambrose et al. (2007: 22–25) highlight four models of OJ, as listed below and
illustrated in Figure 2).
The two factors models: In this model, scholars are trying to achieve an effective
collaboration between distributive justice and procedural justice.
The three factors models: institutional justice was added to the previous one after
separating it from being part of procedural justice. So, distributive justice is
related to event attitude while procedural justice and institutional justice are
related to system-related attitude.
The four factors models: institutional justice was divided into two different types,
interpersonal justice informational justice and treated side by side with procedural
justice and distributive justice. So, distributive justice and interpersonal justice are
related to event attitude while procedural justice and informational justice are
related to system-related attitude.
The event mediation models: event attitudes mediate the relationship between the
four types of justice on one side and system-related attitudes on the other side.
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Source: Ambrose et al., 2007: 25.
In general, there is no final consensus between organizational justice scholars with
regard to the most effective theory among these three models. As discussed, all these
types can be applied, performed and integrated together for a better justice result.
However, although these theories try to deals with discrimination phenomena from
different perspectives, they still revolve around two main considerations, firstly to
guarantee equity between employees, and secondly to ensure high performance from
employees.
3.2 Employment Equity and Human Resource Management
Many scholars agreed that Human Resource Management (HRM) was the most suitable
environment in which to apply and implement equality policy and insure organizational
justice (Paré and Tremblay, 2007; Dickens, 2001; Agocs and Burr, 1996; Human,
1996). Laurent (1986: 97) stated clearly that ‗human resource management practices are
likely to be most sensitive to cultural diversity as they are designed by culture bearers in
order to handle other culture bearers‘. Strachan et al. (2004: 196) further stated:
The main process for implementing progressive and inclusive equity
programmes at the workplace is through human resource management policies
Figure 2: Three models of justice
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that link employment diversity to organizational objectives (for example,
productivity and profitability). (Strachan et al., 2004: 196)
This focus of managerial awareness on the importance of equality between
employees, along with the enforcement of the legislation of the host country, has led
HRM practitioners and policy-makers in western countries to introduce particular HRM
formulations in response to employment discrimination and the persistence of the
existence of disadvantaged groups (Agocs and Burr, 1996). Konrad and Linnehan
(1995) distinguish between two main formalizations:
Identity-blind approach: meaning the implementation of ‗formalized HRM practices
designed to ensure that the human resource decision-making process is the same
for each individual‘ (ibid.: 789). Evaluation or differentiation between individuals
according to this approach is based on their merits and capability of doing the job
rather than any other reasons.
Identity-conscious approach: for example affirmative action, means striving to
‗identify structures that formally recognize the gender, race, national origin or
other protected identity of an individual‘ (ibid.: 790). In this approach HRM
decision-makers take into consideration the identity of different demographic
groups in addition to individuals‘ merits.
These formalizations were primarily implemented to enhance the protection of
minority groups from discrimination on the basis of their sex, class, origin, or affiliation
to a tribe or group. Three main points can be easily noted – each approach: (1) is
informed by a particular theory of justice; (2) has a specific equality procedure; and (3)
is based on societal culture. Culture, as will be discussed in depth later in this study, is a
vital element in management approaches like Human Resource Management (HRM) or
International Human Resource Management (IHRM). Agocs and Burr stated that:
It is increasingly recognized that inequality and disadvantage on the basis of
race, gender and disability results from discrimination that is systemic deeply
embedded within the culture and structures of the workplace. (Agocs and Burr,
1996: 31)
Therefore, choice between these two formalizations should be considered carefully
because of the sensitivity of the subject and the specific nature of the host country. For
instance, Konrad and Linnehan (1995) argued that in the United States, from where
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most of these formalizations emerged, identity-conscious or affirmative action might be
perceived as discrimination in itself, as many US citizens now believe that
discrimination based on identity does not exist anymore.
3.3 The Importance of Equity in Employment
The term ‗employment‘ is used here in a sense that goes beyond being just a contract
between two parties to one that is more related to every aspect of an individual‘s
working life, including the relationship between employee and employer. Jahoda
suggested that:
First, employment imposes a time structure on the waking day; second,
employment implies regularly shared experiences and contacts with people
outside the nuclear family; third, employment links individuals to goals and
purposes that transcend their own; fourth, employment defines aspects of
personal status and identity; and finally, employment enforces activity.
(Jahoda, 1979: 312, cited in Jahoda, 1981: 188)
This mechanism of employee-employer relationship needs to be controlled through
fairness procedures applicable to all, which cannot be achieved unless an adequate
employment equity (EE) policy is in place.
Equity and equality in employment is still the subject of substantial debate, even in
western countries where, although plenty of regulations have been promulgated,
minorities are still facing disadvantages when compared to white males (Syed and
Özbilgin, 2009). The situation in the Middle East is even worse because of the absence
of obvious EE agendas, while the available regulations in regard to equity are limited
and lack the required level of detail.
In the UK, the real implications of EEO started to become apparent at the end of the
1970s and during the 1980s when some public sector employers began to apply EO
policies to implement equal opportunities legislation at ground level (Webb, 1997). At
the same time, the Equal Opportunities Commission was founded (EOC, 1982) and
started its work by establishing what was called the ‗simple programme‘ with the
objective of eradicating employment discrimination.
Adams et al. (1995: 88) described the importance of equal employment opportunities
as a surety of continuity and stability in the workplace, ‗since one‘s job is fundamental
to one‘s whole experience of life‘. Equal opportunities, as Adams et al. (1995: 89) argue
further, ‗is not simply about securing equal rights but is a matter central to national
economic objectives and the need to make the most of all human resources‘. In line with
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such a statement, the role of the Equal Opportunities Commission (EOC) in Britain has
moved from the previous approach of just securing equal rights to gaining national and
economic benefits by asserting an effective implementation of gender equality.
Having a clear EE policy in organizations can enhance stability, reduce turnover, and
encourage high productivity among employees. This is because EE increases justice
between employees, valuates competencies, and prevents corruption in the working
environment. On the contrary, the absence of EE leads to workplace discrimination,
which is itself complex. Demuijnck (2009: 85) discussed this complexity, stating that,
‗different approaches show different discrimination mechanisms which are functioning
at different levels‘. In addition, the negative impacts of discrimination affect not just the
employee or potential employee, but organizations and societies as well. Scholars like
Turnipseed (2002), Rizzo et al. (2007), and Guiraudon (2009) link EO policies and
practices, particularly gender equality, to countries‘ political issues and democracy in
general, as well as to organizational citizenship behaviour, loyalty and commitment.
As will be demonstrated later in this chapter, management and the style of
managerial practices within an organization have a significant influence on employment
discrimination. To reach an equal and fair treatment between employees or potential
employees, it is a fundamental principle that management should ensure them having a
robust EE policy as well as a good implementation of it on the ground. This assurance
not only reflects positively of the organization‘s profile, it also prevents the negative
impacts of discrimination on the organization. As Demuijnck (2009) argued,
discrimination leads to the workplace losing competitive advantage as managers prefer
one ethnic group or particular sex more than the quality of the current or potential
employees‘ performance. Discrimination also has a financial and reputational cost to
organizations (James and Wooten, 2006) and can easily lead to instability among
employees as well as to poor performance.
3.4 Employment Equity Approaches
Terms like employment equity, employment equality, equal opportunities, and
affirmative action, have been used almost interchangeably in the literature with no
consensus on one clear definition for each concept. For example, Rabe (2001)
mentioned that the term equal opportunities was used almost like the term justice, and
he could not find a universal consensus definition for it. His suggestion was that
governments should group individuals according to their different needs and such
differences should be legally considered. In a constitutional sense, equality means that
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‗those who are similarly situated must be treated equally, unless there are justifiable
reasons for not doing so‘ (Rabe, 2001: 21). In line with this view, Adams et al. (1995)
argued that equal opportunity is about achieving fairness in treatment between
individuals or groups by prohibiting any sort of discrimination. Looking at the two
levels of individuals and groups, it is arguably very hard to achieve equal treatment in
both levels simultaneously, as efforts to achieve equality at one level may affect the
other level.
Equal opportunity (EO) as a concept was adopted from a liberal philosophy which
emphasized equality between individuals in tem of justice and citizenship (Webb,
1997). Rawls (1999: 63), looking at equal opportunity from a liberal perspective, stated
that:
Those who are at the same level of talent and ability, and have the same
willingness to use them, should have the same prospects of success regardless
of their initial place in the social system, that is, irrespective of the income
class into which they are born. (Rawls, 1999: 63)
Jewson and Mason (1986) study the development of equal opportunities policy from
liberal and radical perspectives. They contrast the two approaches as shown in Table 14,
below.
Table 14: The differences between liberal and radical views of equal opportunities
policies
Elements of equal
opportunities policies
Conceptions of equal opportunities
Liberal Radical
Principles Fair procedure Fair distribution of rewards
Implementation Bureaucratization of decision
making (e.g. training)
Politicization of decision
making
Effectiveness Positive action Positive discrimination
Perceptions Justice seems to be done Consciousness raising (e.g.
training)
Source: Jewson and Mason, 1986: 312.
As can be observed from Table 14, liberal and radical perspectives differ from each
other in many ways. This section will explain these differences in detail, making
extensive use of the arguments of Jewson and Mason (1986).
78
Principles can be defined as ‗the notions of fairness and justice which are, explicitly
and implicitly, enshrined in the detailed rules and regulations of the formal policy‘
(ibid: 312). In principle, liberalism is concerned more with the procedure as it
believes that equality is all about personal quality which, by offering free and
equal opportunities, will ensure that the best individual will succeed according to
his/her abilities and talents. Radicalism emphasizes the importance of intervention
to ensure equal distribution of rewards between employees rather than equal
procedures. Therefore, radicalism tends to sort individuals into groups like
women, black, and disabled and to measure the effectiveness of EEO accordingly,
while liberalism concentrate on evaluating the equality of the procedures.
Implementation is ‗the means by which principle is translated into practice‘ (ibid:
313). With regard to this stage, liberals stress the necessity of the
bureaucratization of procedures, which surrounds EEO with rules and regulations.
They therefore emphasize training as the main tool for preparing qualified
advisors. On the other hand, radicals argue that decisions should not necessarily
follow a pre-planned procedure; they could be made according to the situation
itself while taking into consideration any opportunities to politically enhance
minority groups within an organization. However, the two approaches are both
problematic. Such approaches to implementation and their mechanisms risk
rejection due to a number of issues, such as excluding social communication in
the former approach or the selection of appropriate decision-makers in the latter.
Effectiveness refers to ‗the consequences of implementation for patterns of social life
within the institution or enterprise‘ (ibid.: 313). Both parties introduce
effectiveness using terms which are similar in name but different in practice.
‗Positive action‘ was proposed by liberals and ‗positive discrimination‘ by
radicals (ibid.: 322). The two terms have been defined in numerous ways.
However, the intent of positive action is to base selectivity on individual merit,
whereas positive discrimination aims to provide different societal groups with
similar percentage of opportunities, as in a quota system. Nevertheless, many
questions remain apparent and have not been fully answered – for example, what
is the best measurement method to determine the degree of success for each
approach? To what extent is positive discrimination legally accepted? And should
organizations seek for equal societal distribution (positive discrimination) or
quality of work performance (positive action)?
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Perceptions, finally, is concerned with ‗thought and feeling about the policy by the
various participants in the policy-making process‘ (ibid.: 313). Openness and
openly publicizing equal and fair employment procedures are the main aims of the
liberal approach. In contrast, radicalism is more concerned with raising collective
awareness, consciousness, and solidarity throughout society as the most relevant
outcomes of their policy.
To summarize, the approach termed liberalism bases equality on individual merit and
a hierarchy of talent, in which higher level positions will be filled by the most talented
individuals. This view has been criticized, as most individuals are capable of
contributing valuably, but in different ways and manners, and ‗hierarchy brings out the
worst, not the best, in individuals‘ (Brenner, 1987: 449). On the other hand, radicalism
is about creating equal space for different social group rather than relying on
meritocracy. Brenner (1987) argued that even this approach can be criticized.
Employees feel injustice if they are not rewarded according to their performance, even
those who belong to target groups, such as women. However, should be mentioned that
the radical approach of positive discrimination is close to being illegal in many western
countries, excluding the case of the employment and treatment of disabled people
(Johns and Green, 2009).
3.4.1 Conceptual introduction to EEO and AA
The existence of antidiscrimination legislation in western countries has been recognized
for decades. In the Universal Declaration of Human Rights adopted and proclaimed by
UN General Assembly resolution 217 A (III) of 10 December 1948, Article 7 says of
people that: ‗All are equal before the law and are entitled without any discrimination to
equal protection of the law‘. Article 23 further stated that:
(1) Everyone has the right to work, to free choice of employment, to just and
favourable conditions of work and to protection against unemployment, (2)
Everyone, without any discrimination, has the right to equal pay for equal
work, and (3) Everyone who works has the right to just and favourable
remuneration ensuring for himself and his family an existence worthy of
human dignity, and supplemented, if necessary, by other means of social
protection. (www.un.org)
In the United States, President Kennedy established in 1961 what was called ‗the
President's Committee on Equal Employment Opportunity‘ (Jones, 1984). Three years
later, the American Civil Rights Act of 1964-1 was enacted. This was a landmark in
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American law as it is considered the first federal act which clearly mentions the concept
of equal opportunity and became the cornerstone for antidiscrimination legislation and
modern civil rights law in the United States (Rose, 1989). The act included employment
as one element which was laid under its umbrella of equality and justice.
At that time, two forms of equal employment were established, Affirmative Action
(AA) and Equal Employment Opportunities (EEO) (Skrentny, 2001). AA emerged in
1961 to prohibit discrimination with regard to race, colour, creed, or national origin,
while EEO was announced in 1967, adding sex to the previous list. Then, in 1967, the
US Congress passed the Age Discrimination in Employment Act, followed in 1972 by
the Rehabilitation Act, which prohibits discrimination against disabled persons (Busse,
2005). According to Thomas (1990: 107), Affirmative Action was introduced to create a
so-called ‗U.S. business mainstream‘ with ‗enough space for everyone‘ and allow
minorities like women, ethnic groups, and sexual groups to participate freely and
equally through legal and social support. In employment, AA can be called ‗hiring
by numbers‘ as it focuses mainly on raising representation of disadvantaged groups
(Agocs and Burr, 1996: 32). Jones referred to the term as deeply rooted in the world of
equity, defining it as:
[P]ublic or private actions or programs which provide or seek to provide
opportunities or other benefits to persons on the basis of, among other things,
their membership in a specified group or groups. (Jones, 1985: 903)
However, it has been argued that there is no one consensus definition for EEO, AA
or EO because they involve several types of policies and practices (Human, 1996). Even
among scholars themselves, these definitions remain confusing (Reyna et al., 2005;
McMillan-Capehart, 2009). Therefore, to meet the requirements of this research, it is
essential here to determine the main definitions of these terms which the study will
follow from this point onward. Therefore, this study will follow Kleiman‘s (2000)
differentiation between the two forms, according to which AA is an approach based on
distributive justice theory and formalized in HRM as identity-conscious or colour-
conscious, whereas EO follows a procedural justice theory and is formalized in HRM as
an identity-blind or colour-blind approach. Both approaches were discussed earlier in
this chapter. The definitions which will be followed are therefore:
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Equal Opportunity (EO) is ‗the concept of ensuring fair treatment for all employees
(or prospective employees) throughout the organization. It emphasizes the
importance of judging people according to the qualities, skills, and competencies
they possess, rather than prejudging them because of characteristics such as
gender, race/ethnicity, disability, age, or sexuality‘ (Dictionary of Human
Resource Management, Oxford Reference Online).
Affirmative Action (AA) is ‗a generic term for programmes which take some kind of
initiatives either voluntarily or under the compulsion of law, to increase, maintain,
or rearrange the number or status of certain group members usually defined by
race or gender, within a larger group‘ (Robert Ann Jonson, 1990: 77, cited in
Bacchi, 1996: x).
Companied Employment Equity Programme (CEEP), a concept that is informed by
both EO and AA approaches, is defined as ‗a comprehensive planning process by
an employer to identify and remove discrimination in employment policies and
practices, and to ensure appropriate representation of target groups throughout the
organization‘ (Falkenberg and Boland, 1997: 964).
Equal Employment Opportunity Policy (EEOP) is ‗a government‘s attempt to ensure
that all individuals have an equal opportunity for employment, regardless of
characteristics, such as sex, race, color or religion‘ (De Cieri and Kramar, 2003,
cited in Syed, 2008: 135).
Nevertheless, the degree of effectiveness of employment equality programmes
continues to be a subject of debate. Although Coate and Loury (1993: 1239) concluded
that affirmative action can remove the negative impact of stereotypes, they admitted
that, ‗there are equally plausible circumstances under which it will not only fail to
eliminate stereotypes, but may worsen them‘. Additionally, Rabe (2001: 22) argued that
affirmative action ‗limits the rights of individuals‘ as it might be the cause of injustice
in some cases where some employees might be advanced at the expense of other
employees.
In addition, two main criticisms have been expressed concerning EO. The first is
that, especially in the private sector, there is considerable ignorance concerning the
application of the legislation in daily practice. The second criticism addresses the model
itself, as this considers the formulation of the process rather that providing an effective
and adaptable plan to eliminate discrimination as well as to guarantee working
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sustainability. Further, EOP has been shown to be costly in itself (Culley, 2001).
Moreover, because of the long and complicated procedures involved, it requires
substantial training and continuity of evaluation and monitoring. Nevertheless, both
programmes continue to be applied and enacted in public and private sectors, but with
no specific steps to follow other than committing to abide by the overriding anti-
discrimination regulation.
3.4.2 Diversity Management (DM)
As has been shown to be the case with other important employment equality terms and
concepts, diversity management (DM) was introduced in western countries, driven by
demographic, socio-cultural and economic factors (Syed and Özbilgin, 2009). Diversity
can be described as, ‗the distribution of personal attributes among interdependent
members of a work unit‘ (Jackson, 2003: 802), while DM has been defined as:
[A] process intended to create and maintain a positive work environment
where the differences of individuals are valued so that all can reach their
potential and maximise their contributions to the organizations strategic goals.
(Dhami, et al., 2006: 14)
In management practice, DM ‗is measured in every aspect of HR, including
compensation, promotion, training, and leadership at the managerial level, and use of
family friendly policies‘ (Magoshi and Chang, 2009: 31). However, human resource
managers distinguished diversity management from AA and EEO as it is based on
business goals (Skrentny, 2001). Thomas (1990) criticized DM the practice when used
in place of affirmative action as it fails to deal with prejudice or empower current
working minorities and urged that equal opportunities programmes should move beyond
just providing equal entry to equally-managed diversity.
Choi and Rainey (2009) argued that public sector organizations are more committed
to equal employment programmes such as EO and AA than is the private sector. This
high level of commitment requires a high level of diversity management to be able to
effectively manage employees‘ performance and organizational outcomes as well as to
minimize the negative impact of workplace diversity. To have a successful diversity
management programme, Thomas (1990: 112-117) suggests ten guiding principles:
Clarify your motivation: by moving beyond the reasons for why to have
diversity in the workplace to how we can get the best from this diversity.
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Clarify your vision: by removing the previous image about other groups and
looking at all humankind as same then start from this point of view.
Expand your focus: by including all kinds of groups of people who might be
ignored in the main equality policy and creating one comprehensive culture.
Audit your corporate culture: by creating a culture of diversity within the
organization rather than assimilating diversity into the current culture.
Modify your assumptions: by believing that organization culture can be
changed and trying to do so, rather than continuing to focus on how much
opposition you will face and from whom.
Modify your system: modifying assumptions cannot be done without
modifying the climate of the organization by reviewing management
practices such as promotion, training, and performance appraisal.
Modify your models: by evaluating the modelling ideology of the managers
and the harmony of interaction between these managers and the employees‘
behaviour.
Help your people pioneer: since they know best way to manage diversity, it is
highly recommended to remove the barriers to innovation from in front of all
employees.
Apply the special consideration test: re-test the organizational culture and
whether it still treats minorities as opposers, or has become a real collective
culture where everybody is equal.
Continue affirmative action: by applying a circular evaluation where
affirmative action is needed to create diversity wherever it is not present.
Then mange this diversity by applying the previous steps.
Skrentny (2001: 106) presents a comparison between the three concepts, as shown in
Table 15.
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Table 15: Comparison between main features of EEO, AA, and diversity
EEO AA Diversity
Source Statute Executive order and
federal regulations
Human resources specialist
in academic and
organizational setting
Rationale for
adoption
Legal compliance Legal compliance for
contractors
Strategic advantage
Implicit
cultural
values
Egalitarianism,
meritocracy
Remedy past wrongs Inclusiveness, respect for
differences
View of the
problem
Limited access and
individuals’ bigotry
Limited access coupled
with limited networks
and skills
Organization loses out by
asking workers to assimilate
to white male system
View of
solutions
Formalization of and
commitment to non-
discrimination will lead to
minorities’ and women’s
advancement
Targeted programmes
for recruitment,
mentoring, training will
lead to minorities’ and
women’s advancement
Culture change efforts will
remove systemic,
institutional barriers to
minorities’ and women’s
advancement
Concrete
practices
Policies, statements,
grievance procedures,
internal dispute resolution
systems
Affirmative action plans
with goals and
timetables, revision of
performance review
criteria, sensitivity and
interaction skills,
training, networking and
support groups, targeted
recruiting, targeted
training
Policies, statements,
diversity action plans with
goals and timetables,
revision of performance
review criteria, diversity
awareness and skills
training, networking and
support groups, diversity
task forces, culture audits
Concrete
effects
Workers have recourse,
within organization, for
dealing with discrimination
Minorities and women
brought into and moved
up the pipeline
Unclear
Source: Skrentny, 2001: 106.
In addition, Agocs and Burr (1996: 33) performed a comparison between the
American AA plan, EE in Canada, and MD applications in both countries, as shown in
Table 16.
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Table 16: A comparison between AA, EE, and MD
Affirmative action Employment equity Managing diversity
Context USA, mid 1960s-early
1980s
Canada, mid-1980s-1990s USA and Canada, mid- to
late 1980s-1990s
Triggering
issues
Discrimination on basis of
race, gender
Employment discrimination
and disadvantage on basis
of race, gender, disability,
aboriginal ancestry
Demographic change
leading to diverse workforce,
labour market, and
customer/ client base
Intended to
benefit
Blacks, women, Hispanics,
Native Americans, Asians
Women, racial minorities,
persons with disabilities,
aboriginal peoples
White able-bodied males;
also ‘non-traditional’
employees; corporate
bottom line
Focus Numerical representation,
hiring, compliance
Barrier elimination,
numerical representation,
reporting
‘To learn about others’, i.e.
those who are ‘different’
What drives
implementati
on?
Federal regulation and
enforcement; legal and civil
rights complaints and
settlements
Federal and provincial
legislation and regulation;
compliance audits; human
rights complaints; voluntary
decisions by top
management
Voluntary decision by top
management
Typical
applications
Collection and monitoring
of workforce data; goals
and timetables; targeted
recruitment and selection
Collection and reporting of
workforce data; review and
revision of policies and
practices; goal setting
Training (usually by external
consultants) to provide
information and promote
awareness
Intended
results
Representative workforce
at all levels; access to
employment for
disadvantaged groups
Fair employment policies
and practices; improved
representation; supportive
climate
Awareness of difference;
improved interpersonal and
intragroup communication;
‘human relations’ skills;
attitude change
Demonstrate
d results
Improved representation
and pay for black men and
white women; some
increase in representation
of black women and
Hispanics
Small increases in
representation of women
and racial minorities in
some job classes; fairer
policies and practices;
greater awareness
Few evaluations – but in
some experimental settings,
improved awareness and
communication skills
Source: Agocs and Burr, 1996: 33.
However, as Webb (1997) argued, even within the last approach, there are some
threats as well as opportunities in the longer term. In general, there are no best practices
and no single agenda has been able to gain full acceptance or to fully eliminate
employment discrimination. For decades, hundreds, if not thousands, of research studies
have investigated the subject of EE, but with limited influence on effective practices on
the ground as the gap between policies and practices remains great (Kalev et al., 2006;
Demuijnck, 2009). Even in developed countries, employees are still suffering from the
continued existence of discrimination in many different ways. For example, Busse
(2005) observes that, in the United State of America, which has implemented EE
86
programs and regulations for more than fifty years, discrimination still exists in terms of
race, ethnicity, gender, sexual harassment, disability, age, qualifications and many other
areas. In France, according to a survey carried out in 2004, French applicants with
North African surnames had 64 per cent less chance of being hired compared to white
French candidates (Demuijnck, 2009).
To conclude, it is obvious at this point that equity and employment equity have a
large number of terminological explanations. Most of these definitions were suggested
to satisfy either the purposes of academic research studies or to solve specific country
situations. Therefore, this thesis will follow the definitions given below to define equity
in general and employment equity in particular.
The definition of Equity, based on Article 17 of The Basic Statute of the State
(Oman), is given as:
All citizens are equal before the Law and share the same public rights and
duties. There is no discrimination between them on the ground of gender,
origin, colour, language, religion, sect, domicile, or social status.
Because the term ‗employment equity‘ has no clear and comprehensive definition in
Omani public sector regulation, the researcher has adopted the most appropriate one in
the literature which best serves the purpose of this study. Hence, Employment Equity is
defined here as:
Equal rights for and in employment for all individuals, focusing on all stages
of the employment relationship [application, recruitment, promotion, transfer,
training, health and safety, terms of employment, benefits, facilities and
services, grievances, disciplinary procedures and victimization, dismissals,
redundancies, and other unfavourable treatment of employees. (EOC, 1985,
cited in Adams et al., 1995: 88)
3.5 Employment Discrimination
Discrimination as a concept has both positive and negative impacts on employment
equality (Feagin and Eckberg, 1980). However, this study will focus only on the
negative definition and impact of the concept. In general terms, the Association of
University Administrators (2005) defines discrimination as follows:
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Discrimination takes place when an individual or a group of people is treated
less favourably than others because of factors unrelated to their merit, ability
or potential. It is unlawful to discriminate against someone on grounds of their
sex (including gender reassignment), sexual orientation, marital status, race,
colour, nationality, ethnic origin, religion, beliefs, disability, pregnancy of
childbirth, or because they are a member, or not, of a trade union. (AUA,
2005: 11, cited in Johns and Green, 2009: 294)
Similarly, the Institute of Race Relations (IRR) states that discrimination is: ‗to treat
one particular group of people less favourably than others because of their race, colour,
nationality or ethnic or national origin‘ (www.irr.org.uk).
Employment discrimination, as mentioned by James and Wooten, occurs in the
workplace:
[W]hen employers engage in actions, whether deliberate or unintentional, that
fundamentally favour one group over another, and when unfair treatment
harms one or more employees protected by civil rights legislation... [in terms
of] race, gender, religion, national origin, and disabled or veteran status.
(James and Wooten, 2006: 1104)
Heckman (1998) has differentiated between individual discrimination and group
discrimination. An individual may be discriminated against because of his/her personal
attitude, reputation, success, high working progress, qualifications, talent, or any other
personal foundation. On the other hand, group discrimination occurs when inequality in
treatment is assigned to a certain group because of a general reason such as race, ethnic,
or sex.
According to Directgov, the official UK government website for citizens,
discrimination can be perpetrated under three main aspects. The first of these is direct
discrimination, ‗which happens when an employer treats an employee less favourably
because of, for example, their gender or race‘. The second is indirect discrimination,
and this happens when an employer sets ‗a condition that disadvantages one group of
people more than another is applied to a job‘. The third aspect is harassment and
victimization. Harassment refers to ‗offensive or intimidating behaviour – sexist
language or racial abuse‘, while victimization ‗means treating somebody less favourably
than others because they tried to make a discrimination complaint‘
(www.direct.gov.uk).
Demuijnck (2009: 19–94) suggested that discrimination could be divided into two
main themes, intentional bias and unintentional bias. Intentional bias (also called
disparate treatment) is defined as ‗treating people unfairly based on their membership in
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a protected group‘ (Kleiman, 2000: 28). It occurs when someone consciously prefers
working with one particular group because of their ethnic background, which is called
‗racist preference‘. This kind of discrimination could occur because of a certain
stereotype or earlier experience which leads the individual to prejudice, positively or
negatively, one group among other groups.
Another aspect of conscious discrimination is statistical discrimination, which occurs
when formal statistics regarding a particular group, for example, black or women, is
used within the decision making process and leads to less favourable treatment of these
groups. A third kind of intentional discrimination is what Demuijnck (2009) called
‗reaction qualification‘. This happens when it is believed that a certain individual or
group could be more effective in a certain position or situation, so decision will be
predominantly made based on that viewpoint.
The second face of discrimination is unintentional bias (disparate impact). It is
defined as ‗any practice without business justification that has unequal consequences for
people of different protected group‘ (Kleiman, 2000: 29). In fact, what is perceived as
intentional bias may be unintentional if the decision-maker is not moved by any
conscious feeling of racism. Discriminatory decisions are taken because of what
management perceives as right and better for every employee in the organization, while
in reality the opposite is the case for some employees.
The media effect, as it is known, is a powerful mechanism which has a large impact
on creating and promoting stereotypes regarding particular groups (Mastro, 2008). This
unconscious image might easily drive management decisions according to what has
been recorded in the decisions-maker‘s unconscious mind, without realizing that by
making such a decision, they are actually discriminating against someone or some
group. Similarly, any system applied in a workplace may cause discrimination which
scholars refer to as systematic discrimination, although the system might not has been
designed to promote discrimination in itself. Agocs and Burr suggest that:
[S]ystemic discrimination may be defined as patterns of behaviour that are part
of the social and administrative structures and culture of the workplace, and
that create or perpetuate a position of relative disadvantage for some groups
(and advantage for others), or for individuals, on the basis of their group
identity. (Agocs and Burr, 1996: 31)
In addition to the above types of discrimination, Avery et al. (2008) referred to
another type which they called workplace demographic discrimination. It occurs when
an employee feels himself somehow isolated in the workplace because of any noticeable
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dissimilarity, such as being the only woman among a group of men. A sense of
discrimination may occur when the employees start to group themselves in one category
(men) and isolate this solo employee in a separate category (women). Furthermore,
Goldman et al. (2006) added that within this type of discrimination, this solo employee
involuntarily becomes a representor of his origin group in the eyes of others as the
perception of his/her abilities will mostly reflect perception of the whole group, not
him/her as a person. If a disabled person is working among 10 non-disabled employees,
the failure of that person will not only affect him/her but mostly will be regarded as
judgment of all disabled group.
To conclude, employment discrimination can be recognized through any individual
behaviour or managerial decision-making which tends to negatively affect another
individual or group of individuals, no matter how this action has come about, directly or
indirectly, intentionally or unintentionally.
3.6 Effects of Discrimination at a Group Level
This study is mostly concerned with discrimination in employment at the group level,
not the individual level. In this section, the main groups to be analyzed in greater details
in subsequent chapters will be briefly introduced. As each country has its own
administration system and cultural attributes, the following elements will be explained
and their appearance in EEOs will be examined, with examples, in the context of Omani
society.
3.6.1 Gender
Gender equality is generally considered to be at the top of the EEO agenda, thus most
EEO studies have revolved around it as it is the most negotiated issue worldwide
(Whiteoak et al., 2006). Bell et al. (2002) argued that social norms are one of the main
factors in sex discrimination. This was emphasized by a study of employment and
gender system in Jordan conducted by Miles (2002: 424), who found that ‗social and
cultural constraints to women's employment in Jordan persist despite increasing female
labor force participation rates‘. Culture, family, and gender roles remain significant
challenges in EEOs (ibid.). This conclusion was supported by Spierings et al., who
concluded that:
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Although, women‘s LMP [labour market participation] generally increases
their economic independence and bargaining power within the household, a
high level of women‘s LMP does not necessarily imply a high level of gender
equality or female empowerment in other domains. (Spierings et al., 2009:
518)
Moreover, York et al. (2008: 123) stated several reasons for gender inequality in
employment, such as poor HRM; poor regulations, and sex stereotypes. Also, Syed
(2008) referred to the pervasive ignorance that women face in developing countries in
terms of social support and employment equality. Whiteoak et al. (2006) suggested that,
besides the importance of governmental and societal efforts, setting a clear policy is
important in assuring gender equality in the Arab world.
3.6.2 Race, ethnicity, and class
Betancourt and Lopez (1993: 631) stated that, ‗race is generally defined in terms of
physical characteristics, such as skin color, facial features, and hair type, which are
common to an inbred, geographically isolated population‘, as in the case of blacks and
whites in the west or Abeed and Qubili in Oman. On the other hand, ethnicity ‗refers to
the ethnic quality or affiliation of a group, which is normally characterized in terms of
culture‘, for example tribes (ibid.). Lefranc (2009) argued that monitory disadvantages
are usually related to social origin, poor education and lower economic achievement.
Research on ethnic discrimination, according to Goldman et al. (2006), started in the
1960s and mainly focused on blacks and whites. In the Middle East, and the Arab world
in particular, tribalism (Arab ethnic community), as a social state, plays the most
obvious role in differentiating between a country‘s citizens according to their origin,
race or family roots. In the early years of Islam, the concept of Umma (unity) was
introduced as a higher level of commitment than the tribal system (Tibi, 1990).
However, the tribal system in Arab society is considered a respectful element which
highly emphasizes collectivism and power distance (Rice, 2003).
In addition, classes are usually observed within one group or between a number of
different groups where a horizontal stratification appears as individuals are grouped
together because they share almost the same economical, life-style, education level or
hierarchal position, all of which are termed ‗social strata‘ (Betancourt and Lopez, 1993;
Bowman et al., 2009). However, Jackson (2009) argued that there is a lack of studies on
class discrimination, and especially its effect on high levels and positions, when
compared to ethnic and race inequalities, as the latter can be determined and observed
more readily than the former.
90
There are some other types of societal ethnicities and class forms in Arab countries
which have to some extent become embedded in the tribal system and will be explained
in more detail in the next chapter.
3.6.3 Age
Posthuma and Campion (2009) stated that in the US, age stereotyping is still setting
boundaries to EEO. ‗Age stereotyping is concerned with associating certain
characteristics, or the lack of them, with certain ages‘ (Sargeant, 2009: 634). Adams et
al. (1995: 89) argued that predicting that some employees will be less productive
because of their age is a misleading prejudice. McGoldrick and Arrowsmith discussed
the concept of ‗age discrimination‘, and in relation to the specification of age in
recruitment advertisements, they stated that:
By arbitrarily excluding groups of people on the basis of age alone, employers
not only ignore the positive contributions which older workers may make, they
are also refusing to consider some of the potentially best candidates for the
job. (McGoldrick and Arrowsmith, 1993: 63)
Comparing younger and older workers, Shen and Kleiner (2001) argued that older
workers usually show higher commitment to their job and are more flexible than their
younger colleagues. The main problem with older workers, from the author‘s point of
view, is that they are less flexible and less cooperative with any changes of plan.
3.6.4 Disability
A disabled person is defined as ‗a person with a physical or mental impairment which
has a substantial and long-term adverse effect on his/her ability to carry out normal day-
to-day activities‘ (UK Disability Discrimination Act (1995), cited in Bell and
Heitmueller, 2009: 466). In many cases, disabled people have proved that they are not
less productive other employees. However, employers‘ prejudice about disability on the
one hand, as well as employees‘ tendency to hide their disability while being
interviewed on the other hand, have further complicated issues of disability
discrimination. Therefore, setting efficient formal and informal hiring mechanisms for
disabled people is important to ensure that both, employee and employer benefit and to
reduce the cost of unnecessary hiring and firing (Bell and Heitmueller, 2009).
3.6.5 Personal orientation
In this context, personal orientation means any individual attitudes that are not related to
work proficiency and do not affect, directly or indirectly, the employee‘s performance
92
in the workplace, for example, religion, interests, hopes, or sexual orientation. Any
discrimination action against employees because of their personal orientation should be
banned and legally prohibited. In terms of discrimination, religion and sexual
orientation are the two personal orientation types which have been most widely
discussed. For example, Day and Schoenrade (2000) pointed out that people who
express their sexual orientation are likely to be discriminated against in various ways.
3.7 Critical Factors Behind Successful Implementation of Equity in Employment
Many authors and studies have negotiated such a topic and assert that even with
considerable antidiscrimination legislation in place, constant discrimination and lack of
equal opportunities still persist in the workplace (Dickens, 2005; Heery, 2006; Lewis,
2006; Walby, 2007). Several attempts have been made to clarify what are the main
factors behind such a social and organizational phenomenon from different perspectives
such as legal, psychological, management, and social theories (see, for example,
Schuster and Miller, 1984; Goldman et al., 2006; French and Sheridan, 2009). However,
since this study is focusing on the relation between societal and organizational culture
on one side and EE on the other, the researcher has tried to collect factors from these
different perspectives in such a way as to fulfil the main aims and objectives of the
study. Accordingly, factors related to governmental level, societal level, organizational
level, and individual level were selected. Before stating these factors, it is worth
mentioning that besides the impact that each factor has on EE, each one of these factors
interacts with and influences the other factors in either an implicit or explicit manner.
3.7.1 Having a national policy for equal employment
The concept of equality and fairness has been always considered to lie at the heart of the
principle of justice, both from societal and organizational perspectives (Konow, 2003).
None-discrimination principles, as stated by Demuijnck (2009: 83), are ‗unanimously
considered one of the founding principles of democracy, explicitly present in national
constitutions, international declarations and agreements‘. Since the appearance of
antidiscrimination legislation was from its inception designed to eliminate such a
phenomenon, then the absence, limitation, or lack of clarity of valid antidiscrimination
regulations is the first thing that must be looked at to explain ongoing discrimination.
Therefore, it is fundamental for any country to have an equal employment policy which
protects individuals or groups from being discriminated against under all circumstances.
93
Discrimination, as was extensively discussed above, occurs in many different ways
and has implicit and explicit forms. Most western countries started to deal legally with
such a phenomenon almost fifty years ago, and sequentially enacted numerous pieces of
legislation to deal with any type of discrimination, whether in the public or private
sector. For example, the European Union states in Article 21 of its Charter of
Fundamental Rights that:
Any discrimination based on any ground such as sex, race, colour, ethnic or
social origin, genetic features, language, religion or belief, political or any
other opinion, membership of a national minority, property, birth, disability
age or sexual orientation shall be prohibited. (cited in Demuijnck, 2009: 83)
Most scholars agree that employment discrimination is not something that can be
cured within a single piece of legislation (Jain et al., 2012). Experience shows that the
phenomenon of discrimination will continue to appear in different guises and displaying
different aspects. Therefore, countries are continually striving to improve equality
legislation in order to be more effective and stay ahead of all types of employment
discrimination. In the United States, for instance, employment discrimination legislation
has progressed through years with measures such as Title VII of the Civil Rights Act,
published in 1964; the Equal Pay Act, 1963; the Age Discrimination in Employment
Act, 1967; Title I of the Americans with Disabilities Act, 1990; Section 501 of the
Rehabilitation Act, 1973; and the Civil Rights Act of 1991 (Phan and Kleiner, 1999:
10).
Furthermore, after establishing the required antidiscrimination legislation, it is
important to ensure that this is followed and implemented on the ground. Therefore,
some sort of annual follow-up report is essential to evaluate both the legislation itself
and the success of implementation. In Australia, for example, companies in the private
sector and which have 100 employees or more are required by law to submit reports
detailing their efforts in regard to EEO for women (Strachan and Henderson, 2007).
Indeed effective antidiscrimination legislation will create a culture of responsibility
within public and private sector organizations and will raise management commitment
to institutionalizing equality procedures at all level of management decision-making.
In addition, at national level, introducing EEO is not enough to ensure employment
equality among citizens. Other equal opportunity policies such as equal education and
equal training are essential to ensure the success of equal employment policies. When
current or potential employees have the required skills, then their opportunities are
94
greater. Heyes (2007) argued that providing equal training opportunities to certain
groups like older workers, workers with low salaries, and other disadvantaged groups is
fundamental to enhance long-term employment security and equal employment
opportunities. Also, Clarke and Herrmann (2007) argued that in the labour market, both
the employment qualification-based approach and employment production-based
approach are in reality linked to training and skills improvement.
3.7.2 Management and leadership support
Most features of state bureaucracy in developing countries have either been inherited
from the colonial era or imported from western models of bureaucracy (Haque, 1997).
However, this transference has faced real obstacles on the ground. As Haque (1997:
442–443) argued, one obstacle is that administrative models in western countries are
based on, first, long experience of capitalism, industrial revolution, and sciences, and
second, a cultural context which embodied particular values likes secularism,
individualism, competition, and achievement-orientation. Developing countries have
imported these models and techniques without having experienced the same revolution,
either socially or industrially, and without considering how their own set of cultural
values differ from the western set, for example in ritualism, patron-client relation,
informal interaction, seniority-based authority and collective responsibility. Even the
post-colonial bureaucracy which persists in such countries has, instead of being an agent
of change for the better, acted to maintain the old system and enlarge the gap between
social classes (Haque, 1997).
In addition, some organizations use so-called ‗face time‘ to measure managers
performance in the workplace. Face time, as French and Sheridan (2009: 5) defined it,
‗is a term used to describe the requirement that aspiring managers be seen on the job for
long hours‘. This kind of measurement is widely applicable and accepted in the Middle
East. Regardless of how effective this measurement is, in countries which are known to
be male-dominated or which have low gender egalitarianism, like Arab and Muslim
countries, this tool becomes a mean to discriminate between employees. Due to many
social reasons and expectations, working women usually cannot spend more hours at
work than the standard working hours. Therefore, setting a measurement which is
gendered in nature to assess employees‘ effectiveness might easily lead to
discrimination.
Moreover, organizations which claim equality in their procedures are required to set
a clear and detailed anti-discrimination policy, show responsibility and commitment,
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provide proper training to employees, and frequently audit the applied EEO system
(Jain and Hackett, 1989). The more that management demonstrate commitment to
equality policies, the greater will be the response from employees towards its
implementation. Some scholars argue that employment discrimination is likely to occur
in a management bureaucracy that depends on subjective judgment (Feagin and
Eckberg, 1980). Hierarchical managerial style and lack of proper communication can
also lead to discrimination, as discussed by Falkenberg and Boland (1997: 965) who
stated that:
When there is a lack of objective, valid information on the performance and
potential of individuals, decision makers rely on who knows who, and who is
recommended by a trusted source. Thus a significant number of employment
decisions are made on the basis of information communicated through the
informal networks. (Falkenberg and Boland, 1997: 965)
On the other hand, management that is aware of discrimination disadvantages,
supports EE policies, and follows an approach of open communication, either with the
employees themselves or with their supervisors, is less likely to discriminate between
employees. Dalton and Chropot-Mason (2007: 180) stated that:
Social identity group members enter the workforce with a salient social
identity based on certain demographic characteristics. The salience of this
identity is maintained by contentious historical and contemporary relationships
between groups in society at large. It is the responsibility of those who hold
managerial roles in organizations to keep this conflict from erupting in the
workplace. (Dalton and Chropot-Mason, 2007: 180)
Day and Schoenrade (2000: 360) reinforced this view, concluding that ‗HR managers
understand the strategic business necessity of maximizing the talents of all workers as
well as the ethical mandate of equal opportunities and fairness for all‘. Leveson et al.
(2009) also agreed with this conclusion, as the results of their study showed how
supporting management diversity is important in increasing employees‘ commitment
and effectiveness at work.
In addition, although employment discrimination, as has been mentioned, still exists
even in developed countries, administration and legal departments have put a huge
amount of consideration into eliminating such phenomena and ensuring EE between
employees by creating a more equal environment for all. Further, they continue creating
and promoting their EE programs, such as affirmative action and management of
diversity, in such a way as to make EEP more suitable and effective within today‘s
96
changing environment. Indeed, this continuity of a concerted effort over years from
government, organizations, and different levels of management has built a strong
foundation of EE. In contrast, a similar effort can rarely be noticed in developing
countries as the issue has been, either consciously or unconsciously, ignored.
Above all, organizational leadership plays a fundamental role in enhancing and
assuring the positive implementation of equality procedures. Many authors emphasize
that applying EE programmes will be more appropriate and effective if top management
itself supports such a direction (Day and Schoenrade, 2000). Wieneke stated that:
The quality of senior staff becomes vital in ensuring an effective EE
programme and one where the EE coordinator is not held personally
responsible for the feelings of fear and threat engendered by rapid
organizational change. (Wieneke, 1991: 3)
In the case of developing counties, especially Arab and Muslim countries, it could be
said that applying EE may be met with less resistance if it is supported from the highest
authority. This because in such countries the societal and organizational culture shows
great obedience to the law and high commitment to top management authority and
decisions, especially in the public sector (Bakhtari, 1995). However, some resistance to
EE may still occur for other reasons, such as poor implementation or conflict between
individuals or groups.
3.7.3 Eliminating corruption in the workplace
The traditional concept of corruption is related to what Kurer (2005: 223) called the
‗impartiality principle‘. Corruption can be associated with a state as a whole, a
particular organization, or a single person. It exists everywhere, in both private and
public sectors, and can exhibit itself in different forms (Klitgaard, 1998). Nevertheless,
societies differ in their judgment regarding corruption in some cases, especially in
matters related to families or members of their own group. So what is considered a
corrupt act in one society might be acceptable as a traditional act in another, and vice-
versa. Furthermore, societies are themselves changing and what is acceptable today
might not be so tomorrow.
In addition, corruption has been defined in several ways. Kurer (2005: 230), after
reviewing and criticizing several definitions of corruption, defined corrupt acts as
‗violations of non-discrimination norms governing the behaviour of holders of public
office that are motivated by private gain‘. From this definition, it is obvious that
employment discrimination, such as nepotism, favouritism, and all other unjust
97
treatment, is related at some point to corruption. In a general sense, corruption occurs
when someone tries to use his/her power or position to gain personal benefits or provide
someone with an opportunity that he/she does not deserve at the expense of other
groups.
Corruption arises for many reasons, such as a ‗country‘s political and legal aspects,
economic and structural policies, the role of institutions, human development, and
globalization‘ (Seleim and Bontis, 2009: 167). As a phenomenon, corruption is common
in both developed and developing countries (Shleifer and Vishny, 1993). Nonetheless, it
has certain roots in societal and organizational culture. Seleim and Bontis (2009)
conducted a comparative analysis between cultural dimensions as determined in the
GLOBE project and the findings of the Corruption Perception Index (CPI) in order to
explore the relationship between culture and corruption. The result shows a significant
correlation between most cultural dimensions and CPI, as shown in Table 17, below.
Table 17: Relation between cultural dimensions and low corruption
Cultural dimension Correlation with CPI (low
corruption) at practice level
Correlation with CPI (low
corruption) at value level
UA Positive Negative
FO Positive Negative
PD Negative Negative
C1 Positive Negative
HO Negative Positive
PO Positive Negative
C2 Negative Negative
GE Not significant Not significant
AS Negative Negative
Source: Adapted from Seleim and Bontis, 2009.
3.7.4 Social system support
What social system means here is ‗the behavior of multiple individuals within a
culturally organized population, including their patterns of social interaction and
networks of social relationships‘ (Rohner, 1984: 127). It was argued in the previous
chapter that the social system, whether among members of one group or between
different ethnic groups, plays a fundamental role in shaping a nation‘s behaviour.
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Feagin and Eckberg (1980) referred to several studies which emphasized the role of
societal culture on negative discrimination. Also, Bowling et al. (2005) argued that
variation in a society in terms of races, classes, or tribes is likely to be reflected in its
public sector organizations in a way that will mostly affect the service and attitudes of
these organizations toward the public.
The social system is responsible for another kind of categorization, in addition to that
described earlier, in what is called ‗in-group preference‘ and ‗out-group members‘
(Reskin, 2000). This categorization is concerned with what makes an individual trust,
believe in, and feel more comfortable with members from one particular group while
trying to avoid other groups‘ members. This segregation and division of people leads to
differentiation in treatment by showing preference to in-group members in terms of
reward, promotion, and other employment practices.
In addition, economic condition plays a vital role in determining not only the quality
of life within a society, but also the existence of employment discrimination. A healthy
economy offers a variety of employment opportunities, while a poor or less effective
economic condition usually leads to high unemployment, which then leads to increased
employment discrimination (Donohue and Siegelman, 1991). When the interests of one
group come into conflict with other groups‘ interests in terms of social benefits,
economical resources, or political gain, then resource-based discrimination can easily
occur (Feagin and Eckberg, 1980).
To sum up, the social system is an outcome of the influences of cultural preferences,
political scheme, and economic condition. The social system created not only has a
large impact on citizens and organizational behaviour, but also provides an excellent
indication of how a society values and reacts to issues related to EE. Alas (2006: 243)
noted such a point when he stated that: ‗dimensions of national culture could serve as
predictors of how people desire high ethical standards in a particular society‘. This
ethical standard is what makes a certain behaviour in a society more acceptable than
other behaviours, as its justification is based on a large stock of previous experience and
stored norms and values.
3.7.5 Eliminating the negative impact of stereotype, prejudice and demographic role
One of the main reasons for both conscious and unconscious discrimination is the
existence of stereotypes, which lead to prejudice. Management theories have only
recently started of focus on a wider rand of discrimination issues that include
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consideration of issues such as stereotypes (Goldman et al., 2006). Stereotypes are
defined as ‗beliefs about particular social group‘ (Goldman et al., 2006: 795). Others
call this concern a prototype and define it as ‗A mental model people use as an example
or referent for a particular category or descriptor‘ (Avery et al., 2008: 236). When an
individual receives unequal treatment because of a prejudicial attitude from the
employer because of a stereotype, then such treatment becomes discrimination (Frazer
and Wiersma, 2001). For example, Jackson (2009) conducted an empirical study of how
stereotypes arising from factors like name, school type, and interests affect job
applicants‘ assessment. The results showed a positive relation between these elements
and acceptance. As Jackson (2009: 671) states, ‗stereotypes associated with class
background may lead to individuals from different class backgrounds being treated
differently‘.
This kind of prior image is variable as it can be related to personal experience,
organizational attitude, or societal belief (Feagin and Eckberg, 1980). Goldman et al.
(2006: 796) differentiate between two types of stereotype, prescriptive and descriptive.
The prescriptive stereotype is involved with the kind of traditional roles that the
stereotype determines that a certain group within the society should have. These divided
roles have been exercised over a long time and a certain image of each group has been
created accordingly. In contrast, the descriptive stereotype is about how a member of a
certain group does behave rather than should behave. It is mainly related to the
psychological and physical behaviours which an employer may associate with women
rather than men, for example. However:
[S]tereotypes of social categories including women, older workers, and
various ethnic minorities are less likely to be consistent with the perceived
requirements of high-status professional and managerial jobs than are the
stereotypes of Whites, men, and middle-aged workers. The fact that high-
status managerial and professional jobs are predominantly held by Whites,
men, and middle-aged, broadly defined, workers contributes to the problem
because the type of people who are common in any particular job are viewed
as the most appropriate people to hold that job. (Feagin and Eckberg, 1980:
797)
In addition, it has been argued that the influence of stereotype can in some cases be
very difficult to recognize (Demuijnck, 2009). As an example of such a difficulty can be
seen when an equality process has been exactly followed, but in fact the final decision
has been made according to a certain stereotype, however it is very hard to recognize let
alone prove this. Jackson (2009: 688) concluded that:
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It is clear that in order to understand how employers use information about
class background characteristics when recruiting, and in particular, the social
and psychological processes which are at play, further research employing
other methods is needed. (Jackson, 2009: 688)
It might be argued that some of the above reasons could have a degree of logic in
some cases. For example, if a multinational company needs to choose a representative
in the UK and has to choose one among five employees who share the same required
qualifications but with different backgrounds, then it is understandable to chose the
British one, especially if the position requires a significant amount of knowledge about
British culture. In fact, in some cases such a choice becomes strategic. However, this is
only one face of the complexity which makes the evaluation of EE procedures in
managerial decisions always hard to justify. As previously argued, some managerial
decisions may be guided by personal experience of life or a particular situation which
may even have been forgotten. These kinds of decisions are rarely able to be identified
or assessed since they have generally been made unconsciously.
In addition to stereotype and prejudice, there is the impact of demographic role.
Goldman et al. (2006) referred to a significant amount of research which looked at
demographic role in terms of sex, race, and age. The idea behind demographic role is
that, in the perception of management or society, the character or nature of one group of
individuals renders them more capable of doing a particular job than other characters or
natures. Therefore, jobs should be divided on the basis of this assessment. For example,
men, as they are tough and more competent, will hold higher managerial positions while
women, as they warmer and more patient, will do nursing and teaching.
Despite the importance of a number of issues related to demographic roles, still the
most universally recognized and debated issue is gender role. Malach-Pines and Kaspi-
Baruch (2008) conducted a cross-cultural study with 747 MBA students (390 male and
357 female and approximately 100 from each country). The aim of the study was to
understand the role of culture and gender in the choice of a career in management
according to two theories, biological theory and social theory. They authors defined
gender as ‗a social phenomenon that refers to women and men‘s learned behaviors and
attitudes, which are differentiated by sex‘ (Malach-Pines and Kaspi-Baruch, 2008: 307).
Biological theories (or evolutionary theory) view gender differences as innate, since
each sex has developed different skills through thousands of years, while social theories
view gender as the creation of social forces, such as norms, stereotypes and gender
roles, so that they are changeable. The findings of the study supported the social role
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theory, while very limited support was found for the biological theory. However, Webb
(1997) contended that such an argument will continue to appear. Gender differences
will be mentioned when potential benefits might be gained, while sameness will be
asserted whenever there is a sign of possible inequality.
Both social system and stereotypes play essential roles in determining gender roles.
In many societies, such roles are derived from psychology and psychoanalytic theory.
For example, it is more likely in Islamic societies that family duties are divided between
both sexes, with the husband financially responsible while his wife‘s duty is to look
after children and domestic work (Miles, 2002). Rizzo et al. (2007) studied gender
equality and democracy in Arab and non-Arab Muslim countries. They found that
Muslim countries, both Arab and non-Arab, share the same views regarding gender
equality. The majority believe that ‗men have more rights to jobs than women, that men
make better political leaders than women, and that a wife must always obey her
husband‘ (ibid., 2007: 1162).
3.7.6 Positive psychological climate
Brown and Leigh (1996: 359) referred to psychological climate as ‗an individual rather
than an organizational attribute, measured in terms of perceptions that are
psychologically meaningful to the individual rather than in terms of concrete
organizational features‘. Employees as individuals vary in their perceptions and
evaluation in regard to organizational practices. Supervisory treatment also may differ
from one employee to another depending on several psychological elements such as
their personal relationship. Brown and Leigh further explained that psychological
climate has a set of six dimensions, which are:
[T]he extent to which management is perceived as flexible and supportive,
role clarity, freedom of self-expression, the employee's perceived contribution
toward organizational goals, adequacy of recognition received from the
organization, and job challenge. (Brown and Leigh, 1996: 359)
Therefore, the view of an individual is important here since it determines the level of an
employee‘s commitment to their organization‘s goal as well as determining
interactional behaviour among both employee-leaders and employee-employees.
Absence of equal treatment induces negative interpersonal behaviour, devalues social
groups, lowers self-esteem, and reduces team-working efficiency (Goldman et al.,
2008).
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McKay et al. (2007) linked psychological climate to diversity management and level
of employment discrimination in organizations. They argued that the individual‘s
response and collaboration is essential in delivering diversity in management. Also,
Goldman et al. (2006: 801) stated that ‗substantial research reports that organizational
justice is related to both perceptions of employment discrimination and reactions to it.‘
Nevertheless, employees‘ perceptions and reactions are likely to reflect the management
style in the whole organization as well as their ability to accomplish their duties.
Therefore acquiring a positive response is dependent on how employees are motivated
toward diversity, and vice-versa. Confirming such a statement, King et al. (2009)
conducted a study to evaluate how gender inequality affects psychological climate in
male-dominated organizations. Their results showed that ‗a psychological climate of
gender inequity appears to contribute to a more negative work experience for women,
heightened intentions to leave their current organizations, and lower levels of helping‘
(King et al., 2009: 22).
3.7.7 Eliminating wasta
As well as the issues discussed previously in this chapter, wasta is another issue that
affects the implementation of EE in the Arab world. Depending on the context, wasta
can be seen as relating to social system, stereotype, or corruption. In fact, wasta has
been used even to ‗override established laws and traditions where they existed and are
used in place of relevant regulations and standards‘ (Hutchings and Weir, 2006: 148).
However, wasta may not be unique to the Arab world, but common to the whole world
as a universal human phenomenon (Faisal and Abdella, 1993). For example, some
scholars link and compare the concept of guanxi in Chinese culture with the concept of
wasta (Hutchings and Weir, 2006b). In western culture, the common expression ‗it is
not what you know but who you know‘ holds exactly the same meaning as wasta.
Moreover, Whiteoak et al. (2006: 81) introduced the concept ‗utility of wasta‘,
defining it as:
…the degree to which an individual perceives a person‘s success as being
related to their ability to utilize connections with people, who are both able
and prepared to change the course of natural events on that person‘s behalf.
(Whiteoak et al., 2006: 81)
As the authors argued, few studies have attempted to explore the influence of wasta
in the Middle East. However, Faisal and Abdella (1993) carried out one study looking at
wasta (or favouritism) as a means of exchanging benefits between society members in
013
such a way as to obtain financial, psychological, or societal benefits. Usually, three
parties are involved in the wasta process, the client, the mediator, and the patron.
Accordingly, the authors differentiated five common concepts that wasta usually
revolves around in the society of Saudi Arabia. These concepts are exchange of
benefits, personal relation, fazah, shafaah, and shafaqah. Although the authors did not
state a clear meaning for the last three concepts as they have different meaning
depending on the context, the researchers assigned a brief meaning to them in the
questionnaire used for the study. Hence, fazah means helping relatives is a duty;
shafaah is about helping someone because he/she deserve what they will get; and
shafaqah is about helping someone because of his/her poor state or because they might
lose their right.
The initial results of the study showed that the definition of wasta in Saudi society
concentrates mainly on shafaqah, then personal relation, exchange of benefits, shafaah,
and lastly fazah. However, after analyzing the collected data according to a multi-
method multi-trait design, a different order was shown. By using factor analysis, they
concluded that wasta occurs mainly between those in matching situations, and then
because of motive factors and shafaqah respectively.
Extending the argument above, wasta in employment can be defined as receiving
employment advantage such as recruitment or promotion, greater than what would be
expected based on merit or performance when compared to other competitors or
colleagues, because of someone‘s power, influence or authority in the organization.
Mohamed and Hamdy (2008) mention that wasta in Arab societies is considered an
essential element in employment security. It can be argued that the term wasta does not
necessarily include the desire to discriminate in itself. People seek for wasta because
they themselves, or one of their relatives, need to work and be financially supported.
The intention of discrimination might not be consciously in mind – they just think that
this is the only or the most effective way to get the job. However, discrimination can
still be a result of wasta as it excludes others, who might be more qualified, from the
same opportunity.
3.8 Culture and EE
Recognizing the influence that culture has on ethical management, Lu et al. (1999: 92)
stated that ‗culture is a fundamental determinant of ethical decision making‘. Pedriana
and Stryker (1997: 638) called culture ‗a resource of action‘ and treated equal
opportunities as a cultural value. They argued that culture has prominent influences on
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countries‘ laws and regulations, politics, economy, media and other aspects of human
life. It determines, directs, and explains why and how things appear around us in the
way they do. Thompson explained the relation between culture and discrimination in
three ways:
[I]ts role as a boundary marker can be used to exclude or marginalize other
groups… culture is, in itself, a site of discrimination… and cultural
assumptions are often of discriminatory nature. (Thompson, 1998: 15)
Therefore, studying EE or any of its factors or programmes requires a high level of
attention to the surrounding culture.
Several studies have been conducted to measure the influence of culture in general
and cultural dimensions in particular on one or more EE elements (see, for example,
Wang, 2011; Krause, 2009; Keddie, 2007; Rizzo et al., 2007; Al-Ghailani, 2005).
However, it is rare to find a study which has been involved in studying the whole set of
national culture – societal and organizational – in each of their two forms, values and
practices, to study their influences on the main elements of EE, as this study aims to do.
However, to provide context for this thesis, two studies will be briefly discussed
below which have partially addressed these issues, and the main points of their
conclusions will be outlined.
The first and the closest example is a PhD study called ‗A Study of the Relationships
between Attitudes toward Diversity Management and Cultural Preferences‘ submitted
by Richard Herrera (2008) to Our Lady of the Lake University in the United States. The
independent variables were the nine dimensions of the GLOBE organizational culture
practices and the dependent variables were attitudes toward diversity management,
which included CEO commitment, human capital, recruitment and retention, attitudes to
the disabled and to gay, lesbian, bi-sexual, and transgender individuals, and the
existence of a supplier diversity management system. A total of 225 students,
undergraduate and graduate, at Texas University were the sample for the study. The
results showed that there was a relationship between the nine cultural preferences
attitudes toward diversity management as revealed in Table 18, below.
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Table 18: Correlation between organizational culture (practice) and attitude
toward diversity
Organizational Culture
(practice)
Correlation with Attitude Toward Diversity
UA Negative
FO Negative
PD Positive
C1 non-significant
HO Negative
PO Negative
C2 Negative
GE non-significant
AS non-significant
Source: Author, based on data in Herrera, 2008.
Comparing the results of this study with the Seleim and Bontis (2009) study,
discussed earlier in this chapter, Table 19 provides a brief overview of similarities and
differences between the two studies.
Table 19: Correlation between cultural dimensions and attitude toward diversity
at organizational practice level and CPI (low corruption) at national practice level
Cultural
dimension
Correlation with Attitude toward
diversity at organizational practice level
Correlation with CPI (low corruption)
at national practice level
UA Negative Positive
FO Negative Positive
PD Positive Negative
C1 Not-significant Positive
HO Negative Negative
PO Negative Positive
C2 Negative Negative
GE Not-significant Not-significant
AS Not-significant Negative
Source: Author, based on data in Herrera, 2008, and Seleim and Bontis, 2009.
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As can be seen from Table 19, only three results out of nine were identical, those for
human orientation (HO), in-group collectivism (C2), and gender egalitarianism (GE).
The results for the other six dimensions contradict each other. Therefore, it is clear that
further investigation is necessary to clarify these contradictions, therefore the results of
this study will help to achieve a better understanding of the relationship between
cultural dimensions and EE factors.
Another example is Parboteeah et al.‘s (2005) cross-cultural study which was
conducted in 21 countries, only one of which, Turkey, is in the Middle East. The
objective of the study was to measure the effect of national culture on employees‘
willingness to justify ethically suspect behaviour. The study used six of the nine
GLOBE cultural dimensions as the researchers believed that these six dimensions were
most relevant to the area of study. The dimensions used were: uncertainty avoidance,
institutional collectivism, human orientation, performance orientation, power distance,
and assertiveness. The results showed that willingness to justify ethically suspect
behaviour is positively correlated with performance orientation and assertiveness, while
it is negatively correlated with power distance, uncertainty avoidance, institutional
collectivism, and humane orientation.
3.9 Conclusion
As part of the literature review, this provided an in-depth introduction to the concepts
involved in this study, followed by a critical evaluation of previous approaches related
to the concepts. The first concept is culture and, as illustrated in Chapter 2, culture is a
complicated concept to deal with. In 1952, a survey revealed that over 160 definitions
had been suggested to define culture (Kroeber and Kluckholm, 1952). Also, several
models have been introduced by scholars to assess culture, such as those of Hofstede
and the GLOBE studies. Although the debate is still ongoing about the relative merits of
these two models (Shi and Wang, 2011), the GLOBE model was chosen for use in this
study for and the reasons discussed in Chapter 2. Therefore, the GLOBE definition of
culture and GLOBE cultural dimensions for societal and organizational cultures were
selected for the purposes of this study.
In addition, Chapter 3 introduced the concept of employment equity and the different
frameworks which are related to equity and organizational justice. Accordingly, seven
factors have been were identified as critical success factors behind any effective
implication of equity in employment. The chapter then discussed how culture and
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employment equity are related to each other and how they are treated in the available
literature.
The chapter revealed the difficulty of comparing the situation of EE in western
countries with that in the Arab world. For almost 20 years, western scholars have been
negotiating the necessity of moving from the concept of providing equal opportunities
to disadvantage groups, to one of how to make better use of the qualities of all
employees at all levels (see, for example, Thomas, 1990). So while scholars in the
western world are evaluating the procedures necessary to their different equal
opportunities frameworks, scholars in the Arab world are negotiating the subject from
general perspectives without reference to any official or governmental EE plan of
action. Therefore, it is not a surprise that Muslim and Arab countries are lagging behind
the rest of world in EE concerns such as gender equality (Charrad, 2009).
However, it has been argued that studying discrimination within bureaucracies is not
an easy task for two main reasons: the difficulty of accessing organizations and tracking
a sample of the discriminated on the one hand, and on the other hand that negative
findings might be regarded as ethical issues (Guerin and Guerin, 2007).
Discrimination can be seen in a number of different manifestations. Ryan et al.
(2008) look at discrimination in health care by studying the impact of perceived
discrimination on diabetes management. Also, a study by Roehling et al. (2009: 192)
looked at weight discrimination among top CEOs in the United States, where
approximately one third of the adult population is regarded as obese. The authors
reported:
…the existence of an invisible barrier that prevents significant numbers of
overweight and particularly obese women, and obese men from reaching high
levels of success in business, similar to the ‗glass ceiling‘ encountered by
women and people of colour. (Roehling et al., 2009: 192)
Western countries have gone a long way in designing and implementing EE
approaches. However, the limited effectiveness of these approaches is shown by the fact
that employment discrimination still exists in the workplace (Uhlmann and Cohen,
2007). Such approaches may also not be suitable for implementation in the Arab world
because of the socio-cultural differences of Islamic societies (Syed, 2008). As a
solution, Syed et al. (2009: 77) suggest that EE in Muslim countries and elsewhere ‗will
remain unrealistic unless it is tackled simultaneously at macro-national, meso-
018
organizational and micro-individual levels independent of any political or ideological
agenda‘.
Therefore, this study will try to shed light on the influences of different cultural
preferences on EE. Such an attempt will hopefully provide a better understanding of the
relationship between societal and organizational culture on the one side and
discrimination phenomena in the public sector on the other. Therefore, in this chapter,
the study focused on clarifying the best-known approaches in employment equity and
the differences between these approaches. It also highlighted seven critical success
factors that contribute to effectively implementing employment equity in any
organization. At this stage, it was obvious that adopting EE within an organization
requires an in-depth understanding of the surrounding societal and organizational
culture.
In the next chapter, the study will provide an overview of the situation of EE in the
Sultanate of Oman through a discussion of the current situation in both the societal
culture and within the public sector. This will give a better understanding of the case
under study as well as enriching the content of the thesis from different perspectives.
019
Chapter Four
The context of the study:
Culture and equal employment opportunities in Oman
4: 0 Introduction
In this part of the study, the research will tackle the most important aspects which
formalize Omani culture. Not only Islam, family and tribalism, but also the impacts of
politics, economy, and globalization will be highlighted. Both societal and institutional
structures will be discussed in terms of equity and equality to provide an overview of
the current situation there.
The structure of societies and institutions plays a vital role in determining the degree
of equality in their own space. Collins (2003: 23) clarified how discrimination could
affect social inclusion, which is defined as ‗a type of welfarism in the sense that the
outcome sought is to improve the welfare of disadvantaged groups‘. Social inclusion,
from Collins‘s point of view, is the ‗key justification for anti-discrimination laws‘. Also,
Pfau-Effinger (2004) argued that employment is shaped not just by generally agreed
procedures but by the influence of the culture of the society throughout those
procedures. Consequently, the cultural, religious, social and educational backgrounds of
an employer play essential roles in its recruitment procedures, especially in the public
sector, because the sector is typically dominated by these elements more than by the
profit and loss statement.
In addition, many authors have emphasized that countries around the world vary in
culture from one to the other. Gupta and Ferguson observed that:
It is so taken for granted that each country embodies its own distinctive culture
and society that the terms ‗society‘ and ‗culture‘ are routinely simply
appended to the names of nation-state. (Gupta and Ferguson, 1992: 6)
Smith et al. argued for the importance of recognizing cultural differences between
Arab countries, stating that:
Even though most Arab nations share the same religion (Islam) and the same
language (Arabic), they differ in many other aspects such as their history,
social norms, traditions, dialects, political and economic systems, religious
denominations (Mathahib) and presence of substantial minorities. (Smith et
al., 2007: 278)
001
Therefore, in order to classify more precisely the culture of a specific nation within
the larger-scale classification of a cross-cultural research study such as that of Hofstede,
country-specific research is required (Whiteoak et al., 2006).
In the case of Omani culture, according to Al-Sharbati et al. (2003), the rapid
processes of modernization and acculturation have had their own cost. They stated:
Traditional tribal identification patterns gave way to a class system based on
wealth. Individualism emerged, the value of education replacing the value of
the family… frugality gave way to luxury, affluence and consumerism, and
egalitarianism gave way to formalism and simplicity to complexity. (Al-
Sharbati et al., 2003: 46)
Valeri (2005) described the Omani public sector, stating that:
Until now, the authorities… tolerated a high degree of nepotism in the
bureaucracy positions. It was the way for the heads of the administration to
promote the recruitment of people from their own ethnic or tribal group‘.
(Valeri, 2005: 8)
Looking at culture and management studies which concentrate on the Arab context,
most if not all researchers have focused on the influence of Islam and tribalism as the
main cultural attributes. However, in Arab societies, societal influences and institutional
influences are always interacting and can hardly be separated from each other
(Hutchings and Weir, 2006b). Even in new global initiatives such as e-government,
culture has its own role. For example, Alshihi (2006) studied the critical factors in the
adoption and diffusion of e-government initiatives in Oman and found that current
Omani culture is one of the obstacles to e-government implementation. Moreover, the
current political situation in the Arab world termed the ‗Arab Spring‘ shows that there
are other reasons, beside Islam and tribalism, which influence Arab citizens‘ reactions.
As Swailes et al. (2012: 360) stated: ‗Indeed, events in the ‗Arab Spring‘ of early 2011
give witness to the pressure the social contract is under‘. Therefore, it is important to
fully understand the surrounding environment of any study, and the following sections
of this chapter will explore this.
4.1 Oman on the Map
The Sultanate of Oman is one of six Arab countries which make up the Gulf
Cooperation Council (GCC). Geographically, Oman is located in southwest Asia on the
southeast coast of the Arabian Peninsula. As shown in Figure 3, the country borders the
United Arab Emirates to the north-west, Saudi Arabia to the west and Yemen to the
000
south-west. The coast is formed by the Arabian Sea to the south and east and the Gulf of
Oman to the north-east. According to the latest national population census held in 2003,
the population of Oman is approximately 2,340,815 and 23 per cent of that number is
non-Omani (www.mone.gov.om). The official language of the country is Arabic, and
Islam is the widespread religion of the country.
Figure 3: Geographical situation of Oman
Source: www.fao.org.
4.2 Societal structure and Equality
Involving the culture of the Sultanate of Oman in management and development
research requires a fundamental overview of the historical and sociological background
of the country and society. Neal et al. (2007: 295) describe Oman as ‗highly tribal,
firmly rooted in ‗paternalist‘ traditions of leadership and authority… has historical
002
traditions of long term domination by a European power‘. Therefore, in this section, the
researcher will address the most important features which have played an essential part
in forming the Omani societal culture and characterizing the Omani personality today.
To do so, the researcher, after considering the different relevant studies (see, for
example, Phillips, 1967; Ghubash, 1999; Owtran, 2004; Valary, 2009), identified
several factors in such a way as to provide the most useful understanding of this
particular culture. It will be apparent that many Omani cultural themes intersect with
Arab cultural attributes, while some of them remain purely Omani.
4.2.1 Historical influences
The country‘s strategic location in southwest Asia on the south-east coast of the Arabian
Peninsula provided her with an important geographical and political position to interact
and trade with other civilizations like Persia to the north, India to the east and Africa to
the south. According to the latest archaeological discoveries, Oman has deep roots in
history and a civilization which goes back 5000 years (www.omaninfo.com). The
country‘s old name ‗Majan‘ has been found in Sumerian tablets as a source of copper
(ibid.).
Therefore, to preserve itself and protect its sea trade from being attacked, Oman had
to have solid maritime power, which extended the authority of Oman, during certain
periods, to large areas of the Persian Gulf, Jawader in Pakistan, and some parts of East
Africa such as Zanzibar and Mombasa (Phillips, 1967; AlTaee, 2008). Many Omanis, at
that time, took advantage of the opportunity to travel to the new lands, especially East
Africa. A large number of those travellers settled and married African women (Peterson,
2004a).
On the other hand, such a valuable and effective position has also placed the country
at the centre of imperial ambitions. Therefore, it is not a surprise that Oman was through
history attacked and sometimes partly occupied by either its neighbours, Iran and
Yemen, or, more recently, by western colonial powers such as Portugal and Britain
(Rabi, 2007). For instance, Oman was the perfect location for Great Britain to protect its
position as a powerful empire in the Indian Ocean. Thus, the British involvement in
Oman, in Muscat in particular, was at its peak during the period 1798–1920 (Owtram,
2004). It is only forty years since the country was able to free itself of direct British
involvement in its affairs (Owtram, 2004).
However, colonial ambitions were mostly centred on the coastal area of the country.
Thus the interior remained mostly free of direct control and even had autonomy from
003
the authority of Muscat itself in some eras. Even the name of the country was the
‗Sultanate Muscat and Oman‘ in reference to the importance of Muscat as the most
important city of the state. This situation has led to the country, as Rabi (2007: 5) states,
‗falling into two largely self-contained divisions: the coast and the interior‘. Such
isolation had its own impact on the development of the interior of the country. The only
resource they had was agriculture and livestock farming. The coast was open to cultural
influences from outside, while the interior, which was most of time ruled by the Ibadhi
Imams, was intensively tied to tradition and tribalism (Rabi, 2007).
However, in the modern era, this isolated part of the country became a promising
region for oil discovery, which made it essential to reconsider its participation in the
country's economy and wealth. Hence, since the previous sultan, Said bin Taimour, who
realized the promising traits of this area, continuous attempts have been made to unify
the whole country under a single ruler and one policy. In 1959, Sultan Said managed to
control the whole country under his authority (‗Oman‘, World Encyclopedia, Philip's,
2008). After the current sultan, Qaboos Ben Said, took over from his father, Said ben
Timour, the country was renamed to ‗The Sultanate of Oman‘, which was officially
announced in August 1970 (AlTaee, 2008).
4.2.2 Islam from family to the state
Oman was one of the first Arab countries that responded to the invitation of the Prophet
Muhammad (PUH) to enter the new religion ‗Islam‘ (AlTaee, 2008). From then Islam
became the widespread religion in the country. As it is in the entire Arab world, Islam is
more than just a religion; it is a way of life (Ali, 1996). From the first day of a child‘s
birth, it is part of the Sunnah (Muslim faith) that his father should say the Azan (prayer
call) in his ears. From that moment, the family along with the whole community
continues to teach him the values of the religion in every single aspect of behaviour.
As religious tradition requires Muslims when starting any action in their lives, even
eating, to say the name of Allah ‗God‘, all aspects of Omani‘s lives are dominated by
Islam. Allah and only Allah should be considered in practising any life activities. As
Haddad and Esposito (1998: 149) state: ‗Islam, in time, became an integral part of tribal
society‘. Therefore all issues such as loyalty, marriage and divorce, friendship,
tolerance, justice, and any other kind of life and work experiences were all surrounded
by the Islamic way of living (Ali et al., 1997). Sentences like insha'a Allah or be ezn
Allah (if God will) can be heard continually through the day from parent to child, friend
to friend, and manager to employee. However, such an expression in certain cases
004
moves beyond its obvious meaning to be a means of delay or refusal, especially when it
is impolite to say ‗no‘ (Al Ismaily and McKiernan, 2007).
Within the Muslim society, Rejal Eldeen (religious men) are always viewed with
respect and appreciation, while those who are religiously negligent are looked at with an
eye of rejection and condemnation. Besides encouraging societal benevolence and other
praiseworthy behaviours, the ideology of Islam in many rural societies goes even
farther. People, especially, uneducated ones, started to link all things to Allah. Even
now, in some interior Omani villages, people link some climate phenomena to Allah.
They believe that if it is raining then Allah is satisfied and so he is pleasing this place
with water and if it is windy then Allah is angry because of someone‘s sin, perhaps the
pregnancy of an unmarried woman.
Although Islamic values have been always emphasized equity, equality and justice
among all people, still many complex issues related to human rights remain areas of
potential conflict. Kadivar indentified six areas of that conflict:
1) inequality between Muslims and non-Muslims, 2) inequality between men
and women, 3) inequality between slaves and free human beings, 4) inequality
between commoners and jurists in public affairs, 5) freedom of conscience and
religion versus punishment for apostasy, and 6) extra-judicial punishments,
violent punishment and torture. (Kadivar, 2009: 47)
These topics have been strongly and broadly debated, especially gender issues,
among Muslim Fuqah'a (religious men), human right activists, and intellectuals (Mir-
Hosseini, 2009). For instance, El Hajjami (2009, 108), after considering evidence from
Qur'an, and hadith (the sayings of Prophet Mohammed, PUH) stated that:
The egalitarian construction of identity in Islam consists in recognition of sex
differences as an unassailable fact, without, however, predetermining any
skills or roles whatsoever… [or] erect a hierarchy between the two sexes or to
deduce from any predetermination that would justify discrimination, violence
or the exclusion of women. (El Hajjami, 2009: 108)
He also argues that the Qur'an opposes any type of discrimination among people,
whether in regard to their sex, race, colour, wealth, or rank (El Hajjami, 2009).
Although Islam is the only religion recognized in the country according to the Basic
Law of the State (Oman Constitution), the country is not fully ruled by Islamic
regulations.
005
4.2.3 Grouping (tribes, ethnicity, and classes)
Omani society, as Peterson (2007: 32) describes, is ‗essentially tribal in nature‘ and this
tribal ideology ‗in some cases, comes first even before religion‘ (Al Ismaily and
McKiernan, 2007: 90). McKiernan and Al-Ismaily (2007: 94) state that: ‗there are over
three thousand tribes… depending upon the tribal values, the behaviour of Omanis
varies considerably‘. In some cases, even the social status of a person and his level of
wealth can be identified immediately from his Qabilah’ (tribe) name (Al-Moharby, and
Khatib, 2007). Unfortunately, there are limited studies which explain the classification
of the current Omani society or groups. Besides, the main concern of these studies is
with tribal distributions. However, the researcher here will distinguish the different
ethnic groups in Oman according to their language and sect, because, as Peterson
(2004a: 32) describes: ‗Ethnic boundaries in Oman are not, generally speaking, defined
by territory, occupation, or even class, but rather by language or sect, or both‘.
However, as geographical origin as well as the person‘s social class do both play an
essential role in this matter, they will also be considered. Therefore, Omani society can
be classified into the groups defined below.
4.2.3.1 Mazhab-based group
The term ‗Mazhab‘ refers to Islamic religious sects. As today, there are three main sects
in the Islamic world, Sunni, Shi'a (majority) and Ibadhi (minority). Oman is known as
the only Arab country which since the early Islamic era has largely practised Ibadhism
and became the historical centre of that sect (Peterson, 2004a).
Therefore, Ibadhism, for hundreds of years, has had an influence on the state and
even on the election method of the Imam (the old name for the Omani ruler) (Ghubash,
1999; and Rabi, 2007). Although Article (2) of the Omani constitution states that Islam
is the official religion of the country (The Basic Law of the Sultanate of Oman, 2006)
without mentioning any Sects, the highest Islamic authority in the country, Elmufti
(General Mufti of the sultanate), a position which is nominated only by the Sultan, has
been always Ibadhi. This becomes more understandable when we know that Elmufti is
the one who represents the country in any Islamic event either inside or outside the
country. However Ibadhism has not been as politically empowered politically in the
coastal region of the country as it was in the interior, and nowadays, it is not
empowered to such a degree in the whole country. The political position among Arab
and Muslim countries has never been characterized in reference to Ibadhism (Valeri,
2009: 74).
006
Currently, Ibadhism is not the only Sect in Oman, Sunni and Shi'i Sects are there as
well. Most of the Sunnis are religiously loyal to the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia while
Shi'a show their religious loyalty to Iran. The accurate percentage of these Sects among
the Omani nation is not known since it has never been officially surveyed. However,
Valeri (2009: 128) estimated that: ‗Ibadhi Omanis appear to number 48 to 53% of the
whole population, Sunnis 45 to 49% and Shi'a 3 to 4%‘. Each sect is dominant in some
cities like Ibadhis in Ad-Dakhliyah region, Sunnis in Dhufar and ash-Sharqiah region,
and Shi'a in wilayat Muttrah. Other parts of the country contain a mixture of all three
sects.
4.2.3.2 Language-based groups
Omanis differ in terms of their mother tongue depending on their original region.
According to several studies (Valeri, 2009; Al-Ismaily and McKiernan, 2007; Peterson,
2007), Omani groups can be distinguished as the following:
Baluchi-speaking group: originally from Baluchistan, this group came to Oman at the
request of Omani rulers to prevent the interior from attacking the coastal region
(Valeri, 2009). According to Al-Ismaily and McKiernan (2007: 35), there are
approximately 405,400 Omanis of Baluchi origin (19 per cent of the total
population), but Valeri (2009: 22) estimates the number to be between 200,000
and 300,000. The second estimate seems to be more accurate from this
researcher‘s experience. In addition, because of language similarity and region of
origin, Baluchis are close to other, smaller Omani groups like AlZdjahi and
AlHoti.
Swahili-speaking (or Zanzibari) group: After the revolution in 1964 in Zanzibar,
some Omanis, who were settled there as explained earlier in this chapter, returned
to Oman, while others moved to other parts of East Africa. However, the majority
of them made their way with their families back to the country after the strong
economic growth of the 1970s and 1980s. Peterson (2004a) identifies three sub-
groups of this group. The first is Omanis who went to Africa and settled there.
The second is Omanis who were born in East Africa of parents born in Oman.
And the third sub-group is Omani traders who regularly have two families, one in
Oman and the other in Africa. Peterson (2004a: 47) also asserts that some
members of this group ‗possess some African blood‘. Because of such an
overlapping, it is very hard to estimate the numbers of this group.
007
Khojki-speaking group: also called Lawatia and which is also their surname (Qabilah
or tribal name, see Section 5.2.3.4). The origin of this Shi'a group is in the Indian
sub-continent (Al-Ismaily and McKiernan, 2007). As well as those living in some
other Gulf countries (Peterson, 2004a), there are approximately between 20,000 to
30,000 whom live in Oman, particularly in Muscat, the capital (Valeri, 2009).
Although, they represent a minority compared to the first two groups, many of
them today hold economically and politically significant positions within the
Omani government, for example as ministers and ambassadors. Other Lawatia are
also economically powerful within the country. Among other Omanis, Lawatis are
closer to other small Omani Shi'a groups like Ajam (from southern Iran) and
Baharina (from northern Gulf areas and Iraq).
4.2.3.3 Geographically-based groups
These groups are either a governmental creation under political influence or are defined
by a distinct geographic situation. Beside the governorate of Muscat, which is the
capital, there are three other governorates (Dhufar, Musandam, and Al Buraimi) and
five regions (Al-Batinah, Al-Dakhiliyah, Al-Sharqiyah, Al-Dhahira, and Al-Wusta).
Among all this diversification, people from the three governorates (Dhufar, Musandam,
and Al-Buraimi) express a distinct identity.
Generally, Musandam and Al-Buraimi can be categorized under one umbrella.
Musandam is the most northerly region in the country while Al-Buraimi lies in the
north-western corner of the Sultanate (Oman Tourism Portal). They both border the
United Arab Emirates (UAE). Indeed, most of their people dress like Emiratis and speak
with and Emirati accent. Their distance from the capital has made them traditionally
closer to the UAE with which they are cohesive by family relationship and marriage.
However, this group has not received much attention in the literature, particularly from
a societal point of view.
The third governorate (Dhufar) is located in southern Oman and borders with
Yemen. Peterson (2007: 34) describes Dhufar as a ‗geographically and culturally
distinct region… and the people of the mountains speak several south Arabian
languages‘. This governorate is separated from other parts of the country by more than
800 kilometres of desert. Dhufar contains 9.5 per cent of the total population of the
sultanate (www.moneoman.gov.om). Dhufaris, as Al-Ismaily and McKiernan (2007:
36) noted, ‗speak the Hadhrami dialect of Arabic as well as pockets of other languages
that trace their roots to ancient Assyrian and Hebrew‘. Despite their representation
008
among the total population, Peterson (2007: 416) mentioned that ‗some northern
Omanis complained that Dhufaris were getting far more than their fair share of oil
revenues: some 40 per cent of government expenditure in and just after the war years‘.
4.2.3.4 Origin-based groups
Omanis are also are classified in three main categories regardless of their group or
native region (Valeri, 2009). Each Omani has a Qabilah (surname) which refers to his
tribe. The tribe is dominated by the Sheikh who is at the top of the hierarchy. In many
cases, according to Al-Ismaily and McKiernan (2007: 86), the tribe itself has ‗its
hierarchical sub-divisions (e.g. Batn, Fakhda, Humula, Fasila, etc.)‘ ending with one's
own family. Within one tribe, Al Qubeliy, those who are classified as ‗first class‘ and
sometime called Asli (original) originally have Arabian tribal roots (Al-Ismaily and
McKiernan, 2007). The head of this tribe is always from this class.
The majority of Omanis are Qubeliy and generally they can be classified into three
sub-groups. The first two sub-groups are interior (Hadhar) and coastal (Ahl elbahar).
These two groups were created due to the division between the two parts of the country.
Ahl elbaha are more open and overwhelming while Hadhar are more tough and
rigorous. Indeed the geography of the place has affected their personality since there are
surrounded by the mountains and very hot temperature. The third sub-group is the Badu
(nomad) group who usually live in the desert and mostly depend on livestock breeding,
especially camels.
The second class is Zuti or baysar ‗gypsies‘ which consists of mixed race
individuals, tribes‘ prisoners of war, or those seeking asylum (Valeri, 2009). Peterson
(2004a: 48) describes this group as a ‗non-tribal group of unknown origin, occupying a
low-caste position in society and performing such tasks as metalworking, carpentry, and
circumcisions‘. However, the number of this group is considered small in Oman
(Peterson, 2004a).
Finally, the third or lowest level is abid or khadim, who were originally black slaves
(Abeed) (Valeri, 2009). The majority of this group trace their origins back to the Omani
occupation of East Africa when both the Omani regime and Omani businessmen were
deeply involved in the slave trade. In 1824 there was a slave market in Muscat, near
where the ships landed (Phillips, 1967). Although, in 1873 the Omani government
signed a slave trade suppression policy with Britain, the tribal leaders refused to accept
the agreement. Until the year of 1962, noted, Muscat, Dubai, and Buraymi were known
as ‗important centers of the slave trade‘ (Rabi, 2007: 148). Therefore, it is not a surprise
009
to know that some Omanis still use the word ‗Abeed‘ in reference to black people, even
if they are Omanis, though it is legally prohibited.
In general, it is possible to find the three levels within one tribe and under one
Qabilah (surname). Only in Dhofar, as Valeri (2009: 15) noticed, do ‗lower groups bear
distinct surnames‘. However, slave trafficking is no longer practised in Oman (Albans,
1980). On the other hand, although the government, apparently at least, places strong
emphasis on equality between all Omanis, still they are socially unequal and there are
restrictions on marriage between the three levels and sometimes between members of
the same groups in one level as well.
In conclusion to this section, it is worth noting that, as Peterson states:
One of the undeniable results of the rapid process of socioeconomic
development of the past thirty years has been the emergence of a system of
recruitment and advancement strongly based on merit, regardless of social and
racial background. This is not to say that social standing, tribal or regional
leadership, or family and marriage connections no longer count – but that they
are employed more to tweak the system, rather than to determine its operation.
(Peterson, 2004a: 51)
However, to what extent is that general statement true, particularly at the societal
level? Still it is negotiable.
4.2.4 Gender
Islamic gender issues, along with the tribal hierarchy system as briefly discussed above,
have created a complex gender stereotype within Omani society. This Omani gender
stereotype, as is the case in most other Arab countries, has enlarged the distance been
the two sexes and made the gender gap deeper. It has led to clearly defined gender roles
for all members of society. For instance, family affairs are divided between the husband
and his wife to according to definite responsibilities. The role of a man is to financially
secure his family, while a woman‘s main responsibility is to handle the housework and
taken care of the children (Al-Moharby and Khatib, 2007). As Syed observes:
It must be noted that a woman‘s income, according to Islam, remains
completely hers, whether through inheritance or employment. No one
including her father and her husband can make any claim on it… it is the duty
of her husband or father to afford her personal and household expenses‘.
(Syed, 2008: 140)
According to the Ministry of Social Development website, the first Omani women‘s
society was established in Oman in 1971, and today there are 38 women‘s organizations
021
around the country (www.mosd.gov.om). However, these organizations are mostly
involved only in traditional women‘s activities and domestic principles. These
organizations are still ‗[l]imited to those tied to the government and, like the
government, have not yet challenged many unequal legal traditional practices‘ (Keddie,
2007: 156). However, Freedom House Organization reported in February 2009 that
Omani women are playing an increasing role in new and significant areas and gaining
further rights, both politically and socially. However, according to the same report,
Omani women ‗continue to face significant legal and social obstacles, and are required
to obtain the written consent of a male relative before undergoing any kind of surgery‘
(www.freedomhouse.org).
In the workplace, the situation regarding functional promotion (internal recruitment)
shows a similar picture. Statistics show that men hold the majority of the highest grades,
which generally relate to higher functional positions. Indicators for the year 2007 show
that 22,013 males occupy the highest seven grades in the public sector, while there are
just 3,501 women occupying the same grades (ibid.). Miles (2002: 413) attributes such
barriers to females‘ participation and employment to ‗two main sources: the larger
culture and families; and the state and employers‘. This was confirmed by Elnaggar
(2007: 14) in his research on Omani women working in the IT sector, in which he
concluded that: ‗Females are still responding to gender stereotyping... Socio-cultural
norms are perceived and constantly expected by females to be a barrier discouraging
them from joining the ICT areas when studying and working.‘
These beliefs and stereotypes play fundamental roles in both social and managerial
decisions. Keddie (2007: 155), while describing the situation of women in Omani
society, states clearly that ‗[m]any women still face job discrimination.‘ Looking at the
employment indicators for Oman published by the Ministry of National Economy, the
problem may not be recognized at the first sight. In fact the numbers given even present
a bright picture, especially when it comes to gender equity in recruitment. For example,
at the end of 2007, the employment statistics show that the total number of Omani
employees in the civil services is 99,896. Of the total, 59,939 are men and 39,957 (40
per cent) are women. However, it must be questioned whether these figures represent
genuine gender equity. Looking more deeply at the statistics, it is apparent that women
are mostly recruited in education and health, with these sectors accounting for 37,096
out of the 39,957 (92.8 per cent). Excluding these two sectors, there are less than 3,000
women employed compared to more than 30,000 men (www.moneoman.gov.om).
020
What makes this problematic situation even worse is the remarkable and continuous
growth in the number of Omani females entering high education (Keddie, 2007).
According to the educational statistics, the percentage of females was between 48 and
50 per cent at all stages of education in 2007. This figure applies to both the social
sciences and technical and scientific sectors. For example, in Sultan Qaboos University
(SQU), the only state university in Oman, the percentage of females is 48 per cent in
both the Agriculture & Marine Science College and Commerce & Economics College,
56 per cent in the Science College, and 79 per cent in Health Services. In total, the
average of female representation across all of SQU‘s colleges is 48 per cent, which is in
accordance with the overall educational statistics for 2007 (www.moneoman.gov.om).
As it can be realized, this situation is worsening the problem because many of today‘s
female graduates do not hold teaching certificates even though this is the only
significant area of female graduate employment in the public sector, as discussed above.
This mismatch between women in education and women in employment has not
been recognized in government statistics or any government agenda. This situation can,
however, be related to gender stereotypes and gender role as asserted by the Omani
social system. There is no sign of any employment equity approach, as EEO is
concerned with enhancing merit while the goal of AA is to provide equal representation
throughout society, and this should not be limited to a restricted number of sectors or
roles.
4.2.5 Globalization
According to Held et al., globalization is:
…a process, or set of processes, which embodies a transformation in the
spatial organization of social relations and transactions – assessed on their
extensity, intensity, velocity and impact – generating transcontinental or
interregional flows and networks of activity, interaction, and the exercise of
power. (Held et al., 1999: 16)
In this context, ‗flows‘ go beyond just the transfer of products, but also includes the
movement of people and their informational interaction. The resulting openness to the
world and its values, culture and knowledge has an impact on the personality, tradition,
and lifestyle of those exposed to it, and in some cases can create a distinct gap between
generations (Ghirlanda et al., 2006: 1028).
Whiteoak et al. (2006) argued that the influences of modernization and
westernization have not been significantly explored in the Arab world. In the Omani
022
context, the new, wealthy Omani renaissance has provided a great opportunity to open
both the country and its people to the rest of the world. This openness to the world, a
revolution in information and other technologies, and modern lifestyle, have all
provided Omanis with easier access to a broader range of knowledge. Additionally, by
sharing their views and thoughts with outsiders, Omanis gain better understanding of
world ‗democracy‘ and became more aware of their civil rights as citizens. Moaddel
argued that:
Cultural change is a complex process, involving changes in (1) people‘s
values, rituals, bases of identity, and lifestyle; (2) principles of social
organization; (3) arts and literature; and (4) religious beliefs, institutions, and
movements. (Moaddel, 2009: 127)
In addition, international organizations, such as the United Nations Development
Programme (UNDP) and the World Bank, put pressure on the government to modernize
its public administration style (Common, 2008). To cope with the global movement and
satisfy the external influence, Oman has adopted a national strategy called ‗Oman
Vision 2020‘. One purpose of this multi-dimensional strategy is to ‗develop Omanis by
raising their skills, standards and abilities to face the 21st century and to reduce the main
challenge of illiteracy‘ (Al-Hamadi et al., 2007: 103). In addition, many laws and
regulations has been changed or modified to suit both the international investment
environment as well as the main requirements of the World Trade Organization and the
global marketplace (Mellahi, et al., 2003).
One final, but important, issue is that the process of globalization has opened the
country to wider management approaches. Aycan et al. (2007: 11) argued that
‗Globalization accelerates the transfer not only of products and services among nations,
but also of management know-how and practice‘. Therefore Oman, like most Middle
Eastern countries, has imported several western management models and styles. In
practice, most of these models are in some way modified to suit the cultural context of
Middle Eastern organizations, but still this western hegemony has direct and indirect
impacts on employee attitudes and organizational behaviour in Middle East countries in
general and Oman in particular.
4.3 Institutional Structure and Equality
Oman is governed by the Sultan, who occupies the highest political position in the
Sultanate absolute monarchy. The position of Sultan is enshrined within a succession to
023
the male descendants of Sai'id Turki bin Said bin Sultan (The Basic Law, Article 5). In
addition to his various positions such as prime minister and supreme commander of the
armed forces, all other political positions within the government are nominated directly
by the Sultan himself. Only since 2003 has there been any direct election process, to
elect the members of the Consultative Council (Majlis al-Shura) (Aycan et al, 2007:
13). However, candidates are not allowed to use public media to present their thoughts
or future plans. The role of the Majlis al-Shura ‗remains limited to social and economic
matters, and it can only review government policies and not initiate legislation‘
(Peterson, 2004b: 134). Above all this, any kind of political party is illegal in Oman
(Allen and Rigsbee, 2000). Beside the consultative council, there is the Majlis Al-Dolah
(council of the state), the members of which are appointed directly by the sultan. The
two councils together form the Council of Oman which is also presided over by the
sultan.
Since its beginnings in 1970, the current government has realized the importance of
creating harmony among the diverse social composition of the Omani community on
the one hand, and the influence of the hierarchical system within that society on the
other. Initially, this early understanding was essential to ensure stabilization of the
country‘s development. It also had to consider the economic privileges which were
enjoyed by some families. However, such a process is never ending. In fact the
government itself altered the social hierarchy as new social classes were created with
government recognition. Today, the Omani social hierarchy can be described in
descending order as: Sahib alsemo (His highness); Sai'id (Sir); Sheikh (head of tribe);
and Rasheed (head of a tribe sect or part of a tribe, but lower than Sheikh). The majority
of these groups receive a monthly salary because of their social class, either from the
Diwan of Royal Court or the Ministry of Internal Affairs.
Indeed, these groups are socially empowered by society in general and also by
government practices. As Peterson (2004a: 51) explains, ‗ethnic, and especially tribal,
affiliation continues to play an important role in social interactions and employment‘. In
Oman, there are no published statistics available regarding the level of representation of
the groups discussed above within Omani organizations. Nevertheless, indications of
that distribution can be recognized for some positions within both public and private
sectors. For example, looking at ministerial positions in 2010, it is obvious that many
senior levels are restricted to certain positions in certain tribes.
024
Of the 32 ministers who form the cabinet, 10 are Sahib alsemo and Sai'id, 11 are
Sheikh, and 4 are Lawatis (www.omanet.om). Also, all the religionist positions in the
government are been held by Abadiyah. Additionally, Shi'a (especially Lawati Tribe)
hold most of the important financial positions (Minister of National Economy, Minister
of Commerce & Industry, and the Vice- President of the Oman Central Bank), while
,the Swahili language group is widespread in the banking and oil sectors. In addition,
most Omani ambassadors are chosen from the Dhufar region. No doubt, governmental
practices must have created an expectation for particular characteristics for these
positions among the Omani nation. One reason for this, in the view of Friedman (2007),
is related to the society‘s acceptance of high power distance, where top management is
reserved for certain classes and so cannot be opened to all citizens. Peterson (2004a: 51)
concluded that, ‗It is undeniable that a certain measure of discrimination still exists
within Omani society‘.
4.4 Demography
From less than one million in 1970, the total population of Oman has increased almost
three times in just forty years. According to official statistics published in 2008 by the
Ministry of National Economy (MoNE), the total population of Oman is approximately
2,743,000. Of this number, 1,992,697 are Omanis (almost two thirds), while 820,000
are non-Omanis (www.mone.gov.om). The distribution of the population between
different governorates and regions is shown in Figure 4 below.
025
Figure 4: Distribution of Omani population among different governorates and
regions
Source: Adapted from www.mone.gov.om (accessed 06 October 2009).
Also, from the published statistics, many interesting indications can be identified.
Firstly, women and men are almost equal in number. Secondly, it can be recognized that
over 50 per cent of the total Omani population are 19 years old or younger, which
means that Oman is a young society. Also, almost 75 per cent of the total population is
under 30 years old, which means that they never experienced the country‘s poor
economic situation before 1970, and therefore three-quarters of Omanis may not have
the same level of appreciation of what the new renaissance has changed as do older
Omanis. In fact, the new generation today is asking for democracy and equality and
more freedom of speech and of the press. In addition, most of this large percentage is
currently either in education and therefore a potential job seeker, or is actively looking
for work. This puts great pressure on the government to create new jobs as well as to
ensure equality in staffing (see Appendix 1 for a note on the current situation in Oman).
Another essential element which needs to be mentioned here is that all of the main
government bodies are based in the capital, Muscat. Therefore, most public sector
employees work in Muscat and many of them live without their families because of the
high cost of living. Only small branches of some of these bodies, related mainly to the
civil service, are available in each governorate or region. In many cases, the main
decisions will be taken in Muscat and people need to go there if they need to speed up
the bureaucratic process or have any objections regarding a decision that has been made.
Muscat Governorate
Dhufar Governorate
AI - Wusta region
Ash - Sharqiyah region
Ad - Dakhliyah region
Adh - Dhahirah region
Musandarn Governorate
AI-Batinah region
026
4.5 Economy and Human Development
As Hofstede (2006: 885) stated, ‗many measures of national culture are correlated with
national wealth (or national poverty): they are affected by economic factors‘. Until
1970, Oman was almost isolated from the entire world and reliable demographic or
economic data was largely absent (Winckler, 2005). During the 1960s, approximately
70,000 Omani men were working in other Gulf states because of the miserable financial
situation in their country (O'Sullivan, 2009: 238). At that time there were no schools for
girls and only three primary schools for boys with 909 students, all of whom were
personally selected by the Sultan himself (Funsch, 2006). The situation for the health
system was no better than that for education. There were only two hospitals, both in the
capital, with 12 beds and 13 doctors, and just a few dispensaries distributed among
other parts of the country (www.moh.gov.om). Simply put, the country was run without
any clear strategy for human development (Oman, Human Resource Development
Report, 2003).
Today, the manifestations of modern development in Oman, as in all GCC countries,
are due to the discovery of oil and gas (O‘Sullivan, 2009). The World Bank now
classifies Oman as an ‗upper-middle-income‘ developing country (World Encyclopedia,
Philip‘s, 2008) and the United Nations Human Development Report (UNDP, 2009)
categorizes the country as high in human development, ranked 56th among world
countries and 12th among Arab countries. As Smith (1988) noted, ‗money from oil…
has brought the Omanis through development that took a thousand years in Europe in
less than 20 years‘.
Governments always give high priority in their national policy to human
development issues such as education, health services, labour market and human rights,
strategies. By the end of 2000, there were more than 993 schools in operation around
the country and the number of public health service centres had reached 165, along with
the provision of all other basic human development necessities (CERD, 2006). Aycan et
al. (2007: 13) described the magnitude of the progress achieved, stating that: ‗The
country has undergone a transformation from a harshly ruled, isolationist sultanate into
an economically liberalized monarchy seeking to integrate the country into the global
economy‘.
So, on the one hand, forty years of wealthy renaissance have significantly affected
the societal and organizational culture in a number of different ways. Nonetheless, the
decline of oil production and revenues since the late 1990s has created new challenges
027
(Owtram, 2004). This dramatic economic situation, along with continued population
growth, has cast a shadow over the various development plans. After forty years of
progress due to oil revenues, it seems that the future needs to be carefully looked at in
such a way as to maintain the current standard of living and strongly prohibit any
unequal distribution of resources or opportunities. Already, the government has
implemented some initial strategies, such as Omanization and privatization, which
could potentially help to diversify both employment opportunities and sources of
revenue in the economy (Al-Hamadi et al., 2007).
4.6 Current Issues of EE in the Omani Public Sector
The rapid positive movement of human development in Oman has substantially
enlarged the public sector. From a total of 1,750 employees in 1970 (Abdul-Khaliq,
1989), the number of civil service employees increased to over 100,000 employees at
the end of 2008 (MoNE, 2009). This number does not include the Ministry of Defence
(MoD) or the Royal Oman Police (ROP) as they have their own system and there are no
statistics published.
However, several governmental laws and regulations have been adopted to cope with
the rapid development of the whole country. This began with the establishment of a
civil service department under the Diwan of Royal Court in 1973, then in 1975 the civil
service council was established, and in 1980 civil service law was introduced to monitor
the whole employment process in the civil service. In 1988, the Ministry of Civil
Services was established to manage the recruitment and promotion procedures in those
civil service ministries – the majority of them – which fell under the civil service law
(Al-Ghailani, 2005).
The Civil Service Law (CSL) was amended several times to better serve its purposes.
The latest version of the CSL was issued by Royal Decree No. 120/2004 of 28
December 2004 (www.mosc.gov.om). However, through all these amendments, the law
has never provided any reference to the concept of EEO or explicitly clarified any of its
issues. Only three articles could be directly related to EEO, and these are: Article 15,
which states that the selection of public sector employees is based on merit only; Article
28, which states that promotion is based on merit and seniority; and Article 140-A,
which sets the retirement age at 60. To some extent, CSL emphasizes women‘s rights in
some very specific issues, which are: Article 79, full salary leave for four months and
ten days in case of husband‘s death, starting from the date of the husband‘s death;
Article 80, maternity leave for fifty days on full salary for a maximum of five times
028
throughout the whole period of service; and Article 81, not more than one year of
unpaid leave to care for her newborn baby.
Although there is no written or published policy under the name of ‗equal
opportunities policy‘ in Oman, all the employment regulations in the public sector
prevent discrimination according to any aspect in recruitment and promotion
procedures. Above all, the basic law of the state aims to ensure equality between
citizens both in a general sense and in employment. It is clearly stated in Article 12-1
that ‗Justice, equality and equality of opportunity among Omanis are the pillars of
society, guaranteed by the State‘. Further, Article 12-7 states, ‗Public employment is a
national service entrusted to those who carry it out. The State employees while
performing their work shall seek to serve the public interest and society. Citizens are
considered equal in taking up public employment according to the provisions of the
Law‘. Moreover, Article 17 asserts that, ‗All citizens are equal before the Law, and they
are equal in public rights and duties. There shall be no discrimination between them on
the grounds of gender, origin, colour, language, religion, sect, domicile or social status‘
(Ministry of Information, 2010).
However, real practice does not seem to exactly reflect what is stated in the law. This
is because either pervious articles have not been fully implemented, or equality has a
conditional meaning in the Omani context. At present, conditions like the age, gender,
or region of the candidates are always stated in job advertisements in local newspapers
(see, for example, the advertisement of the Ministry of Civil Service, No. 41/2009, at
http: //www.mocs.gov.om/tabid/204/Default.aspx). According to such adverts, younger
and male candidates are always more favourable to employers than older ones or
women. Indeed, such a choice has not been based on quality as much as the recruiter‘s
personal opinions or orientations. McGoldrick and Arrowsmith (1993) mention that,
‗discriminatory practices may begin in the initial advertising process, by the placing of
age-bars to discourage application from non-preferred age categories‘. As McGoldrick
and Arrowsmith (1993: 63) argued, ‗By arbitrarily excluding groups of people on the
basis of age alone, employers not only ignore the positive contributions which older
workers may make, they are also refusing to consider some of the potentially best
candidates for the job‘. A successful recruitment process should not involve any
reference to any personal orientation, and competition on vacancies has be open to all,
regardless of age, religion, gender or any other aspect of discrimination.
029
Another aspect of discrimination in the public sector can be recognized in
employees‘ wages. While there are no differences between employees with regard to the
main monthly payment as stated in the grade tables, some employees get what are called
‗exceptional allowances‘ in their basic salaries without any announced procedure. It has
been argued that ‗equitable pay is difficult to achieve without rightsized and
professional public service‘ (WPSR, 2005: x). This argument is generally supported by
the Civil Service Law. Article 37 mentions that extra allowances can be granted by a
chief of department to high-performing employees, once or twice a year, with a
maximum of four allowances per grade. Also, Article 38 states that extra allowances
can be granted by the chief of department in appreciation of an employee‘s
performance. Looking at the actual practice, there is no sufficient performance
evaluation procedure which is applicable and can clearly determine which employees
qualify for such additional payments.
Besides the inadequate level of the Omani workforce compared to growing demand
in the labour market and the high percentage of unemployment, providing females with
more opportunities to participate in the labour force is another challenge to the Omani
government (www.moneoman.gov.om; Oman Human Development Report, 2003). As
mentioned earlier in this chapter, Omani females still suffer from employment
discrimination. However, the government from the highest level has been trying its best
to encourage gender equality. For example, the Sultan raised this issue through his 2009
yearly speech in the Council of the State, stating that:
Since the beginning of this era, to the participation of Omani women in the
march of the blessed renaissance, so we have provided them with education,
training and employment opportunities and supported their role and status in
society. We have also stressed the need for their contribution in various
development spheres. We have facilitated this through regulations and laws
that guarantee their rights and explain their duties in order to be able to
develop their inner abilities, expertise and skills to build their country and
raise its status. We are continuing on this path. (ONA, 2009)
Another issue which has also recently gained the Sultan‘s attention is the fight
against corruption at senior levels in the public sector. According to the Corruption
Perceptions Index (CPI) for the year 2007, Oman was one of those countries in which
the level of corruption had significantly increased (http: //www.arabianbusiness.com).
Such an indicator affects both the country profile and its international reputation, and
part of the problem is that ministers are provided with ultimate power without any kind
031
of obvious oversight (Al-Ghailani, 2005). The Sultan expressed his concern regarding
this issue in his annual speech for 2008, stating that:
Here, it is worth noting that the government‘s performance in laying down the
groundwork for sustainable development relies on those carrying out their
duties, as well as on their supervisors... If their work is carried out in an honest
manner and with a spirit of responsibility, away from personal interests, then
they would be happy and so would their country. But if they stray from the
right path and consider the job as a means to achieving personal gains,
influence and power and they linger in carrying out their duties in complete
honesty and dedication, they should be held accountable and legal procedures
should be taken against them in accordance with the principles of justice upon
which we have laid down the pillars of rule. In accordance with these pillars,
we are required not to allow anyone to be above law and order, or to let
anyone unlawfully affect the interests of our people as guaranteed by the State
as well as the interests of the community which is protected by legislation and
supported by our laws and regulations. Therefore, we emphasise that the issue
of enforcement of justice is imperative and inevitable, and that our monitoring
apparatus is alert and dedicated to carrying out their duties and responsibilities
in order to safeguard the country‘s achievements.
This concern from the Sultan himself is vital because most of the important issues in
Arab countries in general, and Oman in particular, are usually based on the knowledge
and personal preferences of senior leaders (Common, 2008). Moreover, such an issue
will not be effectively addressed and dealt with unless the impetus to do so comes from
the Sultan himself.
With regard to academic studies, it is hard to find any Omani scholar who undertakes
any study concerning management issues without referring to the influences of societal
or institutional culture. In the findings of many of these studies, issues related to EEO
are mostly raised either explicitly or implicitly. For instance, Al-Hamadi (2004)
conducted a study to investigate the impact of value orientations, ethical beliefs,
national culture and national institutions on HRM policies and practices in Oman. He
relied on Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck‘s (1961) framework on value orientations for the
reasons presented above and also because these value orientations are close to Islamic
values. The results of the study confirmed that cultural preferences and Islamic values
have a significant impact on different HRM practices, although this impact might vary
according to context and demographic characteristics. He also mentioned the influence
of family and personal relations on employees‘ decisions, stating that, ‗personnel
decisions are often driven by personal connections, rather than objective job related
criteria which may benefit the broader civic interest‘ (ibid.: 260).
030
Furthermore, Al-Ghailani (2005) conducted another study on the effect of social
principles on recruitment and selection procedures in the Omani public sector. The
findings of the field study showed a strong tendency toward recruiting and promoting
males, while females struggled to access key posts. The results also led to a provocative
finding, that:
Contrary to the ambitions of the law where merit is considered the
determinants, experts interviewed emphasized that seniority is the determinant
in grade-to-grade promotion, while ministers' discretion and candidates' status
are the determinants in post-to-post promotion. (Al-Ghailani, 2005: 297)
In addition, Al-Asmi studied the role of managers and their effectiveness in civil
service organizations. The findings reflected to the influences of cultural values on
managers‘ behaviours and attitudes. From his analysis of the empirical interviews, Al-
Asmi (2008: 254-255) concluded that:
[I]nequality in Omani civil service organizations exists in different ways.
Firstly, employees who work in the offices of top management are given
special treatments such as promotions, incentives and bonuses. Secondly, male
employees are given priority for participating in training activities and
conferences that are held outside the country. Thirdly, appointments in some
positions are restricted to males only. Fourthly, some managers prefer working
with male employees rather than with female employees due to the familial
circumstances of the latter. (Al-Asmi, 2008: 254-255)
Apart from what has been mentioned, there are no published statistics regarding
numerous EEO issues such as the distribution of classes, tribes, and disabled people.
Indeed, the lack of important information concerning these prevents, to some degree,
effective analysis of the current situation of EEO in regard to these particular issues. In
addition, the absence of a clear EEO policy combined with an absolute selection
procedure has left employment practices such as training, promotion, and appraisal to be
determined according to the manager‘s personal estimation only, which can lead to
several kinds of discrimination in a context such as the Omani public sector.
4.7 The Administrative Judgment Court
In many countries, authorities have introduced institutions to eliminate any sort of
discrimination as well as to enforce anti-discrimination legislation such as the Equal
Employment Opportunities Commission in the UK (Suk, 2006). Nevertheless, the
032
influence of these institutions remains limited because of ‗the limits of formal equality
and of punitive action‘ (Demuijnck, 2009: 89).
Through the Royal Decree No. 91/1999, the Administrative Judgment Court (AJC)
was established to be an independent judicial body, responsible only administratively to
the Minister of the Diwan of the Royal Court. The main responsibilities of the AJC are
to review all disputes against administrative decisions with regard to issues such as
salaries, rewards, compensations, and other kinds of violation of laws or regulations
which occur in government bodies (according to the latest amendment by Royal Decree
No. 3/2009). According to Royal Decree 91/1999, Article 7, the court has no
jurisdiction over sovereign matters, Royal Decrees, or Royal Orders.
Therefore, any employee or candidate for recruitment who feels that he or she has
been discriminated against for any reason could present his case to the AJC.
Nevertheless, it is not easy to prove many discrimination cases since often they are
either not covered by the law or concealed by complicated processes. Even in the
United States, lawyers admit that it is hard to win discrimination cases (Selmi, 2000).
This is because the law requires employees ‗to show not just that they were treated
badly but to prove that they were treated differently based on their protected group‘
(Goldman, 2001: 362). In Oman, the situation might be even worse, since there is no
EEO programme or any obligatory employment quotas, for example among different
geographical locations in the country, which may enhance the chances of the individuals
discriminated against to prove their cases. Also, many employees are uneducated in
regard to their rights in the workplace or afraid of being victimized after reporting their
cases. Additionally, many discrimination cases might be unreported because of
society‘s conscious or unconscious perception of some discrimination aspects, such as
gender role and wasta, as part of the culture rather than illegal behaviour.
4.8 Conclusion
As discussed in previous chapters, the GLOBE definition of culture stems from an
anthropological point of view, while EEO is mainly related to psychological principles.
Therefore, the study will be tackled from a psychological anthropology perspective.
Indeed, this multi-disciplinary base will determine the methodological approach of the
whole research project.
This study will measure societal and organizational culture in terms of both practices
and values. Many issues were raised during the literature review, including:
033
How will Omani culture score compared to other Arab countries‘ cultures
which were included in the GLOBE project?
To what extent are employment opportunities distributed equally in the
Omani public sector?
What kind of relationship could be found between Omani culture and EE?
How could this relationship managed, and to what extent?
To what extent are the two concepts responsible for employees‘
performance?
In the previous three chapters, the study demonstrated the importance of culture and
EE in determining the quality of organizational performance. This strong relationship
between culture and EE is worth looking at through a deep study in order to understand
the nature of the relationship between the two variables. To do so, the following chapter
will illustrate the methodology chosen to enable this thesis to reach its aims and
objectives.
034
Chapter Five
Research Methodology
5.0 Introduction
The overall aim of this study is to examine the degree of influence that societal and
organizational cultures, as specified by the GLOBE project, have on employment equity
in the Omani public sector. The literature review showed that there are some
interactions between the two concepts. However, this relationship needs to be further
discussed and explored in depth to better understand it, as explained in Chapter 1
(sections: 1.3 and 1.4). Therefore, this chapter will introduce the main methods which
will be used throughout the fieldwork instrument in a way to reach the main aim and
objectives of whole thesis.
In seeking to determine the degree of influence that each cultural dimension has on
employment equity in the Omani public sector, the study will make use of both
quantitative and qualitative approaches, thereby gaining strength in its utilization of a
mixed method approach with the opportunity for triangulation. Quantitative data will be
analysed and compared statistically regarding two main research areas, these being
those related to Omani cultural dimensions, and also the critical success factors in
respect of the adoption of EE. A qualitative analysis will establish an in-depth
understanding of the phenomena under study occurs and what kinds of influence are
brought to bear by societal and organizational cultures in matters of employment equity.
The nine cultural dimensions which as used in the GLOBE research project will act as
independent variables, while the critical success factors will be the dependent variables.
The adoption of EE will be measured at four levels: national, societal, organizational,
and individual. Seven factors have been academically recognized under these four
levels.
Besides distributing a survey around the Omani public sector, the organization Royal
Court Affairs (RCA) will be chosen as a single case study since the RCA is the largest
independent organization in the public sector, and is recognized as a leading
organization among the other public sector entities in the country. To gain a depth of
understanding about the phenomena, the study will use a questionnaire and semi-
structured interviews. A brief and general description of the research procedure and
design is provided below.
035
5.1 Philosophical Assumptions
According to Crotty (2003: 3), the typology of social research processes revolves
around four main elements: epistemology, theoretical perspective, methodology, and
method (see Table 20). However, although these elements have a typical sequence
among them (for example positivism uses only quantitative methods while
phenomenology uses qualitative methods only), this typicality is not mandatory as long
as there is a logical justification for the chosen methodological sequence (Crotty, 2003).
This viewpoint is confirmed by Creswell (2009), who suggests that four worldviews
emerge in respect of the philosophical assumption underpinning a research approach,
these being: Post-positivism, Constructivism, Advocacy/participatory, and Pragmatism.
Pragmatists believe that they can use all available methods, either quantitative, or
qualitative, or mixed methods, as such researchers are mainly concerned with ‗what and
how to research‗ in a way that ‗best meet their needs and purposes‗ but reasons for their
choice should be provided (ibid.: 11).
Table 20: Philosophical positions
Epistemology
(Philosophical
theory of
knowledge)
Theoretical
Perspective
(Philosophical
stance)
Methodology
(Research
strategies)
Method
(Research
techniques and
procedures)
Objectivism
Constructivism
Subjectivism
…and their variants
Positivism (and post-
positivism)
Interpretivism
Symbolic
interactionism
Phenomenology
Hermeneutics
Critical inquiry
Feminism
Postmodernism
etc.
Experimental
research
Survey research
Ethnography
Phenomenological
research
Grounded theory
Heuristic theory
Action research
Discourse analysis
Feminist standpoint
research
etc.
Sampling
Questionnaire
Observation
Interview
Focus group
Case study
Life history
Narrative
Statistical analysis
Data reduction
Document analysis
Content analysis
etc.
Source: Adapted from Crotty, 2003: 5.
Among these variations of philosophical assumptions, the researcher believes that the
pragmatic worldview will be the best way to meet the main aim and objectives of this
research study. Pragmatism, as Creswell (2009) argued, pays more attention to the
research problem and how to understand it and so frees the researcher from being
committed to one particular method or technique. Being pragmatic, the researcher has
036
decided to use a mixed methods approach in order to gain a better understanding of the
phenomenon under study, and significantly address its surrounding issues. Creswell
(2009: 11) supports such a choice by stating that, ‗for the mixed methods researcher,
pragmatism opens the door to multiple methods, different worldviews, and different
assumptions, as well as different forms of data collection and analysis‘. The further
explanations are clearly illustrated in the following discussion.
5.2 Research Methods
In general, there are two main methods of collecting data, these being qualitative and
quantitative, and each has its advantages and disadvantages and is therefore more
suitable to particular types of research activity. For instance, Collis and Hussey (2003)
argue that reliability is high in quantitative methods while it is low in qualitative
methods. On the other hand, as they argue, validity is high in qualitative methods while
it is low in quantitative methods. Therefore, one of the main reasons for using mixed
methods is to gain the most from each of these types of method. Mixed methods
research can be seen as relatively unrestricted in its data gathering techniques, and
indeed the method recommends the use of mixed techniques of data collection as such a
strategy increases the validity of the research and allows for the advantages of each
technique to be realized, while simultaneously minimizing their disadvantages (Darke et
al, 1998; Yin, 2009; Creswell, 2009). Bryman and Bell refer to the importance of such
combination stating that:
The combined use of qualitative and quantitative research methods represents
a common pattern in case study research in business and management, used by
researchers in order to enhance the generality of their findings. (Bryman and
Bell, 2007: 651)
Bernard (2005) further argues that both qualitative and quantitative methods could be
used in social, psychology, and anthropology fields. Thus, a combination of qualitative
and quantitative techniques is generally recommended for the best and most robust
results (Gable, 1994; Flyvbjerg, 2006).
In addition, authors argue that qualitative methods are more widely used in
exploratory research, while quantitative methods are more related to confirmatory
research. However, as observed by Tashakkori and Teddie:
037
A major advantage of mixed methods research is that it enables the researcher
to simultaneously answer confirmatory and exploratory questions, and
therefore verify and generate theory in the same study. (Tashakkori and
Teddie, 2003: 15)
As explained in Chapter 1, this thesis is about firstly examining the relationship
between culture and the adoption of employment equity (confirmatory) and, secondly,
exploring the most influential cultural dimensions where such a relationship occurs
(exploratory). Therefore, mixed methods are the most applicable technique to serve the
purpose of this thesis.
Creswell et al. (2003: 212) suggest the following comprehensive definition:
A mixed methods study involves the collection or analysis of both quantitative
and/or qualitative data in a single study in which the data are collected and
concurrently or sequentially, are given a priority, and involve the integration
of the data at one or more stages in the process of research. (Creswell et al.,
2003: 212)
According to Creswell et al. (ibid.), mixed methods approaches can be divided into
six categories. From the six types of mixed methods given in Table 21, this study adopts
the concurrent triangulation design. Besides being less time consuming, this design
ensures ‗well-validated and substantiated findings‘ (Creswell, 2009: 213-214). The
investigation will therefore be addressed quantitatively and qualitatively through two
main techniques which are questionnaire (positivism) and semi-structured interviews
(phenomenology).
038
Table 21: Different Types of Mixed Methods Approach
Design type Implementation Priority Stage of
integration
Theoretical
perspective
Sequential
explanatory
Quantitative
followed by
qualitative
Usually
quantitative; can
be qualitative or
equal
Interpretation
phase
May be present
Sequential
exploratory
Qualitative
followed by
quantitative
Usually
qualitative; can
be quantitative or
equal
Interpretation
phase
May be present
Sequential
transformative
Quantitative
followed by
qualitative or
Qualitative
followed by
quantitative
Qualitative,
quantitative, or
equal
Interpretation
phase
Definitely present
(i.e., conceptual
framework,
advocacy,
empowerment)
Concurrent
triangulation
Concurrent
collection of
quantitative and
qualitative data
Preferably equal;
can be
quantitative or
qualitative
Interpretation
phase or analysis
phase
May be present
Concurrent
nested
Concurrent
collection of
quantitative and
qualitative data
Quantitative or
qualitative
Analysis phase May be present
Concurrent
transformative
Concurrent
collection of
quantitative and
qualitative data
Quantitative,
qualitative, or
equal
Usually analysis
phase; can be
during
interpretation
phase
Definitely present
(i.e., conceptual
framework,
advocacy,
empowerment)
Source: Creswell et al., 2003: 224.
5.3 Research Question
Determining the research question(s) for any study is an essential stage in building the
research design (Eisenhardt, 1989). This PhD research study will attempt to explore the
influence of different cultural dimensions on employment equity by quantifying Omani
culture and determining the main critical success factors in respect of the adoption of
effective policies and practices towards employment equity within the public sector in
Oman. Accordingly, the thesis will address the following main question:
How and to what extent do societal and organizational cultures, as
specified by the GLOBE project, influence the adoption of
employment equity in the Omani public sector?
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It can be appreciated that this overarching question contains four separate
dimensions, and in order to gather answers to the question, these dimensions are
articulated and specific questions pertaining to each are presented, as follows:
Area One:
1. What are the main cultural preferences as evidenced by societal and
organizational practices in Oman?
2. What are the main cultural preferences in respect of societal and
organizational values in Oman?
3. Are there any differences in viewing the cultural dimensions of the Omani
cultural preferences between employees and managers?
4. Where does Omani culture stand compared to GLOBE study results in
general and the Middle Eastern cluster in particular?
Area Two:
5. What are the critical success factors behind the adoption of EE?
6. To what extent are the critical success factors behind the adoption of EE
applied in the Omani public sector?
7. Considering the influence of societal and organizational culture, which
employment equity programme, among those most applied in Western
countries (EO, AA, and DM), is culturally more applicable to the Omani
public sector?
8. To what extent could other additional elements enhance the effective
adoption of equal employment policies and programmes in the Omani public
sector?
Area Three:
9. What kind of relationship exists between societal and organizational culture
(Area One); and the critical success factors in respect of the adoption of EE
(Area Two)?
10. What remedies can be implemented to terminate the current employment
discrimination and encourage positive cultural influences in this respect?
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5.4 Research Framework
In developing the overall framework of this thesis, the researcher traced two main
variables through Chapters 2 and 3. In Chapter 2, the researcher investigated different
theoretical models related to organizational and societal culture. Among these attempts,
the organizational and societal cultural dimensions which were suggested by the
GLOBE project were chosen as the most appropriate model to best serve the purpose of
this thesis. In addition, critical success factors behind employment equity were
determined according to what has been determined by several related studies, as shown
in Chapter 3.
Accordingly, a theoretical framework has been developed to direct the study towards
its methodology and fieldwork. Figure 5 shows the conceptual model suggested by the
researcher to examine the relationship between organizational culture and societal
culture (as an independent variables), and the critical success factors behind the
effective adoption of employment equity (as dependent variables).
5.4.1 Hypotheses
Collis and Hussey (2003: 10) defined a hypothesis as: ‗a proposition which can be
retested for association or causality by deducing logical consequences which can be
tested against empirical evidence.‘ Therefore, after setting the main research questions,
a number of hypotheses were formulated accordingly for the purposes of this study.
These hypotheses have been designed according to what was revealed by the literature
review (Chapters 2, 3, and 4) and the context of the study (Chapter 4). Culture, either
societal or organizational, has been always recognized by scholars from different
disciplines as one of the main influences on both human behaviour and the adoption of
any kind of change in an organization or country (Segall et al., 1998; Aycan, 2000b;
Kirkman et al., 2006; Nardon and Steers, 2009). In addition, it has been argued that
Figure 5: Overall conceptual model for the study
Societal Culture (SC)
(Independent Variables)
Critical Success Factors
toward Adopting Effective
Employment Equity
(Dependent Variables)
Culture and Employment
Equity Adoption in Oman
(Hypothesised Outcome)
Organizational Culture (OC) (Independent Variables)
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culture plays a vital role with regard to equity and equality issues such as determining
the degree and the meaning of gender equity in the workplace (McDonald, 2000;
Metcalfe, 2006). Hence, the researcher came up with the following set of hypotheses,
which will be discussed in the following section. In addition, the hypotheses will be
tested through the study‘s questionnaire and interviews. All hypotheses were
categorized in three sets according to the structure of the study, as follows:
Set one: Societal and organizational cultures in Oman
As discussed in Chapter 2 (section 2.7), although Middle Eastern countries have been
placed in one cluster, individually they differ in their scores. However, because most
Arab cultures, including that of Oman, have been shaped by the influence of Islam,
tribalism, social system (Ali, 1996; Tayeb, 1997; Mohamed et al., 2008; Rees and
Althakhri, 2008) and according to the societal attributes which were discussed in
Chapter 2 (section 2.5.6.2), the Omani culture can be hypothesized as follows:
1. Omani cultural practices at both societal and organizational levels will score
HIGH in the following cultural dimensions: uncertainty avoidance, power
distance, societal collectiveness, in-group collectiveness, and human
orientation, and LOW in gender egalitarianism, assertiveness, future
orientation, and performance orientation.
2. Omani cultural values, at both societal and organizational levels, will score
LOW in the following cultural dimensions: uncertainty avoidance, power
distance, societal collectiveness, in-group collectiveness, and human
orientation, and HIGH in gender egalitarianism, assertiveness, future
orientation, and performance orientation.
3. Culture in Oman will score almost within the range scores of other Middle
Eastern countries which were included in GLOBE study.
4. As Javidan et al. (2006) explained that managers are employees themselves
as they are managed by top management, it is hypothesized here that: there
will be no significant differences between managers and employees with
regard to the cultural dimensions of Omani cultural preferences.
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Set two: Employment Equity in Oman
It was argued in Chapter 3 (especially section 3.7) that there is a reservoir of equity in
employment in most of Arab countries. Also, throughout Chapter 4, the study explained
several elements which are related to inequity in the Oman society. Also, it has been
mentioned in chapter three (section 3.4) that even Western countries differ in their
equity approaches in employment. Therefore, in regards to the situation of EE in the
Omani public sector, it is hypothesized here that:
5. The Omani public sector will score LOWER in its readiness in respect of the
adoption of EE (As Is) compared to the desire for such adoption (Should Be).
6. Critical success factors towards effective EE will be positively correlated
with each other.
7. None of the three western EE programmes will be fully suitable to fulfil the
need for solid EE policies and practices in the Omani public sector.
8. There will be a strong opinion among Omani employees in the public sector
regarding the need for equity in employment.
Set three: the relationship between societal and organizational cultures and
employment equity
9. In terms of practice, the critical success factors in respect of the adoption of
EE will be negatively correlated (low–high) with the following cultural
dimensions: uncertainty avoidance, power distance, societal collectiveness,
in-group collectiveness, and human orientation. A positive correlation (low–
low) will appear with the other four cultural dimensions: gender
egalitarianism, assertiveness, future orientation, and performance orientation.
For more clarification, Hypothesis 9 can be illustrated as shown in Table 22.
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Table 22: Sub-divisions of Hypothesis 9
Hypothesis Cultural Dimension Practice EE Correlation
9.a uncertainty avoidance High Low Negative
9.b power distance High Low Negative
9.c societal collectivism High Low Negative
9.d in-group collectivism High Low Negative
9.e human orientation High Low Negative
9.f gender egalitarianism Low Low Positive
9.g Assertiveness Low Low Positive
9.h future orientation Low Low Positive
9.i performance orientation Low Low Positive
10. In terms of values, the critical success factors in respect of the adoption of EE
will be negatively correlated (high-low) with the following cultural
dimensions: uncertainty avoidance, power distance, societal collectiveness,
in-group collectiveness, and human orientation, while a positive correlation
(high–high) will appear with the other four cultural dimensions: gender
egalitarianism, assertiveness, future orientation, and performance orientation.
For more clarification, Hypothesis 10 can be illustrated as shown in Table 23.
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Table 23: Divisions of Hypothesis 10
Hypothesis Cultural Dimension Values EE Correlation
10.a uncertainty avoidance Low High Negative
10.b power distance Low High Negative
10.c societal collectivism Low High Negative
10.d in-group collectivism Low High Negative
10.e human orientation Low High Negative
10.f gender egalitarianism High High Positive
10.g Assertiveness High High Positive
10.h future orientation High High Positive
10.i performance orientation High High Positive
5.5 Using a Survey
Surveys are perhaps the most popular strategy for obtaining quantitative data (Hussey
and Hussey, 1997), and are often based around a questionnaire. Thornhill et al. (2000:
296) stated that, ‗responses to questionnaires are easier to record as they are based on a
predetermined and standardized set of questions.‘ Questionnaires enable standardized
data to be collected, thereby allowing easy comparison. This study will use a
questionnaire that is essentially comprised of two parts. That part which relates to
societal and organizational culture has been adopted from the GLOBE study with
official permission to do so. The second part has been designed by the researcher
himself. The questionnaire and its translation will be validated through academic
consultation and pilot study.
5.5.1 Developing the questionnaire
The questionnaire was developed by combing several previous questionnaires as well as
the researcher‘s personal efforts. In general, the questionnaire was divided into six
sections: culture (sections one and three); employment equity (sections two and four);
general view on adopting employment equity programs in Oman (section five); and
demographic variable (section six). However, because of the length of the questionnaire
and to reduce common source bias, the questionnaire was distributed into two versions,
Alpha and Beta. The Alpha version of the questionnaire contained 34 items related to
organizational culture practice (AS IS) and 41 items for organizational culture value
(SHOULD BE). Version BETA contained 39 items related to societal culture practice
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(AS IS) and 39 items related to societal culture value (SHOULD BE). In addition, both
versions contain the same items for employment equity, 25 items for EE practice and 25
items for EE value.
Half of the items in the questionnaire were intended to assess the dimensions of
societal and organizational culture. These items were adopted from GLOBE project
instrument. Although the full copy is available for free use from the official GLOBE
site:
http: //www.thunderbird.edu/wwwfiles/ms/globe/pdf/GLOBE_Phase_2_Alpha_Questionnaire.pdf
for the form Alpha questionnaire, and:
http: //www.thunderbird.edu/wwwfiles/ms/globe/pdf/GLOBE_Phase_2_Beta_Questionnaire.pdf
– for form Beta questionnaire, the researcher contacted the head of the project
(Professor Javidan) by email and received explicit agreement to use it. In addition, this
questionnaire was already developed and validated through two pilot studies done by
the GLOBE team (Hanges and Dickson, 2004). As House and Javidan stated:
The first was designed to identify appropriate factor structures for societal
level, organizational level, and leadership questionnaire. The second study was
designed to replicate the first study and determine whether the findings are
stable. (House and Javidan, 2004: 20)
To reduce common source response bias, the questionnaire was divided into two
versions, form Alpha for organizational culture and form Beta for societal culture
(Hanges and Dickson, 2004). The reliability was also insured by GLOBE by using
Cronbach‘s alpha test (Hanges and Dickson, 2004).
The other half of the questionnaire (parts two, four, and five) was about assessing
seven critical success factors behind the effectiveness of employment equity in the
Omani public sector as well as exploring some general views related to adopting EE
programmes in the Omani public sector. This part was developed mainly from the
literature review, in particular Chapter 2. The researcher then looked at five PhD studies
which had partly investigated some of these factors. Three of these studies were
conducted in Oman (AlHamadi, 2004, Al-Ghailani, 2005, and AlAsmi, 2008), one of
them was conducted in United States (Herrera, 2008) and the last one was conducted in
Australia (Weller, 2009). Accordingly, some items from the initial design were
modified while new items were added after careful consideration to better suit the
purpose of this study. Below are some examples.
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The item: ‗I felt that the decision making process was devoid of prejudice‘ was used
by Weller (2004), then modified to be: ‗In this organization, the decision making
process and management practices are devoid of prejudice.‘
Also, Herrera (2008) used statements like: ‗The leaders of the organization [are]
serious about diversity‘, ‗do you believe the diversity management program exists‘,
‗organization support diversity‘ and ‗leadership support diversity‘. These statements
were modified to be: ‗In my organization, employment equity is supported by both
leadership and employees.‘
AlAsmi (2008) used the following item: ‗Although favouritism is forbidden by
regulations, it, however, exists in reality in this department‘, and this was modified to
be: ‗In this organization, officials do not hesitate to favour relatives or friends even if
that may negatively affect other citizens‘ interests.‘
Furthermore, section 5 of the questionnaire included two parts, as follows:
Part A: this included four options relating to the most applicable programme which can
best serve EE in the Omani public sector. Participants were asked to choose one of these
four statements:
Statement one: Equity in employment should be based on merit only (merit
based programme).
Statement two: Equity in employment should be based on applying quotas
among each group of employees (e.g. males and females) (quota based
programme).
Statement three: Equity in employment should be considered as a business
advantage by basing it on recognizing individual differences, and ensuring
the right environment for each employee (diversity based programme).
Statement four: Equity in employment should be based on the importance of
the above three statements where the most effective option among them will
be applied according to working environment, type of work and individual‘s
ability (application upon needs based option).
Part B: this is about the impact of ten additional factors which are assumed to enhance
employment equity in the Omani public sector. To develop this section, the researcher
re-used section 4 of AlHamadi‘s (2004) questionnaire, as follows:
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Section 4: Influence of the Omani National Culture on HRM
In this section we would like to examine the influence that different aspects of national
culture may have on your organization‘s HRM policies and practices. You are presented
with a range of six factors that indicate different aspects of national culture. You have
100 points to allocate across these items. You may allocate as few or as many points to
each one as long as the total across those you give points to adds up to 100.
To what extent do the following items influence the design of HRM policies and
practices in your organization?
Table 24: Influence of Omani national culture on HRM
No. Aspects of National Culture Points
1 The influence of beliefs, values, norms, customs, rituals language and the
early experience (i.e. Family, education system and religious upbringing).
2 The influence of religion, i.e. Share'h laws
3 The influence of expatriates in the work force in both the private and public
sector (i.e. expatriates occupying consultant and higher managerial
positions and their contribution to the development of civil service and
labour laws during the 1970s).
4 The influence of social elites, i.e. people who are educated abroad.
5 The influence of organization's culture ‘the way we do things around here’
6 Management style, unique to the Omani context.
Source: Adapted from AlHamadi (2004: 338 Appendix 1, section 4)
Then, for the purpose of this study and according to the literature review, the above
section was modified to the following:
5.B: Please consider the impact of the below factors on adopting effective
policies and practices toward employment equity. You are presented with ten
factors and possible of 100 points to be allocated to them according to the
importance of each factor in your own view.
To what extent do the following factors influence the adoption of effective
policies and practice toward employment equity in your organization?
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Table 25: Part B in section five of this study questionnaire
No. Factors Points
1 State clear and detailed articles toward employment equity in the Omani's
Civil Service law (or any similar law which is applicable in your
organization).
2 Call for more enforcement of Share'h Law (Islamic Law)
3 Provide more authorities for the Court of Legal Administration.
4 Raise the education level for employees at supervisory/leadership levels
5 Train HRM employees on equity programs
6 Create equity department/section in each organization
7 Educate employees about their rights at work
8 Audit employment decisions and practices regularly
9 Ensure an adequate level of presentation for minorities (e.g. females and
disabled persons) in the decision making process
10 Concentrate on promoting values like human rights, freedom of speech,
and equality.
Total 100
After designing the first draft of this part, it was sent the researcher‘s supervisor.
According to the discussion with him, some items were excluded from the employment
equity part of the questionnaire as they were repeated. This was because some factors in
employment equity overlap. Then the questionnaire was piloted with 20 participants,
following which the wording of part B in section 5 was revised to make it clearer.
In the last part of the questionnaire, participants were asked to provide some general
information about themselves and their educational and functional level (demographic
questions).
Finally, in line with the procedure of House et al. (2004), the translation of the
GLOBE questionnaire was done by CCI (Country Co-Investigators). This was required
to eliminate any misunderstanding that the translation process may lead to and to avoid
any difficulties which may occur because of cultural differences between societies.
Therefore, the researcher translated the whole questionnaire then assigned the revision
to a translation expert to validate and review it.
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5.6 Using the Case Study
It has been argued that the research question is vital in determining the choice of
research methodology (Alvesson and Sköldberg, 2009) as well as the purposes of the
research (Crotty, 2003). As already indicated, the main research question of this study
is:
How and to what extent do societal and organizational cultures, as
specified by the GLOBE project, influence the adoption of
employment equity in the Omani public sector?
As Yin (2009) asserts, a case study is the most preferred method when research
questions start with ‗How‘ or ‗Why‘ and then relate to a certain social phenomenon
because ‗such questions deal with operational links needing to be traced over time,
rather than mere frequencies or incidence‘ (ibid.: 9). Such an expert explanation
enhances the researcher‘s decision to use the case study method, as the main aim of this
research is to explore in depth the relationship between culture and EE.
Yin defines the case study method in a twofold way, as follows:
A case study is an empirical inquiry that:
1. Investigates a contemporary phenomenon in depth and within its real-life
context, especially when the boundaries between phenomenon and
context are not clearly evident.
2. The case study inquiry:
- Copes with technically distinctive situation in which there will be
many more variables of interest than data points, and as one result
- Relies on multiple sources of evidence, with data needing to converge
in a triangulation fashion, and as another result;
- Benefits from the prior development of theoretical propositions to
guide data collection and analysis. (Yin, 2009: 18)
Indeed, researchers from many disciplines use the case study method to describe
different phenomena. The advantages of the method are its applicability to real-life,
contemporary, human situations and its public accessibility through written reports
(Tellis, 1997). Case study results relate directly to the common reader‘s everyday
experience and facilitate an understanding of complex real-life situations. Such activity
is done in a way that incorporates the views of actors in the case under study and it is
used widely when researching organizational phenomena (Robson, 1993). Scholars
appreciate the case study as a research strategy ‗where a contemporary phenomenon is
to be studied in its natural context‘ (Darke et al., 1998: 279) and it is ‗appropriate for
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certain types of problems: those in which research and theory are at their early,
formative stages‗ (Benbasat et al., 1987: 369). It is also useful ‗to achieve various
research aims: to provide descriptions of phenomena, develop theory, and test theory‘
(Darke et al, 1998: 275). With regard to the research problem explored in this thesis, the
public sector in Oman is considered as a prime example of an area in which
employment discrimination is practised, and as yet the concept of employment equity is
still in its infancy and has yet to be fully articulated in Oman.
5.6.1 Why a single case study?
To achieve the purpose of this thesis, the researcher has chosen a single case study
design to conduct the qualitative part of the fieldwork. Darke et al. (1998: 281) state
that, ‗single cases provide for in-depth investigation and rich description. Multiple case
designs allow literal or theoretical replication and cross-case comparison. There is no
ideal number of cases.‘ As they argue, a single case study is used when the researcher
aims to understand the various reasons behind a quite specific phenomenon, which is
the situation in this research.
According to Yin (2009: 47–50), a single case study can be used in five main
circumstances. Firstly, when the study case is considered as a critical case which ‗can
represent a significant contribution to knowledge and theory building‘ (ibid.: 47).
Secondly, it can be used when the case is considered to be extreme or unique and the
phenomenon associated with it rarely occurs outside of it. Thirdly, a single case is
useful when it is representative or typical and can be ‗assumed to be informative about
the experience of the average person or institutions‘ (ibid.: 48), such as a representative
organization from the same industry. Fourthly, a single case is appropriate when it can
be revelatory, for example ‗when an investigator has an opportunity to observe and
analyze a phenomenon previously inaccessible to social science inquiry‘ (ibid.: 48).
And a fifth circumstance is when a longitudinal case is studied and the researcher aims
to study the same case ‗at two or more different points of time‘ (ibid.: 49) to be able to
observe any change in conditions or the case which may occur over that period.
Both single case and multiple cases as research designs have their advantages and
disadvantages. For instance, although the use of multiple cases brings high reliability,
this approach is considered to ‗be extremely time consuming and expensive to conduct‘
(Baxter and Jack, 2008: 550). However, it has been argued that the result of a single
case study design has less ability to be generalized, and that the design is better when
the intention is to generate rather than test hypotheses. Flyvbjerg (2006: 221) pointed
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out five misunderstandings or oversimplifications about the nature of such a method,
which are summarized in Table 24, below.
In presenting his summary, Flyvberg (2006) indicated that the choice of approach
should be driven by considerations of how best to achieve the aim and objectives of a
study. Hence, social science researchers often concentrate more on how to understand,
solve, or explain the problem rather than the methodological assumptions made in the
approach to data, and this is especially so when the researcher believes that he or she
could better deal with the phenomenon under study by using other methods than what
the fundamental philosophical assumptions suggest. This point of view is supported by
Flyvbjerg (2006: 242), who concluded that:
Good social science is problem driven and not methodology driven in the
sense that it employs those methods that for a given problematic, best help
answer the research questions at hand. (Flyvbjerg, 2006: 242)
Table 26: Five misunderstanding points about using a single case study
No. Misunderstanding Flyvbjerg’s Comment
1 General, theoretical (context-independent) knowledge is more valuable than concrete, practical (context-dependent) knowledge.
Predictive theories and universals cannot be found in the study of human affairs. Concrete, context-dependent knowledge is, therefore, more valuable than the vain search for predictive theories and universals. (p. 224)
2 One cannot generalize on the basis of an individual case; therefore, the case study cannot contribute to scientific development.
One can often generalize on the basis of a single case, and the case study may be central to scientific development via generalization as supplement or alternative to other methods. But formal generalization is overvalued as a source of scientific development, whereas ‘the force of example’ is underestimated. (p. 228)
3 The case study is most useful for generating hypotheses; that is, in the first stage of a total research process, whereas other methods are more suitable for hypothesis testing and theory building.
The case study is useful for both generating and testing of hypotheses but is not limited to these research activities alone. (p. 229).
4 The case study contains a bias toward verification, that is, a tendency to confirm the researcher’s preconceived notions.
The case study contains no greater bias toward verification of the researcher’s preconceived notions than other methods of inquiry. On the contrary, experience indicates that the case study contains a greater bias toward falsification of preconceived notions than toward verification. (p. 237).
5 It is often difficult to summarize and develop general propositions and theories on the basis of specific case studies.
It is correct that summarizing case studies is often difficult, especially as concerns case process. It is less correct as regards case outcomes. The problems in summarizing case studies, however, are due more often to the properties of the reality studied than to the case study as a research method. Often it is not desirable to summarize and generalize case studies. Good studies should be read as narratives in their entirety. (p. 241)
Source: Summarized from Flyvbjerg, 2006: 221-241.
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5.6.2 Why Royal Court Affairs (RCA)?
Royal Court Affairs (RCA) is an independent governmental organization which
provides services to His Majesty the Sultan of Oman. It has its own personnel affairs,
laws, and regulations. It has a compliment of over 14,000 Omani and expatriate
employees, numbering 11,624 and 2,748 respectively (RCA Human Resource system).
The organizational structure comprises 19 departments that undertake different
functions and responsibilities, such as Royal Flights, Royal Catering, Royal Estates,
Royal Gardens, and Royal Yachts.
The Royal Court Affairs (RCA) has been chosen as a critical and representative
single case study among the Omani public sector organizations, for a number of
reasons. Firstly, the RCA is regarded as a leading public organization since it is the
closest organization to the Sultan, so whatever policies the RCA implements are
followed by other public organizations in as much as this is financially possible and
allowed by Oman‘s regulatory framework.
Secondly, the RCA is the most desirable organization in which to work in the Omani
public sector because of its prestigious position as the closest organization to the Sultan,
and also because of its financial benefits. Consequently, there is much competition to
gain employment in the RCA. Additionally, because of the large number of employees
(almost 15 per cent of total civilian employees in Oman) within the RAC and its
departmental distribution around various regions of the country, RCA employees are
mostly representative of the whole Omani population from all Omani regions.
A third reason why the RCA stands out as a critical case is that there are no
administrative obstacles or other authoritarian hierarchical procedures that prevent
adopting and implementing desired change, which is not the case in other public service
ministries. Most of the RCA‘s policies are approved and issued by the minister himself
or through direct presentation to the Sultan, whereas other ministers in the Civil Service
must firstly report to the Civil Service Council, which will in turn report to the Council
of Ministers, following which the latter will present the suggestion to the Sultan to make
the final decision. Besides the fact that each step of this process consumes time and
effort, the actual business of going through this long process and the various discussions
associated with it may mean that some of the core ideas might be consciously or
unconsciously changed or adjusted. So, if there is a possibility that a successful policy
of EE could be adopted, then the RCA is the right place to implement it. One of the
important considerations in the decision to choose a single case study is to be sure that
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the case selected is representative of all cases, as observed by Flyvberg (2006: 230) who
says, ‗[i]f this is (not) valid for this case, then it applies to all (no) cases‗.
Moreover, the RCA is also considered to be a representative or typical case given
that it represents the whole public sector in Oman. As mentioned, the RCA has more
flexibility and autonomy than any other public organizations, so practices like
promotion, training, and other HRM activities are dominated by its own regulations and
systems.
Also important is that the researcher is an employee of the organization. Because of
the autonomy that is associated with the RCA, being an employee enabled the
researcher to obtain easy access to study employee behaviour and employment practices
in depth. Outside of the RCA, such uncommon administrative features are also evident
in the Ministry of Defence (MoD) and Royal Oman Police (ROP). However, these two
particular organizations are not valid cases for the purpose of this research as they are
operated under a military system and regulatory authority. Therefore, it is obvious at
this point that the only holistic organization in the public sector which meets all the
requirements of this research is the RCA.
5.6.3 Semi-structured interviews
Many researchers agree that interviews are one of the most popular data collection tools
used to collect qualitative data (Thornhill et al., 2000; Collins et al., 2005; Griffee,
2005). According to Denzin (2000: 25), the interview is ‗an active text, a site where
meaning is created and performed.‘ As Denzin (2000) discussed, there are three well-
known types of interview which are structured, semi-structured, and open-ended or
unstructured interviews. Among these types, a semi-structure interview was chosen for
this study as this will be helpful in discovering the interviewees‘ experiences, beliefs
and values, which they have attained through their experience in working for the public
sector.
In addition, although there are a defined set of main questions was formulated,
nevertheless questions in semi-structured interviews may vary from interview to
interview to reflect those areas most appropriate to a respondent‘s knowledge and
understanding. Semi-structured interviews also allow discussion of issues, raising of
questions, and exploration of changing subjects from one interview to the next as
different aspects of the topic are revealed (Hussey and Hussey, 1997). As Edmondson
and McManus (2007: 1172) suggest, ‗When addressing a novel question, researchers
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collect, as they should, qualitative data opportunistically such that they are free to chase
new insights that emerge in an interview or observation.‘
In order for the interviewees to remain anonymous, the researcher coded them from
N1 to N12. Being number one or twelve here has no meaning other than the order in
which interviews were held.
5.7 Pilot Study
A pilot study was conducted before the empirical fieldwork to establish the validity and
reliability of the research instruments (questionnaire and semi-structured interview), and
a representative sample from each of the populations for the individual research
instruments was involved. This process helped to ensure that the research questions
were adequate to achieve the purpose of the research. Blaxter et al. suggest that:
Piloting is the process whereby you try out the research techniques and
methods which you have in mind, see how well they work in practice, and if
necessary, modify your plans accordingly. (Blaxter et al., 2006: 137)
One of the advantages of conducting a pilot test is that it might give advance warning
about where the main research project could fail, where research protocols may not be
followed, or whether proposed methods or instruments are inappropriate or too
complicated (ibid.). A pilot test can also be a good training opportunity for the
researcher in different elements of the research process. Through the piloting process,
the researcher found some recommendations such as the need to clarify question (B) in
part five as this was not clear to the pilot respondents. Therefore, additional explanation
was added to clarify the question.
5.8 Research Population and Sampling
Since a mixed methods design has been adopted, the target population is limited to civil
service employees in the Omani public sector for the quantitative method and
employees working in the Royal Court Affairs (RCA) in terms of qualitative methods.
Eisenhardt highlights the importance of determining the study population, stating that:
The population defines the set of entities from which the research sample is to
be drawn [and] controls extraneous variation and helps to define the limits for
generalizing the findings. (Eisenhardt, 1989: 537)
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The population of the survey method is taken from the total employees in the Omani
Civil Service, including RCA. There are almost 133,362 employees
(www.mone.gove.om) and these can be divided as shown in Table 27.
Table 27: Breakdown of Civil Service Employees (Including RCA)
Total Expatriates Civilians
(Omanis)
CS & RCA employees 133,362 16,846 112,425
However, out of the three groups of employees, two main groups were excluded,
these being those employees holding a military rank, and expatriate employees.
Expatriates are excluded from this research because the focus is entirely on Omani
employees and Omani culture, and military personnel were excluded because they do
not come under the law of the Administrative Court. The Omani civilian employees
within the Civil Service including RCA can be categorized as in Table 28.
Table 28: Omani Civilian Employees in the CS and RCA
Omani Civilian Employees
No. Action
Total employees 133,362 -
Grade 7 and above in CS &
grade 12 and above in RCA
95,276 Included
Grade 8 in CS and below &
grade 13 and below in RCA
38,086 Excluded
As Table 28 shows, the only excluded civilian employees are those on grade 8 and
above (grade 13 and below in RCA), the reason for this being that these grades are
mainly for occupants who either belong to entry-level posts or occupy service posts
(e.g. gardeners, drivers, cleaners, helpers). It has been recognized that employees in
those two levels usually possess limited knowledge and experience of management
policies and practices in the Omani public sector, especially when compared to other
employees (Al-Ghailani, 2005).
056
The selected population contains those civilian employees who occupy grade 7 posts
and above (grade 12 and above in RCA). Employees within these grades mainly meet a
minimum of the following criteria:
Bachelor degree with work experience of four years.
Or three years Diploma after high school with eight years of work
experience.
Or high school certificate with 12 years of work experience
Or less than high school certificate but with over 16 years of work
experience.
In addition, the study population includes employees on high grades and at
leadership level. Although some of these employees are directly appointed by the Sultan
and any change in their employment status requires approval by the Sultan himself, they
are nonetheless considered as policy-makers in the organization.
With regard to the population of the case study method, the total employees of RCA
are almost 14,372 employees and can be divided into three main groups as shown in
Table 29:
Table 29: Breakdown of RCA Employees
Expatriates Militaries
(Omanis)
Civilians
(Omanis)
Total
RCA employees 2,748 4,126 7,498 14,372
Only civilian employees at supervisory and leadership levels in the RCA will be
included for the same reasons discussed earlier. The targeted population can be divided
into the following sub-groups:
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Table 30: Groupings of Civilian Employees at Supervisory and Leadership Levels
Civilian Employees at Supervisory and Leadership Level
Males Females
Employees on special grades 6 -
General managers (GM) 33 -
Deputy GM - Managers - Deputy managers 259 13
Heads of sections 347 23
Total 645 36
The total population under study has been distributed among the two research
methods. In general, there are two main techniques of sampling, probability sampling
and purposive sampling, and each technique includes sub-sampling techniques (Kemper
et al, 2003). In brief, the definitions of the selected sampling techniques can be defined
as follows (see Kemper et al., 2003: 278–282):
Proportional stratified random sampling: samples are selected randomly but
proportionally from each chosen stratum.
Random purposive sampling: samples are chosen randomly from a purposefully
selected group.
Homogeneous cases sampling: this technique is typically used when conducting
focus group interviews as samples are selected from sub-groups to conduct an in-
depth investigation.
Mixed methods usually requires a combination of sampling techniques, and
researchers usually choose probability sampling to begin with and then move onto
purposive sampling (ibid.: 284). Therefore, the two different sub-sampling techniques
will be followed in determining the samples of this study. The samples will be targeted
according to the following distribution:
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Table 31: The Research Sample
Method Sampling technique Group Population Sample
Questionnaire Proportional stratified
random sampling
Non-managerial
Employees (grade 12
and above) +
Managerial posts
95,276 383
Semi-
structured
interview
Random purposive
sampling
General Managers
and above
39 12
The sampling size for the questionnaire is based on a most common used formula
which was suggested by Cochran (1977, cited in Gill and Johnson, 2010: 128):
( )
Where:
n = required sample size
Z = is the z value corresponding to level of confidence required
p = percentage occurrence of a state or condition
E = the percentage maximum error required.
In calculating sample size for the purpose of this research, the confidence level (Z) is
95%, (p) is estimated to be 50%, and the confidence interval (E) is 5%, which means
plus or minus 5. According to Gill and Johnson (2010), these percentages are acceptable
in most social research.
5.9 Data Analysis
The data analysis process for all the data generated from the survey (questionnaires) and
case study (semi-structured interviews) will follow the Miles and Huberman approach
(see Figure 6) of data, collection, data reduction, data display, and conclusion drawing
and verification (Miles and Huberman, 1994). Because ‗mixing qualitative and
quantitative methods allows us to combine research styles whose strengths and
weaknesses are counterbalanced‘ (Abowitz and Toole, 2010: 114), the results of the two
methods will be contrasted. To validate the research results, triangulation will be used.
The aim is not simply to combine different kinds of data, but also to relate them so as to
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counteract the threats to validity in each. Tellis (1997) confirms such a point, stating
that ‗the need for triangulation arises from the ethical need to confirm the validity of the
research process.‘
Figure 6: Components of Data Analysis: Interactive Model
Source: Adapted from Miles and Huberman, 1994: 12.
5.10 Accessibility
Generally, there is no problem in obtaining information and data in the Omani public
sector, and this is especially the case in respect of this study. Officially, the related data
is available in the annual reports of the Ministry of Civil Service (MoCS), Royal Court
Affairs (RCA), and the Ministry of National Economy (MoNE). However, as an
employee within the case study organization, the researcher has a greater opportunity to
discuss the different aspects of the area of study, freely and openly. This guaranteed
access together with fifteen years of experience within this organization greatly
enlarged the researcher‘s opportunities in respect of obtaining the data required to
achieve the study‘s aim and objectives.
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5.11 Data Collection Process
5.11.1 Collecting quantitative data (the questionnaire)
As discussed earlier, the sample of this study was chosen from different ministries in the
Omani public sector. The sampling strategy was built on several elements as required
by the study procedure, as described and discussed previously.
Two Likert scales were used in the questionnaire. The first one is a seven-point scale
for the culture section, with a five-point scale for the employment equity section. With
regard to the culture section, in most items only the two ends of the continuum are
named, as shown in the example in Figure 7, below.
Figure 7: Likert Scale
Source: http: //www.grovewell.com/pub-GLOBE-dimensions.html
However, there will be two kinds of assessment strategies with regard to categorizing
Omani culture within this study. The first one is concerned with the scale result as used
(absolute) and will be evaluated using the following format:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Low Somewhat
low Slightly low
Moderate Slightly
high
Somewhat
high High
Figure 8: Culture absolute scale evaluation
The second strategy is concerned with comparing the result for Oman with the
GLOBE study result (relative) and will be evaluated using the GLOBE study mid-score
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when comparing the Oman results with the result of those for other countries included
in the GLOBE study.
On the other hand, the employment equity scale ranged from strongly agree to
strongly disagree, and will be assessed according to the following scale:
1 2 3 4 5
Low Slightly low Moderate Slightly high High
Figure 9: EE Scale evaluation
Also, the study will calculate the grand mean for each cultural dimension or critical
success factor behind EE (which includes two or more questionnaire items or
statements) was determined from the two Likert scales discussed above.
For the purpose of this study, the researcher distributed 400 copies of the
questionnaire (200 of each version). The total numbers of usable questionnaires
received was 290 (149 of version Beta and 141 of version Alpha). The overall response
rate was 72.5%. All respondents were employees in the Omani public sector and all of
them were Omanis. Compared to similar studies, this participation rate is highly
acceptable. According to Hanges and Dickson (2004: 132), the average response per
country in the GLOBE study was 251 respondents. In addition, comparing the response
rate of Oman in this study with the response rate of Iran and some Middle Eastern
countries which were included in the GLOBE study, it can be clearly seen that Oman
has quite a good response rate. For example, GLOBE participants from Turkey were
323; from Iran, 300; from Kuwait, 101; from Qatar, only 78 (Kabasakal and
Dastmalchian. 2001) and 142 participants were from Egypt (Moneim, 2007).
The analysis of the data from the study questionnaire was done using SPSS software,
version 16.0.
To test the reliability of questionnaire statistics, a Cronbach's Alpha test was used.
The results show that employment equity resulted in an alpha of .759 while societal
culture resulted in an alpha of .687, and organizational culture resulted in an alpha of
.688. There are several reasons that might influence the reliability of this result, such as
the large number of items in the questionnaire. However, due to the length of the
questionnaire, this can be considered a good result. As mentioned by Hanges and
Dickson (2004: 136), the GLOBE study itself resulted in an alpha for organizational
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culture practice (As Is) of 0.61 and for organizational culture value (should be) of 0.55,
while societal culture practice (As Is) and societal culture value (should be) scored 0.77
and 0.75 respectively. In addition, a PhD study done by Herrera (2008: 72) which used
an organizational culture practice (As Is) questionnaire only resulted in an alpha of
0.516. Therefore, the result of Cronbach's Alpha test for this study is very much
acceptable here.
5.11.1.2 Demographic variables and the response rate of the questionnaire
In this section, the study will present the profile of the respondents with regard to their
age, gender, place of birth, place of work, education level, number of years experience
in governmental service, and their occupations. Only the valid responses will be
described within the demographic distribution. However, it is worth mentioning that the
invalid percentage does not have a significant effect, as shown in Table 32.
Table 32: Valid percentage of questionnaire respondents
Age Gender Place of birth Place of work Qualification Experience Position
N (290) Valid 285 279 283 283 283 284 281
Missing 5 11 7 7 7 6 9
5.11.1.2.1 Distribution of respondents by age
Figure 8 indicates that the majority of respondents (92 per cent) are between 25 and 45
years old. Sixty-one per cent of the sample is between 25 and 35 years old with 31 per
cent between 36 and 45 years old. Six per cent are under 25 and only 2 per cent older
than 46.
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Figure 10: Distribution of sample size by age
5.11.1.2.2 Distribution of respondents by gender:
Figure 9 Shows that 70 per cent of the questionnaire participants were male while 30
per cent of them were female. It is worth mentioning that the overall participation of
male and female in the labour market is 77.5 per cent and 22.5 per cent respectively.
Figure 11: Distribution of sample size by gender
5.11.1.2.3 Distribution of respondents by place of birth
Figure 10 indicates that highest percentage of respondents at 39 per cent is from
AlDakhilya while the second highest proportion is from Muscat, the capital, and
AlBatina with 21 per cent each. Participants from AlSharqia, AlDhahira, and Dhofar
were 6 per cent, 5 per cent, and 5 per cent, respectively. Two per cent of respondents
were born outside Oman.
6.3%
60.7%
30.5%
2.5%
less than 25 yrs 25-35 yrs 36-45 yrs more than 46 yrs
70.3%
29.7%
Male Female
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Figure 12: Distribution of sample size by place of birth
5.11.1.2.4 Distribution of respondents by place of work
With regard to the place of work, the highest number of respondents was from Muscat,
the capital, at 42 per cent. This is logical as the majority of the workforce in the public
sector in Oman is based in Muscat. The second highest numbers were from AlDakhilya
and AlBatina at 26 per cent and 25 per cent respectively. The numbers of participants
from Dhofar, AlSharqia, and AlDhahira were 3 per cent, 2 per cent, and 2 per cent,
respectively (see Figure 11).
Figure 13: Distribution of sample by place of work
0.0%
5.0%
10.0%
15.0%
20.0%
25.0%
30.0%
35.0%
40.0%
Muscat Dhofar Sharqiya Dakhliya AlDhahira
AlBatina
AlBuraimi
OutsideOman
21.2%
4.6% 6.4%
39.2%
5.3%
21.2%
0.4% 1.8%
0.0%
5.0%
10.0%
15.0%
20.0%
25.0%
30.0%
35.0%
40.0%
45.0%
Muscat Dhofar Sharqiya Dakhliya Al Dhahira Al Batina
42.0%
2.8% 2.5%
26.1%
1.8%
24.7%
065
5.11.1.2.5 Distribution of respondents by educational level:
As shown in Figure 12, the majority of the respondents (63 per cent) hold a bachelor‘s
degree while the number of participants holding Master‘s and PhD qualifications is 11
per cent and 1 per cent, respectively. Nineteen per cent of participants hold a diploma, 5
per cent a secondary school certificate and 1 per cent less than secondary school
certificates. It should be mentioned that these figures can be used for confirmation that
participants in this study match the sampling requirement. As described previously,
participants should be in grade 5 or above. Such a grade is usually held by educated
employees who having a diploma or above. Ninety-four per cent of participants in this
study hold a minimum of a diploma.
Figure 14: Distribution of sample by education level
5.11.1.2.6 Distribution of respondents by work experience
Figure 13 indicates that participants between five and nine years of service are the most
numerous among all participants (29 per cent), while 28 per cent of respondents had 15
or more years of service and 26 per cent had served for between 10 and 14 years. Only
17 per cent of participants had served for less than 5 years.
0.7% 4.9%
19.4%
62.5%
11.3% 1.1%
Less than Secondary Secondary Diploma Bachelor Master PhD
066
Figure 15: Distribution of sample by experience
5.11.1.2.7 Distribution of respondents by occupation
Figure 14 shows that majority of respondents were employees at 74 per cent. The
remaining participants (26 per cent) were at supervisory or managerial level.
Figure 16: Distribution of sample by occupation
5.11.2 Collecting Qualitative Data (Semi-Structured Interviews)
Twelve interviews were conducted with twelve general managers working for RCA.
Although the purpose of the interviews was explained by telephone during the interview
request, the researcher again explained the aim and objectives of the study at the
beginning of each interview. Respondents were then informed that the confidentiality of
their answers was guaranteed and the information provided would be used for research
purposes only and would not identify participants in any way, or disclose their name or
position, or refer to their relationship with RCA in such a way that they might be
17%
29%
26%
28%
Less than 5 yrs 5-9 yrs 10-14 yrs 15 yrs & more
4.3% 7.1%
14.6%
74.0%
Deputy Director or equivalent Deparment Manager
Section Head Employee
067
subsequently identified. Also, they were clearly informed of their right to withdraw at
any time from the study.
All interviews were conducted in participants‘ offices and each interview took
approximately one to one and a half hours. However, conducting 12 interviews with
general managers was a lengthy process as all of them have a busy schedule most of the
time. Therefore, it took almost two and a half months to complete all interviews. As
interviewees did not wish to have their voices recorded, notes were taken while
interviewing participants. Then a whole transcript was produced within no more than
one hour after each interview. The scripts were written in Arabic first and then, after
participants‘ approval, were translated into English.
5.12 Conclusion
Within this chapter, the thesis has provided an insight into the methodological approach
which was followed to gather the required data. The two main methods were chosen
after a review of the literature which allowed the researcher to decide the most
applicable methods to best serve the purposes of the thesis. Both quantitative and
qualitative approaches were chosen as a part of a mixed method approach to gain the
greatest advantage from each technique and minimize the disadvantage possible in a
single method approach. It was decided that a questionnaire would be used to gather the
quantitative data, while qualitative data would be gathered through semi-structured
interviews.
In addition, the chapter has shown the demographic distribution of the questionnaire
participants with regard to their age, gender, place of birth, place of work, education
level, number of years of experience in government service, and occupation. The
chapter then described the main characteristics of the interviewees who were involved
within this study.
In the following two chapters, the data collected using these two methods will be
combined while describing, analyzing, and discussing in depth the results. Step-by-step,
the results will be linked to the study objectives, questions, and hypotheses.
Consequently, this will lead to being able to respond to the different areas of the
research questions in a consistent manner.
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Chapter six
Study result (1):
Societal and organizational culture in Oman (analysis and
discussion)
6.0 Introduction
As mentioned in the introduction (Chapter 1), the main aim of this study is to explore
the extent of the influence that societal culture and organizational culture have on
employment equity. In order to achieve this aim, the researcher established a number of
objectives for investigation in four separate areas, and in order to achieve the research
aim, these areas were articulated and specific questions formulated pertaining to each.
The objectives in this chapter will be to:
1) measure Omani cultural preferences within society and public sector
organizations; and
2) identify the main differences between the cultural practice (As Is) and cultural
values (Should Be) in both society and public sector organizations.
Therefore, this chapter is mainly concerned with answering questions in the first area
of investigation, as set out in Chapter 5, which are:
Area One:
1. What are the main cultural preferences as evidenced by societal and
organizational practices in Oman?
2. What are the main cultural preferences in respect of societal and
organizational values in Oman?
3. Are there any differences in viewing the cultural dimensions of the Omani
cultural preferences between employees and managers?
4. Where does Omani culture stand compared to GLOBE study results in
general and the Middle Eastern cluster in particular?
In addition, the researcher also proposed some hypotheses which will be tested in
this chapter (set one: societal and organizational cultures in Oman). These hypotheses
were also set out in Chapter 5 as follows:
1. Omani cultural practices at both societal and organizational levels will score
HIGH in the following cultural dimensions: uncertainty avoidance, power
distance, societal collectiveness, in-group collectiveness, and human
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orientation, and LOW in gender egalitarianism, assertiveness, future
orientation, and performance orientation.
2. Omani cultural values, at both societal and organizational levels, will score
LOW in the following cultural dimensions: uncertainty avoidance, power
distance, societal collectiveness, in-group collectiveness, and human
orientation, and HIGH in gender egalitarianism, assertiveness, future
orientation, and performance orientation.
3. Culture in Oman will score almost within the range scores of other Middle
Eastern countries which were included in GLOBE study.
4. There will be no significant differences between managers and employees
with regard to the cultural dimensions of Omani cultural preferences.
As also stated in Chapter 5, each cultural dimension was measured separately at four
levels. Each level has the same nine dimensions. Version Alpha of the questionnaire
assessed organizational culture at two levels (practice and value) while version Beta
similarly assessed societal culture at the two levels of practice and value. Therefore, this
chapter will analyse and discuss each cultural dimension according to the four levels of
societal practice, societal value, organizational practice, and organizational value.
However, more detail will be provided regarding societal culture than organizational
culture in general because the GLOBE study discussed societal culture in greater depth
than organizational culture. In addition, looking at the GLOBE questionnaire, societal
and organizational cultures were assessed using almost the same dimensions at both
practice and value levels. Therefore, many of the statements used in this study
questionnaire were repeated for these levels, as can be seen from the examples given
below.
Uncertainty Avoidance Societal Practice (As Is):
In this Society, orderliness and consistency are stressed, even at the expense of
experimentation and innovation.
strongly
disagree
neither agree
nor disagree
strongly
agree
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
071
Uncertainty Avoidance Societal Value (Should Be):
I believe that orderliness and consistency should be stressed, even at the expense of
experimentation and innovation.
strongly
disagree
neither agree
nor disagree
Strongly
Agree
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Uncertainty Avoidance Organizational Practice (As Is):
1-1. In this organization, orderliness and consistency are stressed, even at the expense
experimentation and innovation.
strongly
agree
neither agree
nor disagree
strongly
disagree
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Uncertainty Avoidance Organizational Value (As Is):
3-1. In this organization, orderliness and consistency should be stressed, even at the
expense of experimentation and innovation.
strongly
disagree
neither
agree
nor
disagree
Strongly
agree
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Future Orientation Societal Practice (As Is):
The way to be successful in this Society is to:
take
events
as they
occur
plan ahead
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Future Orientation Societal Value (Should Be):
I believe that people who are successful should:
take
events
as they
occur
plan ahead
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
070
Future Orientation Organizational Practice (As Is):
The way to be successful in this organization is to:
plan
ahead
take
events
as they
occur
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Future Orientation Organizational Value (Should Be):
In this organization, people who are successful should:
take events
as they
occur
plan ahead
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
To avoid repetition of the wording of questionnaire items in the description and
discussion sections, the study will state only the items that present dimensions of
societal culture practice (As Is). Other parts, which are: societal value (Should Be),
organizational practice (As Is), and organizational value (Should Be) will be described
by highlighting the result of the main mean for each dimension.
In the coming sections of this chapter, the study will indicate the results for societal
and organizational cultures. It will first state the quantitative result, and then support
this by reference to the literature review and quantitative data. At the end of the chapter,
it will highlight the main results for Omani culture in general and compare those results
to the main findings of the GLOBE study in general and Middle Eastern cluster in
particular.
6.1 Cultural dimensions in Oman at societal and organizational levels
As mentioned in the introduction section, this chapter will tackle the first area of
questions, which includes four sub-questions. The first two questions were as follows:
1. What are the main cultural preferences as evidenced by societal and
organizational practices in Oman?
2. What are the main cultural preferences in respect of societal and
organizational values in Oman?
Two hypotheses were proposed in answer to these two questions, as follows:
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1. Omani cultural practices at both societal and organizational levels will score
HIGH in the following cultural dimensions: uncertainty avoidance, power
distance, societal collectiveness, in-group collectiveness, and human
orientation, and LOW in gender egalitarianism, assertiveness, future
orientation, and performance orientation.
2. Omani cultural values, at both societal and organizational levels, will score
LOW in the following cultural dimensions: uncertainty avoidance, power
distance, societal collectiveness, in-group collectiveness, and human
orientation, and HIGH in gender egalitarianism, assertiveness, future
orientation, and performance orientation.
Here, the thesis will try to provide the general finding concerning societal and
organizational culture in Oman at both practice and value levels. To do so, a
combination of quantitative (questionnaire) and qualitative (interview) data will be
provided. Then the results will be compared with the GLOBE study findings in general
and Middle Eastern cluster in particular. This will be tackled under the umbrella of the
objectives, questions, and hypotheses of the study. Therefore, the results for the nine
cultural dimensions will be provided as follows:
6.1.1 Performance Orientation (PO)
Performance orientation reflects ‗the degree to which an organization or society
encourages and rewards group members for performance improvement and excellence‘
(House and Javidan, 2004: 11). Performance Orientation at Societal Practices level
(POSP–As Is) was measured by three items (Q15, Q18, and Q20) and all of them were
reverse coded. The questionnaire results for these items are as shown in Table 33.
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1-15. In this Society, teen-aged students are encouraged to strive for continuously
improved performance. (reverse scored)
strongly
disagree
neither
agree
nor
disagree
Strongly
agree
SD Mean 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1.62 4.28 3.4% 11.4% 19.5% 21.5% 19.5% 14.1% 10.7%
Valid (N): 149
1-18. In this Society , major rewards are based on: (reverse scored)
only factors
other than
performance
effectiveness
(for example,
seniority or
political
connections)
Performance
effectiveness
and other
factors (for
example,
seniority or
political
connections)
Only
performance
effectiveness
SD Mean 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1.39 3.38 13.5% 12.2% 17.6% 45.3% 5.4% 3.4% 2.7%
Valid (N): 148
1-20. In this Society , being innovative to improve performance is generally:
(reverse scored)
Not
rewarded
somewhat
rewarded
Substantially
Rewarded
SD Mean 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1.46 3.77 7.4% 12.1% 16.1% 42.3% 10.1% 6.7% 5.4%
Valid (N): 149
As indicated in Table 33, while 21.5% chose to be neutral, the higher percentage of
respondents, 44.3%, ranged in opinion from slightly agree to strongly agree that teenage
students, in Omani society, are encouraged to strive for continuously improved
performance. In addition, a higher percentage of respondents (45.3%), when we ignore
the mid-level, believes that major rewards in Omani society are based on both
performance and other factors such as seniority or political connections, while 43.3% of
them tend to believe that such rewards are mainly based only on factors other than
performance effectiveness. Furthermore, most respondents (42.3%) tend to believe that
being innovative to improve performance in the Omani society is generally somewhat
rewarded.
In general, the grand mean of Performance Orientation at Societal Practices level
(POSP–As Is) in Omani society is 3.8087. Such a result shows that Omani society
Table 33: Measures of performance orientation societal culture practice (As Is)
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scored below the average in POSP, which means that it has a low POSP. This result also
places Omani society in band B and rank the country at 48 out of 63 countries (Oman
plus the 62 countries included in the GLOBE study). On the other hand, the grand mean
of performance orientation at the level of societal value (POSV–Should Be) was 5.9732,
which is higher that it was in POSP. With this result, while Oman is still in band B, the
ranking of Oman moves from 48 to 32.
With regard to organizational culture, the grand mean of Performance Orientation
Organizational Culture Practice (POOP–As Is) was 3.7914. In contrast, the grand mean
Performance Orientation Organizational Value (POOV–Should Be) was 5.9090. As in
societal culture, POOV scored higher than the POOP, which indicates the respondents‘
desire for more performance orientation at societal and organizational level.
Regarding the interviews, most interviewees referred to the importance of valuing
family relationships. For example, three of them referred to a common saying: ‗Anyone
has not been kind to his own family; he will not be kind to other people‘ (N2, N3, and
N9).
Furthermore, Kabasakal, et al. (2012) added that loyalty towards family and relatives
from the societal perspective, and towards their leaders from an organizational
perspective, is highly encouraged among citizens in the Arab world. One interviewee
explained this commitment towards family, seniority, elders, and authority figures by
stating that: ‗Showing loyalty to family, older people, Shaikh (tribal leader), and
political leaders is part of our religion‘s orders and our social norms‘ (N8).
Nevertheless, although Oman scores low in its current practice of performance
orientation at societal level (m= 3.8087) and organizational level (m= 3.7914), there is a
clear desire for higher PO. This great desire by Omani citizens and employees for
higher performance orientation was clearly apparent at both levels as POSV scored (m=
5.9732) and POOV scored (m= 5.9090). Javidan (2004: 245) explained that societies
which desire higher performance orientation would like to be rewarded for their
individual achievements, both socially and organizationally. They would also prefer to
be evaluated according to what they do more than who they are and desire to be
encouraged to improve their performance continuously, as they are educated, trained,
and competitive.
One interviewee pointed out that the current societal and organizational attitudes
need to pay more attention to people‘s qualifications than to their social status. He
stated that:
075
Although respecting someone's social status is understandable, however,
rewarding someone's performance or evaluating his capability of doing a job
should be more dependent on his training and previous experience rather than
his social status. (N1)
According to the above results, participants scored low in PO at societal and
organizational practice level. This means that Omani society tends to value social and
family relationships more than it values training and development. Omanis also value
loyalty, seniority, tradition, and experience more than valuing assertiveness, individual
achievement, being direct, and taking initiative (Javidan, 2004: 245). However, the
results show that participants were seeking for high PO at the level of value. This
demonstrates participants‘ desire to be evaluated according to ‗what they do‘ more than
‗who they are‘. This indicates that employees prefer to be rewarded according to their
performance, not because of their family or tribal reputation.
6.1.2 Future Orientation (FO)
Future Orientation is defined as ‗the degree to which individuals in organizations or
societies engage in future-oriented behaviors such as planning, investing in the future,
and delaying individual or collective gratification‘ (House and Javidan, 2004: 12). FO,
at societal culture practice level (As Is), was measured by five items (Q3, Q4, Q8, Q30,
Q31); three questions (3, 4, & 8) were reverse coded. These responses to these items
were as shown in Table 34, below.
076
1-3. The way to be successful in this Society is to: (reverse scored)
plan
ahead
take events
as they
occur
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Mean SD
20.7% 15.9% 13.8% 11.7% 13.1% 12.4% 12.4% 4.32 2.07
Valid (N): 145
1-4. In this Society , the accepted norm is to: (reverse scored)
plan for
the future
accept the
status quo
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Mean SD
13.8% 14.5% 12.4% 15.9% 12.4% 17.2% 13.8% 3.94 2.01
Valid (N): 145
1-8. In this Society, social gatherings are: (reverse scored)
Spontaneous
(planned less
than an hour
in advance)
planned well in
advance (2 or
more weeks in
advance)
SD Mean 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1.8 3.26 17.4% 26.8% 16.1% 10.7% 15.4% 8.1% 5.4%
Valid (N): 149
1-30. In this society, more people:
live for the
future than
live for the
present
live for the
present than
live for the
future
SD Mean 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1.67 3.08 4 6.7 10.1 14.1 20.1 27.5 17.4
Valid (N): 149
1-31. In this society, people place more emphasis on:
Planning
for the
future
solving
current
problems
SD Mean 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1.47 2.63 0.7 5.4 6.1 12.2 20.9 29.1 25.7
Valid (N): 148
As shown in Table 34, 50.4% of respondents believe that planning ahead is the right
way to be successful in Omani society. Only 37.9% of respondents think that taking
things as they occur is more appropriate way to be successful in Omani society. In
addition, 42.4% of respondents tend to believe that the accepted norm in the Omani
society is to accept the status quo, while 40.7% of them tend to believe that planning for
the future is more accepted. Moreover, the majority of respondents (60.3%) also tend to
believe that social gatherings are spontaneous (planned less than an hour in advance),
Table 34: Items measuring performance orientation societal culture practice (As Is)
077
while only 28.9% tend to believe that social gatherings are planned well in advance
(two or more weeks in advance). Furthermore, almost two thirds of respondents (65%)
believe that more Omanis live for the present than live for the future, while only 21.8%
of them think the opposite. Moreover, higher percentages (75.7%) of respondents
believe that Omanis place more emphasis on solving current problems. Only 12.2% of
them believe that Omanis place more emphasis on planning for the future.
In general, the grand mean of future orientation societal practice (FOSP) is 3.4349.
Such a result ranks Omani society as 50 and places the country in band C. According to
the GLOBE study, the worldwide average of FOSP is 3.86 (Ashkanasy et al., 2004:
303), which means that Omani society is below the average. On the other hand, for
Future Orientation Societal Value (FOSV–Should Be), the grand mean was 5.6113,
which is higher than it was in practice. With such a result, Oman moves from band C to
band B and its ranking becomes 29.
Although Oman is in band B, it can however still be placed as the fifth highest
country within this band. Therefore, it is clear that Omani society is seeking more future
orientation practice in daily life.
At the organizational culture level, the grand mean of Future Orientation
Organizational Practice (FOOP–As Is) was 4.8132. In contrast, the grand mean of
Future Orientation Organizational Value (FOOV–Should Be) was 5.8050. As in societal
culture, FOOV scored higher than the FOOP. This means that employees desire more
FO in their daily practice in the workplace.
The FO practice at organizational level (As Is) in slightly high (m= 4.8132), while
FO practice at societal level is slightly low (3.4349). This difference between
organizational and societal levels is understandable as public sector organizations have
a structured system and to some extent have annual planning strategies. Societies with
lower future orientation, such as Omani society, tend to have less successful economies
oriented more towards spending rather than saving for the future. Individuals are less
motivated, preferring immediate rewards, and leaders put more emphasis on routine
procedures (Ashkanasy et al., 2004: 302). One interviewee explicitly looks at routine as
clarity, stating that:
When employees have a clear daily working path, it will be much easier for
them to follow up the work progress and prevent surprises from appearing
from time to time at the workplace. (N12)
Another employee mentions the importance of immediate reward, stating that:
078
Immediate rewards show not just the immediate appreciation of good
performance, but also increase credibility between employees and the
employer. (N10)
In addition, most of the interviewees pointed out the influence of faith and destiny on
their behaviours and attitudes. For example, one of them stated that:
Eman in Allah (faith in God) is the main driver of everything we do, whether
in our daily life or during work practices. Whatever we want to do, we should
always say ‗Insha‘a Allah‘ as he is the only one who could bless, judge, and
reward whatever we did or will do. (N9)
However, the result for the FO value, at both societal and organizational levels,
shows that Omanis are seeking for higher FO. This means that Omani society has a
tendency towards saving more than spending, setting long-term work and life strategies,
and moving from accepting the status quo to have a clear plan for the future (Ashkanasy
et al., 2004: 302). A similar tendency was shown during interviews as well. Most of the
interviewees insisted that people should not rely on faith only. Instead, they should first
try their level best to accomplish their tasks and to be educated, trained, and initiative-
taking. One interviewee stated clearly:
From my point of view, having faith should not be seen as an obstacle to
planning for the future. In fact, it should be seen as an inspiration for more
effort toward success. This effort should be accompanied by the right tools
such as education, training and continued effort. (N5)
As shown earlier, Omani society scored low in FOSP. As discussed by many authors,
low FO is highly emphasized by Islam and associated long-established social norms.
For example, Javidan (2004) argued that the Arabic phrase ‗Insha'a Allah‘ (or God
willing) is an example of subjugation. This subjugation shapes Muslim culture and
influences their performance and future orientation. In addition, Kabasakal et al. (2012)
argue that believing in faith and its power in controlling human life is part of Muslim‘s
principles. For example, faith encourages Omanis to accept the status quo rather than
planning for the future, as future is in God‘s hands. However, the results also show that
Omanis have a tendency towards higher FO. This means more planning for future and
reliance on individual performance as well as training. This desire might be encouraged
by the greater openness to the rest of the world which has been experienced over the last
forty-two years in Oman along with new technology including internet and satellites.
079
6.1.3 Gender Egalitarianism (GE)
Gender Egalitarianism is defined as ‗the degree to which an organization or a society
minimizes gender role differences while promoting gender equality‘ (House and
Javidan, 2004: 12). GE at Societal Practices level (GESP–As Is) was measured by five
items (Q17, Q22, Q36, Q37, and Q38), none of which was reverse coded. The results
for these items are as shown in Table 35, below.
Table 35 indicates that the majority of respondents (83.6%) believe that there is more
emphasis on athletic programmes for boys than girls in the Omani society. Also, over
three quarter of respondents (83%) responded between strongly agree to slightly agree
that it is worse for a boy to fail in school than for a girl to fail in school in Omani
society. In addition, 75% of respondents strongly believe to slightly believe that men in
the Omani society are more likely to serve in a position of high office. Only 27.2%
believe that men and women are equally likely to serve in such positions, while the
opinions of just 4.8% of them ranged from slightly believe to strongly believe that
women have a better chance to serve in a position of high office.
The grand mean of GESP is 3.0993. Such a result places Omani society in band B
among GLOBE countries and puts it at rank 45. The result of GESP (As Is) with regard
to Omani society shows that Omani society scored below the average in GESP. At the
societal value level, for GESV (Should Be), the grand mean of these five items was
3.2376. Such a result moves Oman from band B in its societal practice to be in band D
in GESV with a rank of 62.
081
1-17. In this Society , boys are encouraged more than girls to attain a higher
Education
strongly
disagree
neither agree
nor disagree
strongly
agree
SD Mean 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1.82 4.3 16.8% 16.1% 6.7% 22.8% 20.8% 11.4% 5.4%
Valid (N): 149
1-22. In this Society , there is more emphasis on athletic programmes for:
Girls boys
SD Mean 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1.31 2.2 0.7% 2.1% 3.4% 10.3% 15.1% 30.8% 37.7%
Valid (N): 146
1-36. In this society, it is worse for a boy to fail in school than for a girl to
fail in school
strongly
disagree
neither agree
nor disagree
strongly
agree
SD Mean 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1.39 2.32 2 1.4% 5.4% 8.2% 16.3% 34% 32.7%
Valid (N): 147
1-37. In this society, people are generally:
non-
physical
physical
SD Mean 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1.33 3.8 2 8.1% 18.9% 30.4% 24.3% 12.2% 4.1%
Valid (N): 148
1-38. In this society, who is more likely to serve in a position of high
office?
Women Men and
women are
equally likely
to
serve
Men
SD Mean 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1.19 2.84 0.7% 0.7% 3.4% 27.2% 28.6% 23.8% 15.6%
Valid (N): 147
With regard to Gender Egalitarianism in Organizational Culture, the grand mean of
Gender Egalitarianism Organizational Practice (GEOP–As Is) was 440643. In contrast,
the grand mean of Gender Egalitarianism Organizational Value (GEOV–Should Be)
was 441805. The results for both practice and value in organizational culture are almost
the same, which means that Omani employees are mostly satisfied with the current
organizational practice.
Table 35: Items measuring gender egalitarianism societal culture practice (As Is)
080
Most interviewees commented on the man‘s role within the society towards his
family and how such a role provides him with better opportunities in many situations.
One interviewee explained his point of view in regard to this matter, stating:
As we all know, the man is the one who is responsible, socially and
religiously, for providing financial support to his family. Therefore, priority in
some decisions such as recruitment and promotions should be given to men
more than women. (N2)
Another interviewee showed his satisfaction with regard to current government
support for women and their empowerment, stating that:
Compared to their social responsibilities and financial contribution, I think
females have been given enough opportunities in different aspects of life and
work. Demanding more may deviate their social role from its main track.
(N11)
In general, this lower score on GE at societal practice level (GESP) makes Omani
society situated more towards being male oriented, which means that it tends to provide
women with no or fewer roles in decision making, the workforce is mainly male
oriented, and women have lower status in the community (Emrich, Denmark and Den
Hartog, 2004: 359). However, GE scores only slightly higher at the value level (3.2376)
than it does in level of societal practice (3.0993), moving from rank 45 at practice level
to rank 62 at value level. This shows that Omanis are less desirous than other GLOBE
countries of moving towards higher GE practice. This means that Omani culture is
relatively satisfied with the current societal practice. Emrich, Denmark, and Den
Hartog, (2004) mentioned that GESP scored the lowest grand mean (3.37) among all
nine cultural dimensions in GLOBE study. As they discussed, this means that no society
among the 62 countries included in the GLOBE study is perceived to be female
dominated.
6.1.4 Assertiveness (AS)
Assertiveness is defined as ‗the degree to which individuals in organizations or societies
are assertive, confrontational, and aggressive in social relationships‘ (House and
Javidan, 2004: 12). Assertiveness at societal practices level (ASP–As Is) was measured
by three items (Q6, Q10, and Q14) and all of them were reversed coded. The results for
these items are shown in Table 31, below.
082
1-6. In this Society, people are generally (reverse scored)
assertive non-
assertive
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Mean SD
8.3% 11% 24.1% 31.7% 15.2% 9% 0.7% 4.36 1.37
Valid (N): 145
1-10. In this Society , people are generally: (reverse scored)
non-
dominant
dominant
SD Mean 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1.48 3.97 8.1% 9.5% 14.9% 28.4% 25% 12.2% 2%
Valid (N): 148
1-14. In this Society , people are generally: (reverse scored)
tender
Tough
SD Mean 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1.58 2.89 23% 24.3% 19.6% 16.2% 10.1% 4.7% 2%
Valid (N): 148
As indicated in Table 31, the higher percentage of respondents (31.7%) believes that
people in Omani society are in general neither assertive nor non-assertive. The second
and third highest percentages of respondents look at Omanis as either slightly assertive
or slightly non-assertive with percentages of 24.1% and 15.2% respectively. With
regard to dominance, the case is almost the same, as the highest number of respondents
(28.4) believes that people in Omani society are neither dominant nor non-dominant,
while 25% of respondents believe that Omanis are slightly dominant and 14.9% believe
that Omanis are slightly non-dominant. However, the largest number of respondents
believes that people the Omani society are generally greatly tender, somewhat tender or
slightly tender with percentages of 23%, 24.3% and 19.6% respectively.
In general, the grand mean of ASP (As Is) is 3.7315. This result places Oman in band
B with a rank of 54 when compared to all GLOBE countries. According to Den Hartog
(2004), the middle level average rating of ASP among all GLOBE countries is 4.13,
which makes Omani society below the average in ASP. On the other hand, the grand
mean of assertiveness at the level of societal value (ASV–Should Be) was 3.0492. With
such a result, Oman moves from band B in its societal practice to be in band C in ASV
with a rank of 56. Therefore, although assertiveness scores below average in the daily
practice, it is clear that people in Omani society are still seeking for even less
assertiveness.
Table 36: Items measuring assertiveness societal culture practice (As Is)
083
With regard to Assertiveness at Organizational Practice level (AOP–As Is), the grand
mean was 440348. In contrast, the grand mean of assertiveness at Organizational Value
level (AOV–Should Be) was 541065. Unlike societal culture, assertiveness at
organizational culture value level (AOV) scored higher than it does at practice level
(AOP)
At societal level, many interviewees linked their personal behaviour to their religion,
nationality and social norms. For example, one of them stated that:
As a Muslim, Omani, and ‗qubaily‘ (following tribes‘ norms), being modest,
humble, and respectful is part of our Islamic doctrines and social norms. (N6)
However, the difference between social view and organizational view with regard to
assertiveness was mentioned by more than one interviewee. For example, one
interviewee, demonstrating his viewpoint in regard of the difference between social
respect and employment respect, stated that:
Socially, I agree that people should be respected according to their social or
religious status. However, employees should not be evaluated according to
such status but according to their performance and quality of work. (N4)
Another interviewee showed his preference for modesty rather than assertiveness by
stating that:
I believe that many situations, especially at societal level, could be dealt with
through fraternal understanding. (N1)
He continued:
However, within the working environment, laws and regulations should be
applied first. (N1)
Societies with lower scores for assertiveness, As Is the case with Omani society here,
tends to value modesty more than assertiveness, to value warm relationships with a
preference for who you are more than what you do, and to emphasize certain factors
such as tradition, seniority, experience, and loyalty (Den Hartog, 2004: 405). However,
the results show that employees desire more assertiveness in organizational culture (as
the Should Be score shows) and this was confirmed by the interviewees. This desire
towards higher assertiveness in organizational culture indicates employees‘ tendency
toward valuing several elements such as ‗competition, dominant, success, assertive, and
unambiguous communication‘ (Den Hartog, 2004: 405).
084
6.1.5 Institutional Collectivism (C1)
This is defined as ‗the degree to which organizational and societal institutional practices
encourage and reward collective distribution of resources and collective action‘ (House
and Javidan, 2004: 12). Institutional collectivism at societal practices level (C1SP–As
Is) was measured by four items (Q7, Q12, Q29, and Q35) and three of them were
reversed coded (Q7, Q29, and Q35). These items are as shown in Table 37, below.
As Table 37 shows, while the highest percentage of respondents (29.1%) chose
neither agree nor disagree with the statement ‗in this society, leaders encourage group
loyalty even if individual goals suffer‘, still a large number of respondents were slightly
agree, somewhat agree, or strongly agree with such statement with percentages of
16.2%, 18.9%, and 14.9% respectively. Additionally, 75.7% ranged in their opinion
from slightly agree to strongly agree that being accepted by other members of a group is
very important in Omani society. Moreover, the highest percentage of respondents
(27.7%) believes that group cohesion and individualism are equally valued in Omani
society. However, 61.4% of respondents ranged in their opinion from slightly believe to
strongly believe that group cohesion is valued more than individualism in Omani
society.
In general, the grand mean of C1SP in Omani society was 4.7942, which places
Oman in band A and ranked 7 among GLOBE study countries. On the other hand, the
grand mean of institutional collectivism at the level of societal value (C1SV–Should
Be) was 4.8518. Although the grand mean of C1SV is almost similar to grand mean of
C1SP, however, such a result moved Omani society from band A in its societal practice
to be in band B in C1SV. In addition, the rank of Omani society fell back to 28.
085
1-7. In this Society, leaders encourages group loyalty even if individual goals suffer.
(reverse scored)
strongly
agree
neither agree
nor disagree
strongly
disagree
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Mean SD
14.9% 18.9% 16.2% 29.1% 8.1% 6.8% 6.1% 4.59 1.68
Valid (N): 148
1-12. The economic system in this society is designed to maximize:
Collective
Interests
individual
interests
SD Mean 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1.84 4.05 14.9% 10.8% 12.2% 18.9% 20.3% 16.2% 6.8%
Valid (N): 148
1-29. In this society, being accepted by the other members of a group is
very Important. (reverse scored)
strongly
disagree
neither
agree
nor
disagree
strongly
agree
SD Mean 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1.2 5.51 0% 1.4% 2.7% 20.3% 17.6% 35.8% 22.3%
Valid (N): 148
1-35. In this society: (reverse scored)
Individuali
sm is
valued
more than
group
cohesion
group
cohesion and
individualism
are equally
valued
group
cohesion is
valued more
than
individualism
SD Mean 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1.49 5.03 2.7% 3.4% 4.7% 27.7% 18.9% 23.6% 18.9%
Valid (N): 148
With regard to Institutional Collectivism at Organizational Practice level (C1OP–As
Is), the grand mean was 441378. In contrast, the grand mean institutional collectivism at
Organizational Value level (C1OV) was 445613.
6.1.6 In-group Collectivism (C2)
This refers to ‗the degree to which individuals express pride, loyalty and cohesiveness
in their organizations or families‘ (House and Javidan, 2004: 12).
In-group collectivism at societal practices level (IgCSP) was measured by four items
(Q11, Q23, Q28, and Q39) and all of them were reversed coded. These items are shown
in Table 38.
Table 37: Items measuring institutional collectivism societal culture practice (As Is)
086
1-11. In this Society, children take pride in the individual accomplishments
of their parents. (reverse scored)
Strongly
disagree
neither
agree
nor
disagree
strongly
agree
SD Mean 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1.32 5.62 1.4% 1.4% 4.9% 10.4% 17.4% 36.8% 27.8%
Valid (N): 144
1-23. In this Society , parents take pride in the individual accomplishments
of their children: (reverse scored)
strongly
disagree
neither
agree
nor
disagree
strongly
agree
SD Mean 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1.13 5.87 0% 0% 4.1% 9.5% 18.2% 31.8% 36.5%
Valid (N): 148
1-28. In this society, aging parents generally live at home with their children.
(reverse scored)
strongly
disagree
neither
agree
nor
disagree
strongly
agree
SD Mean 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1.25 6 0% 3.4% 1.3% 7.4% 14.1% 27.5% 46.3%
Valid (N): 149
1-39. In this society, children generally live at home with their parents until
they get married. (reverse scored)
strongly
disagree
neither
agree
nor
disagree
strongly
agree
SD Mean 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1.11 6.37 0.7 0.7 1.3 5.4 8.7 16.8 66.4
Valid (N): 149
Table 38 indicates that the highest percentage of respondents agree, either slightly
(17.4%), somewhat (36.8%), or strongly (27.8%), with the statement that children in
Omani society take pride in the individual accomplishments of their parents. They also
agree that parents take pride in the individual accomplishments of their children with
36.5% responding strongly disagree, 31.8% somewhat agree and 18.2% slightly agree.
In addition, most respondents agreed that ageing parents in the Omani society live at
Table 38: Items measuring in-group collectivism societal culture practice (As Is)
087
home with their children and the percentage of such agreement was 46.3% strongly
agree, 27.5% somewhat agree, and 14.1 % slightly agree. Furthermore, the vast majority
of respondents agree that children in the Omani society generally live at home with their
parents until they get married with a percentage of 66.4% strongly agree, 16.8%
somewhat agree and 8.7% slightly agree.
In general, the grand mean of In-group collectivism at societal practices level
(C2SP–As Is) is 5.9642. This result places Omani society in band A with a rank of 4
among GLOBE societies. On the other hand, the grand mean of institutional
collectivism at the level of societal value (C2SV–Should Be) was 5.6460. This result
moved Omani society from band A in its societal practice to be in band B in societal
value with a rank of 35.
With regard to organizational culture, the grand mean of In-group Collectivism at
Organizational Practice level (C2OP–As Is) was 4.2695. In contrast, the grand mean of
in-group collectivism at Organizational Value level (C2OV–Should Be) was
5.2871.This result indicates that employees are seeking for more in-group collectivism
in their daily practice in the workplace.
In addition, the terms collectivism and individualism are mainly related to the degree
of relationship between an individual and his surrounding community and environment.
In a society like Oman, the word ‗family‘ includes not just husband, wife and their
children; it also includes parents, brothers and sisters. Also, the word ‗relatives‘
includes almost all members of a tribe. Omanis have high appreciation towards their
families and tribes. While interviewing participants, most of them agreed that family
and tribe come at the front of their interests. They show quite a large commitment
towards their own families and tribes. As an interviewee stated with pride:
In most of situations, like marriage, death, or elections of Shura council, my
family along with tribe members stand together as one unit. It is a source of
strength and comfort. And this is, as a society, who we are. (N2)
Concerning organizational culture, an interviewee showed his point of view
regarding the importance of the relationship between employees themselves on one side
and between them and their managers on the other, stating that:
I think managers should participate more in social events of their employees.
Also, employees should strength their relationship between themselves. All
this will reflect positively in the working environment. (N12)
088
Another employee referred to organizational efforts towards having a good welfare
system, stating that:
This organization takes a great care of its employees' societal and
psychological aspects and that is why it has a separate department of social
affairs. (N3)
In general, looking at the previous results for institutional collectivism and in-group
collectivism, Omani society can be described as a high collectivism society. Societies
which score high on collectivism tend to have ‗a slower pace of life‘, have ‗more
extended family structures‘, and ‗individuals are integrated into strong cohesive groups‘
(Gelfand, et al., 2004: 454). However, the similarity between practice and values results
indicates that most Omanis are satisfied with current societal practice of institutional
and in-group collectivism.
On organizational culture, the above results also indicate that employees are seeking
greater institutional and in-group collectivism in their daily practice in the workplace.
This tendency toward higher practice of C1 and C2 may derive from the fact that the
system of public sector organizations in Oman has been structured in a collectivist
manner. Gelfand et al. (2004: 459) stated that organizations with high collectivism ‗take
responsibility for employee welfare, motivation is socially oriented, employees develop
a long-term relationship with the employer, and an organizational commitment is based
on expectation of loyalty‘. However, one interesting point that should be mentioned
here is that practice and values for in-group collectivism scored higher than they did for
institutional collectivism. This is not only the case in Oman, but all other GLOBE
countries have the same result (Gelfand et al., 2004).
6.1.7 Power Distance (PD)
Power Distance is defined as ‗the degree to which members of an organization or
society expect and agree that power should be stratified and concentrated at higher level
of an organization or government‘ (House and Javidan, 2004: 12). Power distance at
societal practices level (PDSP–As Is) was measured by five items (Q5, Q13, Q26, Q27,
and Q34) and four of them were reverse coded (Q13, Q26, Q27, and Q34). These items
are as shown in Table 39, below.
As indicated in Table 39, the greater percentages of respondents either greatly
believe (24.2%), somewhat believe (16.1%), or slightly believe (14.1%) that a person‘s
influence in the Omani society is based primarily on the authority of that individual‘s
position. In addition, most respondents (55.3%) range in their opinion from greatly
089
believe to slightly believe that followers in Omani society are expected to obey their
leaders without question. Also, the majority of them (67.8%) tend to believe that people
in positions of power in Omani society try to increase their social distance from less
powerful individuals. Moreover, the majority of respondents (44.6% strongly agree and
26.4% somewhat agree) that in Omani society, rank and position in the hierarchy have
special privileges. The majority also ranged in their opinion from strongly believe
(34%) to somewhat believe (26.5%) that power in Omani society is concentrated at the
top.
In general, the grand mean of power distance at societal practices level (PDSP) is
5.1174. This result places Omani society in band B with a rank of 40 among GLOBE
societies. Within such a score, Omani society can be described as having a high power
distance. On the other hand, the grand mean of power distance at the level of societal
value (PDSV–Should Be) was 2.7094. This result moved Omani society from band B in
its societal practice to be in band C in societal value with a rank of 33. Indeed, this
lower grand mean of PDSV means that Omanis are striving for less power distance in
their daily lives.
With regard to organizational culture, the grand mean of Power distance at
Organizational Practice level (PDOP–As Is) scored 4.1655. In contrast, power distance
at Organizational Value level (PDOV–Should Be) has a grand mean of 2.5697.This
result indicates that employees are seeking for less power distance in their daily practice
in the workplace.
091
1-5. In this Society , a person’s influence is based primarily on:
one’s ability
and
contribution
to the
Society
the
authority
of
one’s
position
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Mean SD
10.7% 14.1% 10.7% 10.1% 14.1% 16.1% 24.2% 4.48 2.1
Valid (N): 149
1-13. In this society, followers are expected to: (reverse scored)
question their
leaders when
in
disagreement
obey their
leaders
without
question
SD Mean 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1.91 4.55 11.5% 5.4% 11.5% 16.2% 15.5% 23.6% 16.2%
Valid (N): 148
1-26. In this Society , people in positions of power try to: (reverse scored)
decrease their social distance from less powerful people
increase their social distance from less powerful individuals
SD Mean 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1.59 5.19 2.7% 4% 7.4% 18.1% 18.8% 22.8% 26.2%
Valid (N): 149
1-27. In this Society, rank and position in the hierarchy have special
privileges. (reverse scored)
strongly
disagree
neither
agree
nor
disagree
strongly
agree
SD Mean 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1.31 5.92 0.7% 2% 3.4% 8.1% 14.9% 26.4% 44.6%
Valid (N): 148
1-34. In this society, power is: (reverse scored)
shared
throughout
the society
concentrated
at
the top
SD Mean 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1.67 5.45 4.1% 3.4% 7.5% 8.2% 16.3% 26.5% 34%
Valid (N): 147
Table 39: Items measuring power distance societal culture practice (As Is)
090
Interviewees expressed almost the same views as shown by the results of the
questionnaire. Although they showed respect for their social system, which emphasizes
seniority in different aspects, it would, however, be better, from their point of view, to
enhance equity and democracy. An interviewee stated that:
Although religious and social status is respected among most Omanis,
however, I think it would be much better if the society could express more
freedom in the media, with equal treatment among all citizens. (N5)
One other interviewee asserted the need for systematic evaluation within the public
sector, especially for recruitment to senior positions. He stated:
In so many cases, no one knows how or why someone has been appointed for
a certain high position. I believe we do need to have a solid system built on
efficiency and transparency to ensure that such a selection has been made
based on qualifications and experience. (N10)
In general, Omani culture at both societal and organizational levels has scored high
in the power distance dimension. Societies with High PD tend to have certain criteria
such as being ‗differentiated into classes on several criteria… information are
localized‘, equal opportunities are not enforced, and ‗civil liberties are weak and public
corruption is high‘ (Carl, Gupta and Javidan, 2004: 536). However, both, citizens and
employees desire less PD in their daily life and in the workplace. This tendency towards
lower PD means that power and information should be shared so that, ‗all groups enjoy
equal involvement, democracy ensures parties in opportunities and development for all‘,
and ‗civil liberties are strong and corruption is low‘ (Carl, Gupta and Javidan, 2004:
536).
6.1.8 Humane Orientation (HO)
Humane Orientation is defined as ‗the degree to which individuals in organizations or
societies encourage and reward individuals for being fair, altruistic, friendly, generous,
caring, and kind to others‘ (House and Javidan, 2004: 13). Human orientation at societal
practices level (HOSP–As Is) was measured by five items (Q9, Q21, Q25, Q32, and
Q33) and all of them were reverse coded. These items are given in Table 40, below.
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1-9. In this Society , people are generally: (reverse scored)
not at all
concerned
about
others
very
concerned
about
others
SD Mean 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1.32 5.44 1.3 0% 6.7% 14.8% 26.2% 24.8% 26.2%
Valid (N): 149
1-21. In this Society , people are generally:
not at all
sensitive
toward
others
very
sensitive
toward
others
SD Mean 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1.36 4.99 2% 2.7% 8.8% 17.7% 29.3% 27.9% 11.6%
Valid (N): 147
1-25. In this society, people are generally:
very
unfriendly
very
friendly
SD Mean 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1.12 5.64 0% 1.3% 3.4% 10.1% 22.8% 39.6% 22.8%
Valid (N): 149
1-32. In this society, people are generally: (reverse scored)
not at all
tolerant of
mistakes
very
tolerant of
mistakes
SD Mean 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1.34 5.28 1.3% 3.4% 4% 16.1% 26.2% 30.9% 18.1%
Valid (N): 149
1-33 In this society, people are generally: (reverse scored)
not at all
generous
very
generous
SD Mean 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1.21 5.24 0.7% 2.1% 4.2% 18.1% 29.2% 31.9% 13.9%
Valid (N): 144
Table 40 shows that 71.2% of respondents tend to believe that people in Omani
society are generally concerned for others. The majority of respondents (68.8%) also
tend to believe that people in Omani society are generally sensitive towards others. In
addition, the vast majority of them (85.2%) tend to believe that people in Omani society
are generally friendly. Furthermore, 75.2% of respondents tend to believe that people in
Omani society are generally tolerant of mistakes. Moreover, 75% of them tend to
believe that people in Omani society are generally generous.
Table 40: Items measuring human orientation societal culture practice (As Is)
093
In general, the grand mean of human orientation at societal practices level (HOSP) is
5.3141. This result places Omani society in band A as the highest country comparing to
all GLOBE study countries. On the other hand, Human orientation at the level of
societal value (HOSV–Should Be) scored a grand mean of 5.1851. This result moved
Omani society from band A in its societal practice to be in band C in societal value with
a rank of 53. Although the score itself is not an indication that there is much difference
between practice and values, when compared to the GLOBE study results, it is clearly
that Omani society belongs more to those countries which seek for less HO in their
daily life.
With regard to Human Orientation at Organizational Practice level (HOOP–As Is),
the grand mean was 4.4043. In contrast, the grand mean of human orientation at
Organizational Value level (HOOV–Should Be) was 4.7482. Unlike societal culture,
employees in organizational culture are seeking for more HO in their daily practice in
the workplace. Compared to the Middle Eastern cluster, the case is almost the same as
the overall mean for all three sectors (finance, food, and telecommunication) at the
values level (4.81, 4.85, and 4.89 respectively) and is higher at the practice level (4.34,
4.44, and 4.54, respectively). Regardless of such a result, the Middle Eastern cluster
scored low in Human Orientation values when compared to the GLOBE overall results
(Kabasakal and Bodur, 2004: 587).
Interviewees asserted the importance of following their parents‘ orders and
directions. They believe that such a matter is part of Islamic doctrine. One of them
stated:
If I want my children to listen and obey, then I should first obey my parents'
orders. It is what our religion teaches us since we were young. (N8)
Another interviewee showed his loyalty towards his family, relatives, and friends,
stating that:
Family is stability, relatives are the power, and friends are the joy of life. I
cannot imagine anyone living without one of these three main elements of life.
And only by continuous love and attention we can strengthen these elements.
(N4)
In addition, an interviewee described his point of view regarding a healthy working
environment, stating that:
094
In any place of work, it very essential to spread love, kindness, and
understanding between employees themselves and employees and their
managers. This will ensure a healthy working environment. (N11)
To conclude, Omani society in HO at the level of value has scored the highest mean
among all GLOBE study countries. Societies with a high human orientation score tend
to value family and friends relationships, value kindness, love, and generosity, provide
support to each other, and parents should be close to their children while children
should always obey their parents‘ directions (Kabasakal and Bodur, 2004: 570).
Nevertheless, although it still high, the result of HO at societal value level indicated a
small desire for less HO. However, this small desire when compared to GLOBE
societies‘ general trends became essential as it moved Omani society from being the
highest country (rank 1) in HOSP to rank 53 in HOSV.
6.1.9 Uncertainty Avoidance (UA)
Uncertainty Avoidance reflects ‗the extent to which members of an organization or
society strive to avoid uncertainty by relying on established social norms, rituals, and
bureaucratic practices‘ (House and Javidan, 2004: 11). UA, at societal culture practice
level (As Is), was measured by four items (Q1, Q16, Q19, and Q24) and all of them
were reverse coded. These items are shown in Table 36, below.
As shown in Table 36, the higher percentage of respondents (75.7%) tend to agree to
varying degrees (strongly agree, somewhat agree, or slightly agree) with the statement
that in Omani society, orderliness and consistency are stressed, even at the expense of
experimentation and innovation. The table also indicates that while 18.8% choose
‗neither agree nor disagree‘, 54.3% agree that ‗societal requirements and instructions
are spelled out in detail so citizens know what they are expected to do‘. In addition, it
shows that 55% of respondents believe that the rules or laws that Omani community
cover all or most situations.
095
Q1: In this Society, orderliness and consistency are stressed, even at the
expense of experimentation and innovation. (reverse scored)
strongly
disagree
neither
agree
nor
disagree
Strongly
agree
SD Mean 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1.49 5.47 2% 2% 8.1% 12.2% 15.5% 31.1% 29.1%
Valid (N): 148
Q16: In this Society, most people lead highly structured lives with few
unexpected events. (reverse scored)
strongly
disagree
neither
agree
nor
disagree
Strongly
agree
SD Mean 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1.62 3.99 6.8% 14.2% 19.6% 16.9% 23% 14.9% 4.7%
Valid (N): 148
Q19: In this Society , societal requirements and instructions are spelled out in
detail so citizens know what they are expected to do : (reverse scored)
strongly
disagree
neither
agree
nor
disagree
Strongly
agree
SD Mean 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1.66 4.61 3.4% 9.4% 14.1% 18.8% 18.1% 22.8% 13.4%
Valid (N): 149
Q24: This society has rules or laws to cover: (reverse scored)
very few
situations
some
situations
almost all
situations
SD Mean 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1.49 4.72 2.7% 2.7% 16.8% 22.8% 20.1% 22.8% 12.1%
Valid (N): 149
In general, the results of the questionnaire show that the mean of UA at the level of
Omani societal cultural practice scored 4.6957. This result places Oman in band B when
compared with GLOBE study countries. It also indicates that Oman has one of the
highest UASP scores around the world and is ranked at 14. This means that UA in
Omani societal culture practice can be described as high. In regards to UASV (Should
Be), the grand mean scored 5.6617. This result places Omani society with regard to
UASV in band A as the highest score compared to all countries included in the GLOBE
study (the highest score in the GLOBE study was 5.61 scored by Thailand). Indeed, the
Table 41: Items measuring uncertainty avoidance societal culture practice (As Is)
096
result for Omani society indicates that UASV is higher than UASP, which means that
Omanis have a high level of desire for more UA in their daily lives.
With regard to Uncertainty Avoidance Organizational Practice (UAOP–As Is), Oman
scored a grand mean of 4.4433. On the other hand, Uncertainty Avoidance
Organizational Value (UAOV–Should Be) scored a grand mean of 5.4462. As with
societal culture, UAOP is above the average and the UAOV scored higher than the
organizational practice, which means that employees desire more UA in their daily
practice in the workplace.
Most of the interviewees expressed a high level of satisfaction with the current status
quo in general, stating, for example, that:
In general, I think we have a very good life compared with other places around
the world. We should be grateful for the blessing of security and safety in our
society. (N6)
Another interviewee emphasized the importance of following the rules, stating that:
Laws and regulations must be followed without question. They have been
made to protect ourselves and our society. (N3)
In addition, more than one interviewee repeated a common saying which contains the
hidden meaning that maintaining the current situation is better than changing it, as we
will never know if change is going to be better or worse. This saying is:
Whom we know is much better than whom we do not know. (N3, N9 and 12)
To conclude, in both societal and organizational cultures, Oman scored high in AU at
both practice and value levels. In addition, value scored higher than practice for both
cultures. One remarkable note here is that Oman, for AUSV, scored higher than any
country in the GLOBE study. Societies with higher AU tend more towards formalizing
their interaction with others, show higher resistance to change, concentrate on rules and
formal policies, have tight control procedures, and show less tolerance for breaking
rules (Luque and Javidan, 2004: 618).
6.2 Discussion
After showing the result of all cultural dimensions for both cultures, the results can be
summarized in three main tables which are shown below. Table 42 shows the main
results for societal and organizational cultures at two levels (As Is and Should Be).
Table 43 shows the differences between societal culture and organizational culture at
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the level of current practice (As Is), while Table 44 shows the differences between the
two cultures at the level of value (Should Be).
Table 42: Main results for societal and organizational cultures in Oman
Dimension Practice (As Is) Value (Should Be)
Society Organization Society Organization
Performance Orientation (PO) 3.8087 4124.3 5.9732 014545
Future Orientation (FO) 3.4349 313.44 5.6113 013505
Gender Egalitarianism (GE) 3.0993 31.134 3.2376 3153.0
Assertiveness (AS) 3.7315 31.433 3.0492 015.10
Institutional Collectivism (C1) 4.7942 315423 4.8518 310154
In-Group Collectivism (C2) 5.9642 314140 5.6460 01432.
Power Distance (PD) 5.1174 31.100 2.7094 410142
Humane Orientation (HO) 5.3141 313534 5.1851 312334
Uncertainty Avoidance (UA) 4.6957 313344 5.6617 013314
Table 43: Main results for societal and organizational cultures in Oman
Dimension Practice (As Is)
Society Absolute Organization Absolute
Performance Orientation (PO) 3.8087 Moderate 4124.3 Moderate
Future Orientation (FO) 3.4349 Low 313.44 High
Gender Egalitarianism (GE) 3.0993 Low 31.134 Moderate
Assertiveness (AS) 3.7315 Moderate 31.433 Moderate
Institutional Collectivism (C1) 4.7942 High 315423 Moderate
In-Group Collectivism (C2) 5.9642 High 314140 Moderate
Power Distance (PD) 5.1174 High 31.100 Moderate
Humane Orientation (HO) 5.3141 High 313534 Moderate
Uncertainty Avoidance (UA) 4.6957 High 313344 Moderate
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Table 44: Main results for societal and organizational cultures in Oman
Dimension Value (Should Be)
Society Absolute Organization Absolute
Performance Orientation (PO) 5.9732 High 014545 High
Future Orientation (FO) 5.6113 High 013505 High
Gender Egalitarianism (GE) 3.2376 Low 3153.0 Moderate
Assertiveness (AS) 3.0492 Low 015.10 High
Institutional Collectivism (C1) 4.8518 High 310154 High
In-Group Collectivism (C2) 5.6460 High 01432. High
Power Distance (PD) 2.7094 Low 410142 Low
Humane Orientation (HO) 5.1851 High 312334 High
Uncertainty Avoidance (UA) 5.6617 High 013314 High
From these three tables (42, 43, and 44), several outcomes can be drawn here. Firstly,
although the results show some similarities between societal and organizational
cultures, they also indicate that societal culture may differ in some aspects from
organizational culture. For instance, the results show that participants described the
dimension of Humane Orientation (HO) as High within Omani societal culture practice.
On the other hand, the score of the same dimension was moderate within the
organizational culture practice. This indicates that the situation among Omani society
may differ from the situation with organizational culture, even within the same
dimension.
Secondly, when comparing the results with what has been hypothesized in the
methodology chapter with regard to this area of study, the three tables indicate that the
result is partially, but not totally, consistent with the two hypotheses (Set One,
Hypotheses 1 and 2). This result can be illustrated as follows.
Hypothesis (1) was:
Omani cultural practices at both societal and organizational levels will score
HIGH in the following cultural dimensions: uncertainty avoidance, power
distance, societal collectiveness, in-group collectiveness, and human
orientation, and LOW in gender egalitarianism, assertiveness, future
orientation, and performance orientation.
099
The results show that, at the level of practice, the score for societal culture
dimensions differed from what was hypothesized in two dimensions: performance
orientation and assertiveness, both of which scored at a Moderate level. In addition,
eight out of nine dimensions of organizational culture scored Moderate, while only the
future orientation dimension scored as hypothesized.
Hypothesis (2) was:
Omani cultural values at both societal and organizational levels, will score
LOW in the following cultural dimensions: uncertainty avoidance, power
distance, societal collectiveness, in-group collectiveness, and human
orientation, and HIGH in gender egalitarianism, assertiveness, future
orientation, and performance orientation.
The results show that societal culture at the level of value scored ‗Low‘ in gender
egalitarianism, assertiveness, and power distance, while they scored ‗High‘ in other
dimensions. Also, organizational culture scored ‗Low‘ in power distance only,
‗Moderate‘ in gender egalitarianism, and ‗High‘ in all other dimensions.
In general, the main results for both cultures within the Omani society questionnaire
show some remarkable observations which must be highlighted. As is shown in table
37, value scored higher than the practice for both cultures in PO, FO, C1, and UA. In
addition, organizational culture practice scored higher than societal culture practice in
FO, GE, and AS. On the other hand, societal cultural practice scored higher than
organizational cultural practice in PO, C1, C2, PD, HO, and UA. In As, C2, and HO
dimensions, the value scored lower than the practice which shows that societal culture
seeks for less of these dimensions in practice; however, the situation is the opposite for
Organizational culture.
To conclude, although societal culture and organizational culture at practice and
value levels have the same dimensions, this does not mean that they should score the
same for the same country. The results show clearly that societal culture might differ
from organizational culture in some dimensions or, in some cases, in all dimensions.
This result continues one point of the debate between Hofstede (2006) and Javidan et al.
(2006) regarding the validation of the GLOBE study in general and whether (1) it is
suitable to use the same dimensions to assess societal and organizational culture, and (2)
dimensions should be reduced to five (see Chapter 2, section 2.5.6). However, from this
researcher‘s point of view, there is no clear conclusion to this debate which can fit all
countries and cultures. This is in addition to the fact that culture is something
changeable from one time to another and depends on so many factors and elements, as
211
was discussed in the literature review earlier. So, drawing a final and unbreakable
conclusion for such a matter is almost undesirable.
6.3 Oman societal culture and the GLOBE study
Within this part of the chapter (sections 6.5 and 6.6), the study will try to answer the
following question (Area One, Question 4, see Section 5.3):
Where does Omani culture stand compared to GLOBE study results in general
and the Middle Eastern cluster in particular?
The following hypothesis was set for this question (Set One, Hypothesis 3, see
Section 5.4.1):
Culture in Oman will score almost within the range scores of other Middle
Eastern countries which were included in GLOBE study.
At the beginning, it should be mentioned that, unlike societal culture, GLOBE results
with regard to organizational culture were not explained and discussed in full detail in
the GLOBE publication (Culture, Leadership, and Organization: The GLOBE Study of
62 Societies, 2004). Therefore, more details will be provided for societal culture than
organizational culture within this part of the chapter, especially in comparing the main
results for cultural dimensions in Omani society on the one hand and the GLOBE study
and the Middle Eastern cluster on the other.
Therefore, looking at the previously-discussed results for societal culture, Oman can
be viewed as having high practices in institutional collectivism, in-group collectivism,
power distance, humane orientation, and uncertainty avoidance while having a practice
that is moderate with regard to performance orientation and assertiveness, and low in
future orientation and gender egalitarianism. When comparing such a result with the
GLOBE results, the practice of Omani societal culture has a high relative standing in
institutional collectivism, in-group collectivism, humane orientation, and uncertainty
avoidance. However, it has a moderate relative standing in performance orientation,
gender egalitarianism, and power distance and relatively low standing with regard to
future orientation and assertiveness (see Table 45).
210
Table 45: Omani Societal culture practice (As–Is): Practice scores of Omani
societal culture compared with GLOBE mid-scores
No Dimensions Practice Oman
Score Absolute GLOBE Score Relative
1 Performance Orientation 3.8087 Moderate 4.09 Moderate
2 Future Orientation 3.4349 Low 3.84 Low
3 Gender Egalitarianism 3.0993 Low 3.39 Moderate
4 Assertiveness 3.7315 Moderate 3.86 Low
5 Institutional Collectivism 4.7942 High 4.23 High
6 In-Group Collectivism 5.9642 High 5.12 High
7 Power Distance 5.1174 High 5.15 Moderate
8 Human Orientation 5.3141 High 4.09 High
9 Uncertainty Avoidance 4.6957 High 4.16 High
On the other hand, Oman can be viewed as having high values in performance
orientation, future orientation, institutional collectivism, in-group collectivism, humane
orientation, and uncertainty avoidance, while having values that are low with regard to
gender egalitarianism, assertiveness, and power distance. When comparing such a result
with GLOBE results, the value of Omani societal culture has a high relative standing in
future orientation and uncertainty avoidance. However, it has a moderate relative
standing in performance orientation, institutional collectivism, in-group collectivism,
and power distance and a low relative standing with regard to gender egalitarianism,
assertiveness, and humane orientation (see Table 46).
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Table 46: Omani Societal culture value (Should Be): Value scores of Omani
societal culture compared with GLOBE mid-scores
No. Dimensions O. Score Absolute G. Score Relative
1 Performance Orientation 5.9732 High 5.88 Moderate
2 Future Orientation 5.6113 High 5.59 High
3 Gender Egalitarianism 3.2376 Low 5.51 Low
4 Assertiveness 3.0492 Low 3.71 Low
5 Institutional Collectivism 4.8518 High 4.72 Moderate
6 In-Group Collectivism 5.6460 High 5.64 Moderate
7 Power Distance 2.7094 Low 2.78 Moderate
8 Human Orientation 5.1851 High 5.39 Low
9 Uncertainty Avoidance 5.6617 High 4.62 High
In addition, to distinguish between societal cultures among 62 countries, the GLOBE
study placed participating countries into bands according to their results. With regard to
societal culture practice, countries were placed in four bands, as shown in Table 47.
Table 47: GLOBE study bands, societal culture practice
Dimension Band A Band B Band C Band D
From To From To From To From To
Performance
Orientation
4.94 4.32 4.27 3.72 3.67 3.20
Future
Orientation
5.07 4.44 4.39 3.81 3.80 3.21 3.11 2.88
Gender
Egalitarianism
4.08 3.47 3.42 2.81 2.58 2.50
Assertiveness 4.89 4.15 4.13 3.59 3.47 3.38
Institutional
Collectivism
5.22 4.59 4.54 3.93 3.92 3.53 3.25
In-Group
Collectivism
6.36 5.35 5.32 4.37 4.26 3.53
Power
Distance
5.80 5.28 5.25 4.74 4.73 4.51 4.11 3.89
Humane
Orientation
5.23 4.73 4.69 4.18 4.17 3.66 3.63 3.18
Uncertainty
Avoidance
5.37 4.75 4.70 4.09 4.07 3.50 3.44 2.88
Source: Adapted from Chapters 12–19 of GLOBE study book.
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In addition, societal culture values were placed into five bands and the results are as
shown in Table 48.
Table 48: GLOBE study bands, societal culture values
Dimension Band A Band B Band C Band D Band E
From To From To From To From To From To
Performance
Orientation
6.58 6.24 6.23 5.89 5.82 5.61 5.54 5.25 5.17 4.92
Future
Orientation
6.20 5.69 5.68 5.19 5.15 4.73 4.33
Gender
Egalitarianism
5.17 4.63 4.60 4.16 4.06 3.68 3.45 3.18
Assertiveness 5.56 4.41 4.38 3.21 3.09 2.66
Institutional
Collectivism
5.65 5.10 5.03 4.55 4.50 3.94 3.90 3.83
In-Group
Collectivism
6.52 5.97 5.95 5.41 5.35 4.94
Power
Distance
3.65 3.41 3.24 2.97 2.86 2.54 2.49 2.19 2.04
Humane
Orientation
6.09 5.76 5.69 5.40 5.36 5.01 4.99 4.49
Uncertainty
Avoidance
5.61 5.07 4.99 4.43 4.42 3.85 3.83 3.32 3.24 3.16
Source: Adapted from Chapters 12–19 of GLOBE study book.
Taking into account the above discussion, Table 49 shows the ranking of Omani
culture among GLOBE countries and the band which Omani societal culture could be
fitted into for each dimension. It also summarizes the differences between practices and
values scores for Omani societal culture. Looking at these scores, it can be seen that
societal culture practice in Oman scored higher than societal culture value in
assertiveness, institutional collectivism, in-group collectivism, and power distance,
while societal culture values scored higher than the practice in performance orientation,
future orientation, gender egalitarianism, and uncertainty avoidance.
214
Table 49: Societal culture practice and value
Dimension
Practice (As Is) Value (Should Be) Difference*
Score Band Rank
Score Band Rank As Is–
Should Be
Performance
Orientation 3.8087
B 48 5.9732 B 32 -2.1645
Future
Orientation 3.4349
C 50 5.6113 B 29 -2.1764
Gender
Egalitarianism 3.0993
B 45 3.2376 D 62 -0.1383
Assertiveness 3.7315 B 54 3.0492 C 56 0.6823
Institutional
Collectivism 4.7942
A 7 4.8518 B 28 -0.0576
In-Group
Collectivism 5.9642
A 4 5.6460 B 35 0.3182
Power
Distance 5.1174
B 40 2.7094 C 33 2.4080
Humane
Orientation 5.3141
A 1 5.1851 C 53 0.1290
Uncertainty
Avoidance 4.6957
B 14 5.6617 A 1 -0.9660
*Difference: ‗As Is‘ score minus ‗Should Be‘ score
In addition, Table 50 provides a comparison between data concerning Omani societal
culture practice with the general mean of GLOBE study findings, while Table 51
compares the results of the two elements at societal culture value.
215
Table 50: Results of Oman and GLOBE study in societal culture practice
Societal culture (practice) Minimum Maximum Mean Standard
Deviation
1 Performance Orientation 1.00
3.20
6.67
4.94
3.8087
4.10
1.07636
.41
2 Future oriented 1.00
2.88
6.20
5.07
3.4349
3.85
1.06563
.46
3 Gender Egalitarianism 1.00
2.50
5.00
4.08
3.0993
3.37
.70522
.37
4 Assertiveness 1.33
3.38
6.67
4.89
3.7315
4.14
.92344
.37
5 Collectivism 1 1.67
3.25
7.00
5.22
4.7942
4.25
.88730
.42
6 Collectivism 2 4.25
3.53
7.00
6.36
5.9642
5.13
.76856
.73
7 Power Distance 1.00
3.89
7.00
5.80
5.1174
5.17
1.06832
.41
8 Human Orientation 3.00
3.18
7.00
5.23
5.3141
4.09
.78016
.47
9 Uncertainty Avoidance 1.75
2.88
7.00
5.37
4.6957
4.160
.99727
.60
Numbers for Oman are in Roman font.
Globe findings are in Italic font.
Table 51: Result of Oman and GLOBE study in societal culture value
Societal culture (Value) Minimum Maximum Mean Standard
Deviation
1 Performance Orientation 4.00
4.92
7.00
6.58
5.9732
5.94
.70977
.34
2 Future oriented 1.75
4.33
7.00
6.20
5.6113
5.49
.98913
.41
3 Gender Egalitarianism 1.00
3.18
5.80
5.17
3.2376
4.51
1.01280
.48
4 Assertiveness 1.00
2.66
6.00
5.56
3.0492
3.82
1.09437
.65
5 Collectivism 2.75
3.83
6.50
5.65
4.8518
4.73
.80985
.49
6 Collectivism 2 2.50
4.94
7.00
6.52
5.6460
5.66
1.01430
.35
7 Power Distance 1.00
2.05
5.50
3.65
2.7094
2.75
1.00198
.35
8 Human Orientation 3.50
4.49
7.00
6.09
5.1851
5.42
.79032
.25
9 Uncertainty Avoidance 4.00
3.16
6.67
5.61
5.6617
4.62
.74579
.61
Numbers for Oman are in Roman font.
Globe findings are in Italic font.
216
In addition, to give a further insight and statistical comparison between Oman and
the GLOBE study, a T test has been done between the two grand means for each
cultural dimension. The results of the T tests show that there is only a significant
difference between the mean of Power Distance Societal Practices and the GLOBE
mean for this dimension, at 0.549, while there is no significant difference between the
mean of eight cultural dimensions and the GLOBE mean of these dimensions at the
level of practice. On the other hand, there is a significant difference between the grand
mean of in-group collectivism, power distance, performance orientation, future
orientation, and institutional collectivism dimensions at the value level compared to the
GLOBE study means at the same level for these dimensions, equal to 0.866, 0.622,
0.569, 0.137, and 0.068 respectively, while there was no significant difference between
the grand mean of the other four cultural dimensions and the GLOBE study means at
value level.
6.4 Societal culture (Oman and Middle Eastern cluster)
For each dimension, the GLOBE study assigned world societies to three levels: high-
score clusters, mid-score clusters, and low-score clusters. However, it should be
mentioned that such a classification is not related to the amount of impact of the
dimension itself in the society. For example, when a society is placed in the low-score
level in any dimension, it does not mean that this country is inherently low in that
dimension. This classification is only relative to other countries in the same cluster.
As mentioned earlier, the GLOBE study included only five countries to represent the
Middle Eastern cluster. Four of them were Arab countries: Egypt, Morocco, Qatar, and
Kuwait, and the other was Turkey. According to Gupta and Hanges (2004: 193),
GLOBE classified the practice of Middle Eastern culture as a High-score cluster only in
In-Group Collectivism. In performance orientation, assertiveness, humane orientation,
institutional collectivism, and power distance, the ME cluster was placed in Mid-Score
clusters, while it was placed in Low-Score clusters regarding future orientation, gender
egalitarianism, and uncertainty avoidance.
On societal culture value, the Middle East was classified as a High-Score cluster in
future orientation, institutional collectivism, power distance, and uncertainty avoidance.
Regarding performance orientation, humane orientation, and in-group collectivism, it
was placed in Mid-Score clusters, while it was classified in Low-Score clusters in
assertiveness and gender egalitarianism (Gupta and Hanges, 2004: 194).
217
In addition, although GLOBE classified countries into clusters, each country has its
own scores and cultural differences which distinguish it from other countries, no matter
how many common factors are shared between them. Therefore, this study will adapt
the main result for each societal cultural dimension of those ME countries included in
the GLOBE study and compare it to the results for Omani societal culture.
In POSP, Egypt, Morocco, Kuwait and Turkey were in band B with scores of 4.27,
3.99, 3.95, and 3.87 respectively, while Qatar was in band C with a score of 3.45
(Javidan, 2004: 250). In this study, Oman scores 3.8087, which places her in Band B
between Turkey and Qatar. On the other hand, looking at POSV in ME, three out of five
Middle Eastern countries were placed in band B – Kuwait, Qatar, and Egypt, with
scores of 6.03, 5.96, and 5.90 respectively. Morocco was in band C with a score of 5.76,
and Turkey was in band D with a score of 5.39 (Javidan, 2004: 251). Oman scores
5.9732, which places her in Band B between Kuwait and Qatar.
In FOSP, only Egypt was in band B with a score of 3.86 while Qatar, Turkey,
Kuwait, and Morocco were in band C with scores of 3.78, 3.74, 3.26, and 3.26
respectively (Ashkanasy et al., 2004: 304). Oman scores 3.4349, which places her in
band C between Kuwait and Morocco. For FOSV, all countries in the Middle Eastern
cluster were in band A with scores: Qatar 5.92, Morocco 5.85, Turkey 5.83, Egypt 5.80,
and Kuwait 5.74 (Ashkanasy et al., 2004: 306). Oman scores 5.611, which places her in
band B as the lowest country among the ME cluster.
In GESP, all Middle Eastern countries scored below the average. Qatar was in band
A with a score of 3.63, Turkey, Morocco, and Egypt were in band B with scores of 2.89,
2.84, and 2.81 respectively, while Kuwait was in band C with a score of 2.58 (Emrich,
Denmark, and Hartog, 2004: 366). Oman scores 3.0993, which place her in band B just
between Qatar and Turkey. In the scores for the Middle Eastern cluster with regard to
GESV, Turkey scores 4.50 and is placed in band B, while Morocco is in band C with a
score of 3.74. Other Middle Eastern countries were in band D with scores of Kuwait
3.34, Qatar 3.38, and Egypt 3.18 (Emrich, Denmark and Hartog, 2004: 366). Oman
scores 3.2376, which places her in band D between Qatar and Egypt.
For ASP, Turkey and Morocco were in band A with scores of 4.53 and 4.52
respectively, while Qatar, Egypt, and Kuwait were in Band B with scores of 4.11, 3.91,
and 3.63 respectively (Den Hartog, 2004: 410). Oman scores 3.7315, which places her
in band B between Egypt and Kuwait. On the other hand, in ASV, four out of five
Middle Eastern countries (Qatar, Kuwait, Morocco, and Egypt) were in band B with
218
scores of 3.80, 3.76, 3.44, and 3.28 respectively. Only Turkey was in band C, with a
score of 2.66 (Den Hartog, 2004: 411). Oman scores 3.0492, which places her in band C
between Egypt and Turkey.
In C1SP, four Middle Eastern countries (Qatar, Egypt, Kuwait, and Turkey) were in
band B with scores of 4.50, 4.50, 4.49, and 4.03 respectively, while Morocco was in
band C with a score of 3.87 (Gelfand et al. 2004: 468). The score for Oman (4.7942)
places it in band A above all five ME countries. On the other hand, in C1SV, Turkey,
Kuwait, and Qatar were in band A with scores of 5.26, 5.15, and 5.13 respectively,
while Morocco was in band B with a score of 5.00 (Gelfand et al., 2004: 470). Oman in
C1SV is also in band B with 4.8518, the lowest score among ME societies.
In C2SP, four out of five countries from the Middle Eastern cluster (Turkey,
Morocco, Kuwait, and Egypt) were in band A with scores of 5.88, 5.87, 5.80, and 5.64
respectively, while Qatar was in band B with a score of 4.71 (Gelfand, et al. 2004: 469).
Oman will be in band A with a score of 5.9642, which is the highest score among the
ME cluster. With regard to C2SV, all five Middle Eastern countries were placed in band
B with scores of Turkey 5.77, Morocco 5.68, Qatar 5.60, Egypt 5.56, and Kuwait 5.43
(Gelfand et al., 2004: 471). Oman scores 5.6460, which places her in band B as well,
between Morocco and Qatar.
For PDSP, Morocco and Turkey were in band A with scores of 5.80 and 5.57
respectively. Kuwait and Egypt were in band B with scores of 5.12 and 4.92
respectively, and Qatar was in band C with a score of 4.73 (Carl, Gupta, and Javidan,
2004: 539). Oman‘s score of 5.11774 places her in band B between Kuwait and Egypt.
In PDSV, four out of the five Middle Eastern countries were placed in band B with
scores of Egypt 3.24, Qatar 3.23, Kuwait 3.17 and Morocco 3.11. Only Turkey was in
band D with a score of 2.41 (Carl, Gupta and Javidan, 2004: 540). Oman scores 2.7094,
placing her in band C between Morocco and Turkey.
Regarding HOSP, Egypt was in band A with the rank of 6 and score of 4.73. Kuwait,
Qatar and Morocco were in band B with scores of 4.52, 4.42, and 4.19 respectively.
Only Turkey was in band C with a score of 3.94 (Kabasakal and Bodur, 2004: 573).
Oman scores 5.3141, even higher than Egypt in band A.
For HOSV, Turkey and Morocco were in band B with scores of 5.52 and 5.51
respectively while Qatar, Egypt, and Kuwait were in band C with scores of 5.30, 5.15,
and 5.06 respectively (Kabasakal and Bodur, 2004: 574). Oman‘s score is 5.1851,
which places her with Qatar and Egypt in band C.
219
In AUSP, all ME countries included in the GLOBE study were placed in band B and
C. Kuwait was in band B with a score of 4.21 while Egypt, Qatar, Morocco, and Turkey
were in band C with scores of 4.06, 3.99, 3.65, and 3.63 respectively (Luque and
Javidan, 2004: 622). Oman scores 4.6957, which makes her the highest country
compared to the ME cluster. In addition, within AUSV, Egypt and Morocco were in
band A with scores of 5.36 and 5.32 while Qatar, Kuwait, and Turkey were in band B
with scores of 4.82, 4.77 and 4.67, respectively (Luque and Javidan, 2004: 623). Oman
scores 5.6617, which is even higher than Egypt. Tables 52 and 53 summarize the above
analysis.
Table 52: Oman and Middle Eastern cluster (societal practices)
No Dimensions Lowest* Highest* Oman Rank of Omani
society
1 Performance Orientation 3.45 4.27 3.8087 5
2 Future oriented 3.26 3.86 3.4349 4
3 Gender Egalitarianism 2.58 3.63 3.0993 2
4 Assertiveness 3.63 4.53 3.7315 5
5 Collectivism 1 3.87 4.50 4.7942 1
6 Collectivism 2 4.71 5.88 5.9642 1
7 Power Distance 4.73 5.57 5.1174 3
8 Human Orientation 3.94 4.73 5.3141 1
9 Uncertainty Avoidance 3.63 4.21 4.6957 1
*The highest and lowest scores are for Middle Eastern cluster only (six countries)
201
Table 53: Oman and Middle Eastern cluster (societal values)
No Dimensions Lowest* Highest* Oman Rank of Omani
society
1 Performance
Orientation 5.39 6.03 5.9732 2
2 Future oriented 5.74 5.92 5.6113 6
3 Gender Egalitarianism 3.18 4.50 3.2376 5
4 Assertiveness 2.66 3.80 3.0492 5
5 Collectivism 1 4.85 5.26 4.8518 6
6 Collectivism 2 5.43 5.77 5.6460 3
7 Power Distance 2.41 3.24 2.7094 5
8 Human Orientation 5.06 5.52 5.1851 4
9 Uncertainty Avoidance 4.67 5.36 5.6617 1
*The highest and lowest scores are for Middle Eastern cluster only (six countries)
Looking at Tables 52 and 53, Omani societal culture has scored the highest mean
among the Middle Eastern cluster in Collectivism 1 Practices, Collectivism 2 Practices,
Human Orientation Practices Uncertainty Avoidance Practices, and Uncertainty
Avoidance Value. On the other hand, it scored the lowest mean in Future oriented
Values and Collectivism 1 Values, even though Oman‘s scores in these dimensions
were not far from the GLOBE study grand mean for each dimension. However, for the
other twelve dimensions, Oman‘s scores fall within the range of highest and lowest
grand mean of Middle Eastern cluster. This outcome means two main things. First,
Omani culture shares very similar cultural characteristics with other Middle Eastern
countries. Second, although it is been eighteen years since GLOBE data started to be
collected in 1994, still the culture in Oman reflects almost the same results as the
GLOBE Middle Eastern cluster scores. Therefore, the results are partially consistent
with hypothesis (3) of this study, which was: ‗Culture in Oman will score almost within
the range scores of other Middle Eastern countries which were included in the GLOBE
study.‘
200
6.5 Correlation between cultural dimensions for societal and organizational cultures
Within this section, the study will highlight the relationship between cultural
dimensions‘ practice and value at the levels of societal and organizational cultures. This
relationship is important to understand the interrelation between these dimensions in
Omani culture and how they are interacting, positively or negatively, between each
other. A positive correlation between two dimensions mean that when one dimension
scores a high result, the other dimension will score higher as well, and vice versa, while
a negative correlation means that when one dimension scores higher, the other
dimension will score lower.
Table 54: Correlation between cultural dimensions of societal practice
UASP FOSP PDSP C1SP HOSP POSP C2SP GESP ASP
UASP Pearson Correlation
1 .421(**) -.314(**) .221(**) .343(**) .530(**) .217(**) -.069 -.011
Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .007 .000 .000 .008 .405 .890
N 149 149 149 149 149 149 149 149 149
FOSP Pearson Correlation -.472(**) .201(*) .104 .329(**) -.043 .014 .150
Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .014 .205 .000 .603 .861 .069
N 149 149 149 149 149 149 149
PDSP Pearson Correlation -.209(*) -.051 -.428(**) .002 -.021 -.027
Sig. (2-tailed) .010 .534 .000 .983 .800 .745
N 149 149 149 149 149 149
C1SP Pearson Correlation .223(**) .219(**) .264(**) -.260(**) .012
Sig. (2-tailed) .006 .007 .001 .001 .882
N 149 149 149 149 149
HOSP Pearson Correlation .290(**) .294(**) -.060 -.094
Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .471 .252
N 149 149 149 149
POSP Pearson Correlation .127 -.128 .060
Sig. (2-tailed) .122 .120 .469
N 149 149 149
C2SP Pearson Correlation -.185(*) .087
Sig. (2-tailed) .024 .289
N 149 149
GESP Pearson Correlation -.002
Sig. (2-tailed) .981
N 149
** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
* Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
202
With regard to societal practice, as shown in Table 54, UASP has a significant
positive correlation with POSP, FOSP, HOSP, C1SP, and C2SP and has a significant
negative correlation with PDSP with a percentage of 31.4%. FOSP has a significant
positive correlation with POSP and C1SP while has a significant negative correlation
PDSP. Also, PDSP is has a significant negative correlation with C1SP and POSP while
C1SP has a significant positive correlation with C2SP, HOSP and POSP but has a
negative correlation with GESP. Finally, HOSP has a significant positive correlation
with C2SP and POSP while C2SP has a significant negative correlation with GESP.
Table 55: Correlation between cultural dimensions of societal value
UASV FOSV PDSV C1SV HOSV POSV C2SV GESV ASV
UASV Pearson Correlation
1 .291(**) -.187(*) .271(**) .195(*) .264(**) .269(**) -.237(**) -.143
Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .022 .001 .017 .001 .001 .004 .083
N 149 149 149 149 149 149 149 149 149
FOSV Pearson Correlation -.250(**) .310(**) .018 .269(**) .128 -.061 .025
Sig. (2-tailed) .002 .000 .828 .001 .119 .459 .761
N 149 149 149 149 149 149 149
PDSV Pearson Correlation -.283(**) .035 -.308(**) -.217(**) .135 .334(**)
Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .669 .000 .008 .102 .000
N 149 149 149 149 149 149
C1SV Pearson Correlation -.052 .117 .198(*) -.261(**) -.132
Sig. (2-tailed) .532 .157 .016 .001 .109
N 149 149 149 149 149
HOSV Pearson Correlation .117 .231(**) -.074 -.243(**)
Sig. (2-tailed) .156 .005 .373 .003
N 149 149 149 149
POSV Pearson Correlation .133 -.201(*) -.072
Sig. (2-tailed) .107 .014 .385
N 149 149 149
C2SV Pearson Correlation -.044 -.164(*)
Sig. (2-tailed) .597 .045
N 149 149
GESV Pearson Correlation .055
Sig. (2-tailed) .508
N 149
** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
* Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
203
With regard to societal practice, Table 55 shows a number of significant correlations
between these dimensions. UASV is positively correlated with POSV, FOSV, HOSV,
C1SV, and C2SV and negatively correlated with PDSV and GESV. FOSV has a
positive correlation with POSV and C1SV while it has a negative correlation with
PDSV. Also, PDSV is negatively correlated with C1SV, C2SV and POSV and
positively correlated with ASV. In addition, C1SV is positively correlated with C2SV
and negatively correlated with GESP. Furthermore, HOSP is positively correlated with
C2SP and POSP while C2SP is negatively correlated with GESP. Moreover, HOSV is
positively correlated with C2SV and negatively with ASV. Finally, POSV is negatively
correlated with GESV and C2SV is also negatively correlated ASV.
Table 56: Correlation between cultural dimensions of organizational practice
UAOP FOOP PDOP C1OP HOOP POOP C2OP GEOP
UAOP Pearson Correlation
.363(**) -.291(**) .266(**) .436(**) .538(**) .420(**) -.048
Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .001 .000 .000 .000 .577
N 141 141 141 141 141 141 140
FOOP Pearson Correlation -.410(**) .420(**) .317(**) .585(**) .547(**) .013
Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .878
N 141 141 141 141 141 140
PDOP Pearson Correlation -.356(**) -.379(**) -.578(**) -.467(**) .096
Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000 .000 .260
N 141 141 141 141 140
C1OP Pearson Correlation .379(**) .429(**) .466(**) -.006
Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000 .939
N 141 141 141 140
HOOP Pearson Correlation .546(**) .473(**) -.088
Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .302
N 141 141 140
POOP Pearson Correlation .641(**) -.117
Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .168
N 141 140
C2OP Pearson Correlation -.058
Sig. (2-tailed) .493
N 140
** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
As can be seen from Table 56, there are a number of significant correlations between
these dimensions. UAOP is correlated with all other organizational culture practice
dimensions except GEOP. It is positively correlated with POOP, HOOP, C1OP, C2OP
204
and FOOP while negatively correlated with PDOP. Also, FOOP has a positive
correlation with POOP, C2OP, C1OP, and HOOP and a negative correlation with
PDOP. In addition, PDOP is negatively correlated with C1OP, HOOP, C2OP, and
POOP. Furthermore, C1OP has a positive correlation with C2OP, POOP, and HOOP
while HOOP has a positive correlation with POOP and C2OP. Finally, POOP has a
strong positive correlation with C2OP.
Table 57: Correlation between cultural dimensions of organizational value
UAOV FOOV PDOV C1OV HOOV POOV C2OV GEOV AOV
UAOV Pearson Correlation
.207(*) -.253(**) .164 .264(**) .249(**) .242(**) .069 .033
Sig. (2-tailed) .014 .002 .053 .002 .003 .004 .418 .695
N 141 141 141 141 141 141 140 141
FOOV Pearson Correlation -.486(**) .009 .007 .543(**) .413(**) .068 .254(**)
Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .919 .930 .000 .000 .426 .002
N 141 141 141 141 141 140 141
PDOV Pearson Correlation -.083 -.154 -.599(**) -.356(**) -.058 -.435(**)
Sig. (2-tailed) .329 .068 .000 .000 .493 .000
N 141 141 141 141 140 141
C1OV Pearson Correlation
-.034 .035 .111 -.159 -.057
Sig. (2-tailed) .686 .677 .191 .061 .505
N 141 141 141 140 141
HOOV Pearson Correlation .198(*) .078 .016 .002
Sig. (2-tailed) .018 .359 .849 .977
N 141 141 140 141
POOV Pearson Correlation .454(**) .051 .284(**)
Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .546 .001
N 141 140 141
C2OV Pearson Correlation .026 .302(**)
Sig. (2-tailed) .758 .000
N 140 141
GEOV Pearson Correlation
.016
Sig. (2-tailed) .850
* Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
As indicated by Table 57, there a significant positive correlation between UAOV
with HOOP, POOV, C2OV, and FOOV while it has a negative correlation with PDOP.
Also, FOOV is positively correlated with POOV, C2OV, and AOV while it is
negatively correlated with PDOV. Additionally, PDOV is negatively correlated with
205
C2OV, AOV, and POOV. Finally, there is a positive correlation between HOOV and
POOV, POOV and C2OVand AOV, and C2OV and AOV.
To conclude, the results have shown that many of the societal and organizational
cultural dimensions at the level of practice and the level of value have significant
correlations between each other, either negatively or positively. This conclusion means
that cultural dimensions are not working in isolation from one another but there
interactions between them to some extent. However, the type of interaction and how
strong they are need to be studied and tested further in more than one society as the
results may fluctuate from one society to another society. Such studies may provide a
clearer and more understandable view concerning such a relationship.
6.6: Managers and Employees
In this section, the study will try to answer Question 3 from Area One, which is:
Are there any differences in viewing the cultural dimensions of the Omani
cultural preferences between employees and managers?
A hypothesis was proposed as an assumed answer, which was:
There will be no significant differences between managers and employees
with regard to the cultural dimensions of Omani cultural preferences.
To answer the above question, the researcher first did a Levene test to determine the
homogeneous distribution among dimension for each part of the two parts of societal
and organizational cultures. Then a one way ANOVA test was applied to discover
whether there are any differences between managers and employees with regard to both
cultures.
206
Table 58: Levene test of homogeneity of variances (organization practice)
Levene Statistic df1 df2 Sig.
UAOP .644 1 136 .424
FOOP .075 1 136 .784
PDOP .079 1 136 .779
C1OP .516 1 136 .474
HOOP 1.110 1 136 .294
POOP .057 1 136 .812
C2OP 1.335 1 136 .250
GEOP .482 1 135 .489
AOP 2.930 1 136 .089
Based on the Levene test, as shown in Table 58 (above), all dimensions of
organizational culture have a homogeneous distribution because the sig. value is greater
than 0.05. This means that there is a strong and significant homogeneity of data between
all dimensions, without any exception.
Through the ANOVA test that is shown in Table 54 (below), it can be seen that the
p-value is higher than the value of Alpha 0.05. This indicates that there is no
significance to the null hypothesis which says that there is a difference between the
views of managers and employees on any dimension of organizational culture practice.
Therefore, the null hypothesis is rejected and the alternative hypothesis is accepted. The
alternative hypothesis states that there is no difference between the opinions of
managers and the views of staff about all dimensions of organizational culture practice.
207
Table 59: ANOVA test (organizational practice)
Sum of Squares Df Mean Square F Sig.
UAOP Between Groups
.460 1 .460 .358 .551
Within Groups 174.597 136 1.284
Total 175.057 137
FOOP Between Groups
1.666 1 1.666 1.040 .310
Within Groups 217.961 136 1.603
Total 219.627 137
PDOP Between Groups
.612 1 .612 .358 .551
Within Groups 232.486 136 1.709
Total 233.098 137
C1OP Between Groups
1.643 1 1.643 1.550 .215
Within Groups 144.122 136 1.060
Total 145.765 137
HOOP Between Groups
1.582 1 1.582 2.027 .157
Within Groups 106.145 136 .780
Total 107.726 137
POOP Between Groups
4.479 1 4.479 3.040 .083
Within Groups 200.397 136 1.474
Total 204.876 137
C2OP Between Groups
3.246 1 3.246 2.737 .100
Within Groups 161.315 136 1.186
Total 164.561 137
GEOP Between Groups
.935 1 .935 1.174 .281
Within Groups 107.535 135 .797
Total 108.470 136
AOP Between Groups
1.342 1 1.342 1.486 .225
Within Groups 122.820 136 .903
Total 124.162 137
H0: is there a significant difference among Manager / employee on each organization
culture dimensions (practice)
H1: there is not a significant difference among Manager / employee on each
organization culture dimensions (practice)
208
Table 60: Levene test of homogeneity of variances (organization value)
Levene Statistic df1 df2 Sig.
UAOV 1.538 1 136 .217
FOOV .016 1 136 .899
PDOV 3.618 1 136 .059
C1OV 7.211 1 136 .008
HOOV 1.870 1 136 .174
POOV .816 1 136 .368
C2OV .434 1 136 .511
GEOV 2.056 1 135 .154
AOV 7.113 1 136 .009
Based on the Levene test, as shown in Table 60, all dimensions of organizational
culture value have a homogeneous distribution because the p-values of eight out of nine
dimensions are greater than 0.05. This means that there is a strong significant
homogeneity of data, although the AOV indicates that the value of the sig. at 0.009 is
smaller than 0.05, so it will not hold for any test of this factor.
Through the ANOVA test, see Table 61 (below), it can be seen that the p-value is
higher than the value of Alpha 0.05. This indicates that there is no significance to accept
the null hypothesis that says that there is a difference between the views of managers
and employees on all factors. Therefore the null hypothesis is rejected and the
alternative hypothesis, which emphasizes that there is no difference between mangers‘
and employees‘ opinions about all factors of the organizational culture value, will be
accepted.
209
Table 61: ANOVA test (organizational value)
Sum of Squares Df Mean Square F Sig.
UAOV Between Groups
.007 1 .007 .008 .927
Within Groups
113.166 136 .832
Total
113.174 137
FOOV Between Groups
.259 1 .259 .286 .593
Within Groups
123.092 136 .905
Total
123.351 137
PDOV Between Groups
.350 1 .350 .259 .612
Within Groups
184.272 136 1.355
Total
184.622 137
C1OV Between Groups
1.584 1 1.584 1.801 .182
Within Groups
119.582 136 .879
Total
121.166 137
HOOV Between Groups
.098 1 .098 .171 .680
Within Groups
77.998 136 .574
Total
78.096 137
POOV Between Groups
.000 1 .000 .000 .989
Within Groups
121.582 136 .894
Total
121.583 137
C2OV Between Groups
1.010 1 1.010 1.054 .306
Within Groups
130.273 136 .958
Total
131.283 137
GEOV Between Groups
.097 1 .097 .118 .732
Within Groups
111.035 135 .822
Total
111.131 136
H0: is there a significant difference among Manager / employee on each organization
culture dimensions (value)
H1: there is not a significant difference among Manager / employee on each
organization culture dimensions (value)
221
Table 62: Levene test of homogeneity of variances (societal culture practice)
Levene Statistic df1 df2 Sig.
UASP .973 1 141 .326
FOSP .054 1 141 .816
PDSP 1.033 1 141 .311
C1SP .450 1 141 .503
HOSP .001 1 141 .975
POSP 5.242 1 141 .024
C2SP .754 1 141 .387
GESP .306 1 141 .581
ASP .473 1 141 .493
Table 6.28 Levene test of homogeneity of variances (societal culture practice)
Dimensions of societal culture practice, as noted from Table 62, have a
homogeneous distribution because the p-value of all dimensions is greater than 0.05.
This means that there is a strong significant homogeneity of data, except for POSP
which indicates a value of the sig. to 0.024, smaller than the 0.05. Therefore, POSP will
not be tested.
220
Table 63: ANOVA test (societal practice)
Sum of Squares Df Mean Square F Sig.
UASP Between Groups
.113 1 .113 .117 .733
Within Groups
136.497 141 .968
Total 136.610 142
FOSP Between Groups
.908 1 .908 .822 .366
Within Groups
155.708 141 1.104
Total 156.616 142
PDSP Between Groups
.000 1 .000 .000 .993
Within Groups
162.165 141 1.150
Total 162.165 142
C1SP Between Groups
.030 1 .030 .037 .847
Within Groups
110.951 141 .787
Total 110.981 142
HOSP Between Groups
.005 1 .005 .009 .927
Within Groups
86.894 141 .616
Total 86.899 142
C2SP Between Groups
.035 1 .035 .060 .806
Within Groups
81.700 141 .579
Total 81.735 142
GESP Between Groups
.037 1 .037 .073 .788
Within Groups
71.361 141 .506
Total 71.398 142
ASP Between Groups
.002 1 .002 .002 .960
Within Groups
119.713 141 .849
Total 119.715 142
H0: is there a significant difference among Manager / employee on each societal
culture dimensions (practice)
H1: there is not a significant difference among Manager / employee on each societal
culture dimensions (practice)
Through the ANOVA test shown in Table 63, it can be seen that the p-value is higher
than the value of Sig. 0.05. This indicates that there is no significance to accept the null
hypothesis that says there is a difference between the views of managers and employees
on all factors of societal culture practice. Therefore, the null hypothesis will be rejected
(H0) and alternative hypothesis (H1) will be accepted. H1 emphasizes that there is no
difference between their opinions on dimensions of societal culture practice.
222
Table 64: Levene test of homogeneity of variances (societal culture value)
Levene Statistic df1 df2 Sig.
UASV 1.241 1 141 .267
FOSV 1.061 1 141 .305
PDSV .235 1 141 .629
C1SV .000 1 141 .986
HOSV .001 1 141 .977
POSV 1.751 1 141 .188
C2SV .011 1 141 .917
GESV .164 1 141 .687
ASV 1.386 1 141 .241
Table 64 indicates that all dimensions of Societal culture value have a homogeneous
distribution because the p-values of all dimensions are greater than 0.05. This means
that there is a strong indication of significant data on the homogeneity of all dimensions.
The ANOVA test, which is shown in table 65 below, indicates that the p-value is
higher than the value of sig. 0.05. for seven out of nine dimensions. For these seven
dimensions, there is no significance to accept the null hypothesis that says that there is a
difference between the views of managers and employees. However, the FOSV and
HOSV dimensions scored a lower p- value which is 0.043 and 0.041, respectively. In
other words, there is a difference of opinion between managers and employees about
these two factors.
To conclude, the one way ANOVA test shows clearly that there are no significant
differences between managers and employees' opinions in regards to 34 out of 36
cultural dimensions. This result is consistent with our hypothesis (hypothesis 4) except
for FOSV and HOSV dimensions which have shown some significant differences
between managers‘ and employees‘ answers. However, this result might need further
research to confirm or reject the findings.
223
Table 65: ANOVA test (societal value)
Sum of Squares Df Mean Square F Sig.
UASV Between Groups
.081 1 .081 .141 .708
Within Groups
80.583 141 .572
Total 80.663 142
FOSV Between Groups
4.062 1 4.062 4.176 .043
Within Groups
137.136 141 .973
Total 141.198 142
PDSV Between Groups
.124 1 .124 .125 .724
Within Groups
140.369 141 .996
Total 140.494 142
C1SV Between Groups
.005 1 .005 .007 .933
Within Groups
94.418 141 .670
Total 94.422 142
HOSV Between Groups
2.644 1 2.644 4.247 .041
Within Groups
87.782 141 .623
Total 90.426 142
POSV Between Groups
.011 1 .011 .021 .885
Within Groups
71.195 141 .505
Total 71.205 142
C2SV Between Groups
1.355 1 1.355 1.383 .242
Within Groups
138.177 141 .980
Total 139.532 142
GESV Between Groups
2.734 1 2.734 2.692 .103
Within Groups
143.208 141 1.016
Total 145.942 142
ASV Between Groups
.113 1 .113 .093 .761
Within Groups
171.122 141 1.214
Total 171.235 142
H0: is there a significant difference among Manager / employee on each societal
culture dimensions (value)
H1: there is not a significant difference among Manager / employee on each societal
culture dimensions (value)
224
6.7 Conclusion
In this chapter, the thesis has provided a comprehensive description, analyses, and
discussion about societal and organizational culture in Oman. The quantitative results
for both cultures at practice and value levels was analysed deeply and supported by
qualitative method (interviews) to give a clearer picture. Then the final result was
compared with the main GLOBE study results in general and those for the Middle
Eastern cluster in particular.
At the end of the chapter, the relationship between the results of Omani cultural
dimensions and GLOBE dimensions was tested using a T-test. Also, the answers of
managers on one side and the answers of employees on the other were compared using a
one way ANOVA test.
In the next chapter, the study will highlight the main results of critical success factors
of employment equity. It will also indicate the kind of correlation between societal and
organizational culture on one hand and employment equity on the other.
225
Chapter seven
Study result (2):
Employment Equity in Oman (Analysis and Discussion)
7.0 Introduction
This chapter will address two fundamental parts of the study. The first of these covers
the results for critical success factors in applying employment equity programmes and
policies, while the second part will present the correlation between cultural dimensions
and these success factors. As in Chapter 6, in this chapter the study will describe,
analyse, and discuss and the result in these two areas. As discussed in Chapter 2, there
are seven critical factors behind a successful implementation of equity in employment:
providing clear equal opportunities policy (CEOP), providing leadership and
organizational support (LOS), eliminating corruption (EC), having a supportive social
system (SSS), eliminating negative effect of stereotype, prejudice, and demographic
role (ESPDR), enhancing positive psychological climate (PPC), and eliminating wasta
(EW). For the purpose of this study, the researcher has established certain objectives
which are related to these factors. These are:
1. To identify the main critical factors that contribute to or detract from
employment equity.
2. To assess the most applicable employment equity programme for the Omani
public sector out of the three well-known programmes (merit based
programme, quota based programme, or diversity based programme) which
have been implemented in western countries, from the perspective of Omani
employees.
3. To explore the extent of influences that other additional elements may have
on enhancing the effective adopting of equal employment policies and
programmes in the Omani public sector.
A set of questions was established to explore these objectives, as set out in Section
5.3:
Area Two:
5. What are the critical success factors behind the adoption of EE?
6. To what extent are the critical success factors behind the adoption of EE
applied in the Omani public sector?
226
8. To what extent could other additional elements enhance the effective
adoption of equal employment policies and programmes in the Omani public
sector?
These were then followed by the following hypotheses (section 5.4.1, set two):
5. The Omani public sector will score LOWER in its readiness in respect of the
adoption of EE (As Is) compared to the desire for such adoption (Should Be).
6. Critical success factors towards effective EE will be positively correlated
with each other.
7. None of the three western EE programmes will be fully suitable to fulfil the
need for solid EE policies and practices in the Omani public sector.
8. There will be a strong opinion among Omani employees in the public sector
regarding the need for equity in employment.
With regard to the relationship between these critical factors and cultural dimensions
for societal and organizational culture, the researcher set the following objective:
To identify and investigate the relationship between cultural dimensions and
the critical success factors that contribute to employment equity.
This objective was followed by the following questions:
A further set of questions was established to explore these objectives, again as set out
in Section 5.3:
Area Three:
9. What kind of relationship exists between societal and organizational culture
(Area One); and the critical success factors in respect of the adoption of EE
(Area Two)?
10. What remedies can be implemented to terminate the current employment
discrimination and encourage positive cultural influences in this respect?
These questions were then followed by the following hypotheses 9 and 10, as set out
in Section 5.4.1 and Tables 22 and 23). For convenience, the hypotheses and their sub-
divisions are repeated below.
227
9. In terms of practice, the critical success factors in respect of the adoption of
EE will be negatively correlated (low–high) with the following cultural
dimensions: uncertainty avoidance, power distance, societal collectiveness,
in-group collectiveness, and human orientation. A positive correlation (low–
low) will appear with the other four cultural dimensions: gender
egalitarianism, assertiveness, future orientation, and performance orientation.
For more clarification, Hypothesis 9 can be illustrated as shown in Table 22.
Table 22: Sub-divisions of Hypothesis 9
Hypothesis Cultural Dimension Practice EE Correlation
9.a uncertainty avoidance High Low Negative
9.b power distance High Low Negative
9.c societal collectivism High Low Negative
9.d in-group collectivism High Low Negative
9.e human orientation High Low Negative
9.f gender egalitarianism Low Low Positive
9.g Assertiveness Low Low Positive
9.h future orientation Low Low Positive
9.i performance orientation Low Low Positive
10. In terms of values, the critical success factors in respect of the adoption of EE
will be negatively correlated (high-low) with the following cultural
dimensions: uncertainty avoidance, power distance, societal collectiveness,
in-group collectiveness, and human orientation, while a positive correlation
(high–high) will appear with the other four cultural dimensions: gender
egalitarianism, assertiveness, future orientation, and performance orientation.
For more clarification, Hypothesis 10 can be illustrated as shown in Table 23.
228
Table 23: Sub-divisions of Hypothesis 10
Hypothesis Cultural Dimension Values EE Correlation
10.a uncertainty avoidance Low High Negative
10.b power distance Low High Negative
10.c societal collectivism Low High Negative
10.d in-group collectivism Low High Negative
10.e human orientation Low High Negative
10.f gender egalitarianism High High Positive
10.g Assertiveness High High Positive
10.h future orientation High High Positive
10.i performance orientation High High Positive
7.1 Employment Equity in the Omani Public Sector
Within the study questionnaire, employment equity has two parts. The first part asks
about how things are (actual practices) with regard to EE in the Omani public sector (As
Is). The second part asks about how things should be (ideal situation) in terms of
securing employment equity (Should Be). These two parts were assessed by using a
five-point Likert scale. Participants were asked to indicate the degree of their agreement
with each item by circling the appropriate number, with all statements ranging from 1,
‗strongly disagree‘ to 5, ‗strongly agree‘. The measurement which this study will use to
assess the degree of effectiveness of each EE factor in the Omani public sector is a
calculation of the grand mean of the number of items which assess that factor and
comparison of it with the following format:
1 2 3 4 5
Low Slightly low Moderate Slightly
high High
As in the previous chapter, the researcher, to avoid repetition, will state only the
items that are related to employment equity actual practice, the ‗As Is‘ part. The EE
‗Should Be‘ component will be discussed only by highlighting the grand mean for each
229
factor, then comparing the result of As Is and Should Be to discover the differences
between the two scores for each critical factor.
7.1.1 Providing clear equal opportunities policy (CEOP)
This factor was suggested to assess the level of participants‘ satisfaction with regard to
the current general equity regulations and process, either as a citizen in general or as an
employee in particular. CEOP at practices level (As Is) was measured by four items
(Q2: 1, Q2: 2, Q2: 4, and Q2: 5). These items are as follows:
Table 66: Providing clear equal opportunities policy (CEOP)
Statement
Strongly
disagree
(1)
Disagree
(2)
Neutral
(3) Agree (4)
Strongly
agree (5) Mean SD
Citizens are receiving equal
opportunities in education and
training which provide them
equal chance when applying
for a job.
11.4 24.8 14.8 30.0 19.0 3.20 1.314
In this organization, there is a
separate policy for
employment equity which
cover most explicit and implicit
aspects of employment
discrimination.
9.5 28.5 32.0 25.0 4.9 2.87 1.049
In this organization, most
employees are aware of their
rights at work.
9.4 31.1 22.7 29.4 7.3 2.94 1.130
In this organization, the law
provides employees with a
clear path to appeal against
any kind of unfair
discrimination in employment.
6.9 23.4 26.6 29.0 14.1 3.20 1.153
As shown in Table 66, 49% of respondents believe that Omani citizens are receiving
equal opportunities in education and training which provide them with an equal chance
when applying for a job, while 35.2% disagree with such a statement and 14.8% are
neutral. At the same time, 38% of them disagree that their organization has a separate
policy for employment equity while 29.9% believe that they do and 32% were neutral.
With regard to employees‘ awareness of their rights in the workplace, 40.5% do not
agree that employees are aware while 36.7% believe the opposite and 22.7% are neutral.
Finally, 43.1% of respondents believe that organizational regulations provide employees
231
with a clear path to appeal against any kind of unfair employment discrimination while
30.3% do not agree with that statement and 26.6% are neutral.
In general, it seems that there is a certain degree of acceptance of the current
available employment equity regulations. The grand mean for CEOP–As Is was 3.0595,
which is a moderate level according to the format followed. However, the grand mean
of CEOP–Should Be scored 4.6851(slightly high), showing that employees are seeking
for even tighter and more solid regulation.
Most of the interviewees supported such a conclusion. For example one of them
stated:
From my point of view, I think the government has done quite hard work in
the last few years to ensure employment equity in the Omani public sector.
There are clear statements which emphasize equity in most of our employment
regulations. However, these separate articles are still in need of more
improvement and some amendments. They also need to be organized as one
set policy which brings all these legal materials together as a separate
document which might be called an Employment Equity Policy. (N 11)
Another interviewee pointed out that not all employees are aware of their rights in
the workplace, and this depends on their educational level. He stated that:
While some employees are aware of their rights in the workplace, others are
not. I would say it is unlikely for employees whom hold low level job
categories to be fully aware of these rights. Their jobs require no more than a
secondary school certificate and other jobs require even less than that. So it is
the duty of human resources department to ensure such awareness. (N3)
To conclude, although most participants believe that the current EE policies and
regulations are acceptable to some extent, they also agree that more enforcement for
some regulations and amendment of others are needed. This will enhance the whole
situation of EE in the public sector as negative discrimination has more than one face
and it can readily be produced in different ways.
7.1.2 Providing leadership and organizational support (LOS)
The second factor contributing to successful EE is the continuous support that EE
policies and procedures receive from of leadership and senior managerial levels. This
factor in current practice (LOS–As Is) was measured by four items (Q2: 6, Q2: 7, Q2: 8,
and Q2: 9), as shown in Table 67.
230
Table 67: Statements assessing providing leadership and organizational support
(LOS)
Statement
Strongly
disagree
(1)
Disagree
(2)
Neutral
(3)
Agree
(4)
Strongly
agree (5) Mean SD
In this organization, equity in
employment is supported by
leadership and top
management.
8.3 24.3 27.8 29.5 10.1 3.09 1.127
In this organization,
employees’ production is more
important than the number of
hours they spend at work.
17.3 27.3 20.1 26.3 9.0 2.82 1.250
In this organization,
employment practices and
decision making process are
regularly audited by a legal
department to ensure equity
among employees.
19.1 27.1 33.3 16.0 4.5 2.60 1.103
In this organization, HR
employees are well-trained to
ensure employment equity in
most administrative
procedures and decisions.
14.9 34.0 32.3 14.9 3.8 2.59 1.036
Table 67 indicates that 39.6% of respondents believe that employment equity is
supported by leadership and management, while 32.6% believe the opposite and 27.8%
are neutral. In addition, almost half of respondents (44.6%) think that their organization
appreciates the number of spent hours at work more than employees‘ productivity,
while 35.3% of them believe the opposite and 20.1% are neutral. Furthermore, although
33.3% of the respondents are neutral with regard to regularity of employment practice
and decision making process audit by the legal department, nevertheless a higher
percentage of respondents (46.2%) disagree with this statement. With regard to
providing well-trained HR employees within the organization to ensure equity among
administrative procedures and decisions, 48.9% of the respondents do not believe that
HR employees are well-trained.
Generally, the grand mean was 2.7761, which means that the current practice of LOS
is slightly low within the Omani public sector. The result of LOS at the level of value
(Should Be) supports such a result as its grand mean scored 4.5796. This score shows a
clear desire among participants for more leadership and organizational support towards
EE.
232
All interviewees asserted that top level management should play a greater role in
assuring EE in their organizations.
Although it is important to provide legal articles and regulations to assure
equity within the employment process, however, continuous auditing by the
legal department will ensure the correct implementation of these regulations. I
think an official should be assigned and authorized by the minister himself to
handle such a complicated task. Besides, this authorization will also show real
support from top management towards EE. (N12)
In addition, more than one interviewee referred to the importance of training in such
a procedure. For example:
Regular training, especially for HR employees, will enhance them in better
understanding and applying EE regulations. (N3 and N9)
Another interviewee stated that:
As the saying goes ‗If you do not have it you cannot give it‘. If we are really
interested in professional implementation for EE then training is a must. (N5)
To conclude, the results for both quantitative and qualitative methods show that
current leadership and organizational support for EE is below the average. Public sector
organizations in Oman, through their managers and top management, need to show
more serious effort towards EE in a way that satisfies their employees.
7.1.3 Eliminating corruption (EC)
EC is the third critical factor which aims to assess the degree of employment corruption
within public sector organizations. Corrupt acts were defined as ‗violations of non-
discrimination norms governing the behaviour of holders of public office that are
motivated by private gain‘ (Kurer, 2005: 230). This factor was measured by three items
(Q2: 10, Q2: 11, and Q2: 12) and the first two items were reverse coded. The items are
as shown in Table 68.
233
Table 68: Eliminating corruption (EC)
Statement
Strongly
disagree
(1)
Disagree
(2)
Neutral
(3)
Agree
(4)
Strongly
agree
(5)
Mean SD
In this organization, employees tend to
use their functional status to gain
personal, financial, or societal benefits.
(recoded)
10.3 17.2 22.1 34.8 15.5 2.72 1.217
In this organization, mutual interests
play a vital role in managerial
decisions and practices. (recoded)
7.0 16.2 21.5 37.7 17.6 2.57 1.161
In this organization, honesty and
transparency are the main elements in
the decision making process.
8.0 30.7 28.2 25.8 7.3 2.94 1.085
As Table 68 indicates, more than half of the respondents (50.3%) believe that
employees tend to use their functional status to gains personal, financial, or societal
benefits, while 22.1% are neutral. Also, while 21.5% are neutral, 55.3% agree that
mutual interests play a vital role in managerial decisions and practices within their
organizations. In addition, 38.7% of respondents disagree that honesty and transparency
are the main elements in the decision making process, while 33.1% of them agree with
this statement and 28.2% are neutral.
However, the grand mean for EC in actual practice (As Is) was 2.7402, which can be
described as slightly low. From the above answers, it seems that the working
environment enables employees to take advantage of their positions and allows mutual
interests to affect decisions. Therefore, it is not a surprise that EC in Should Be practice
scored a grand mean of 4.4083. This clearly shows the dissatisfaction of participants
with the current situation and their high desire to eliminate workplace corruption.
In a similar vein, interviewees expressed their rejection of employee corruption
under any circumstances; however, some of them they did not look at some behaviours
as corruption, but as a part of normal social behaviour or respect. One interviewee
mentioned that:
Mojamalah (courtesy) is not corruption; it is a societal attitude which people
sometimes tend to use because they highly respect the one who asked the
favour. If we want to stop all kinds of Mojamalah then we should concentrate
on related societal concepts in the beginning. (N1)
On the other hand, when one interviewee was asked about Mojamalah and if
management should be blamed for such behaviour or if it should be seen as an
acceptable attitude, he stated that:
234
Employees themselves bear part of the responsibility for any unacceptable
behaviour such as Mojamalah as we are all entrusted with what we decide on
our jobs. However, management should be blamed as well. In my opinion
Mojamalah should not occur in the first place in governmental organizations
and action should be taken immediately against those doing so. (N7)
Furthermore, most interviewees agreed that transparency is a vital element in
limiting employment corruption. For example, an interviewee stated that:
The lack of transparency in decision making opens a wide door for corruption.
Therefore, it is important that transparency becomes an approach to
management so employees will know that every step they take is seen and
judged. (N2)
In general, the situation here is similar to the previous factor. The level of effort that
public sector organizations are offering is below employees‘ requirement. Transparency
in the decision-making process and seriousness in eliminating corruption in the
workplace are urgently needed to gain employees‘ trust.
7.1.4 Social system support (SSS)
Social system refers to ‗the behavior of multiple individuals within a culturally
organized population, including their patterns of social interaction and networks of
social relationships‘ (Rohner, 1984: 127). Because in many cases SS became part of
unfair employment discrimination, it is important to encourage positive social behaviour
and image for employment equity. SSS was assessed here by three questions (Q2: 3,
Q2: 15, and Q2: 20) and the last two questions were reversed coded. The questions and
responses are shown in Table 69.
235
Table 69: Social system support (SSS)
Statement
Strongly
disagree
(1)
Disagree
(2)
Neutral
(3)
Agree
(4)
Strongly
agree (5) Mean SD
In this organization, most employees
are treated equally at any stage of
employment regardless of their
gender, origin, tribes, or colour.
16.8 28.3 14.7 24.5 15.7 2.94 1.353
In this organization, social status,
kinship, and tribal affiliation (non-job
criteria), play a significant role in most
administrative procedures and
decisions (recoded)
7.6 18.0 23.9 33.6 17.0 2.66 1.177
In this organization, management
believes that family role and social
traditions affect negatively
performance of females’ employees
more than males. (recoded)
3.5 20.6 28.9 34.5 12.5 2.68 1.045
As Table 69 shows, 44.5% of respondents do not believe that employees receive
equal treatment while 39.6% believe that employees are treated equally regardless of
their gender, origin, tribe, or colour, and 14.5% are neutral. In terms of the role that non-
job criteria such as societal status, kinship, and tribal affiliation play in most
administrative procedures and decisions, most respondents (40.6%) believe that it plays
a significant role while 23.6% of them are neutral. In addition, almost half of
respondents (47%) agree that management believes that family role and social traditions
negatively affect the performance of female employees more than males, while 28.9%
of them were neutral.
The grand mean of SSS at the current practice level (As Is) was 2.7534 (slightly
low). This result means that the social system in Omani society is not enhancing EE as
much as it should be. Therefore, the grand mean of SSS at (Should Be) level scored
4.0681, which is much higher than it is at As Is level. This also indicates a higher desire
among participants to eliminate the negative impact of the social system in the
environment of the workplace.
When interviewees were asked about certain societal terms such as Qabaliah
(tribalism) and Mashyaka (tribe chiefdom), they all admitted the impact of these terms
on management decisions to some extent as they are part of the fabric of Omani society.
An interviewee mentioned that:
236
Omani society still needs quite a long time to get rid of Qabaliah impacts. For
example it has been known that the level of belonging and convergence is
higher among employees from the same tribe. Thus, management is trying to
avoid putting two or more employees from one tribe in the same department.
(N9)
Another interviewee stated that:
For employees, to be a Shaik (tribe leader) means to have a greater chance for
functional promotion and managerial position. It is unfair but it is also true.
Being a leader in the society gives that employee an advantage to be a leader
in governmental organizations as well, even if that conflicts with the principle
of efficiency. (N4)
With regard to family role, interviewees agreed that Omani society still holds a
particular image about gender role and that such an image affects many administrative
decisions in the organization. An interviewee mentioned that:
Despite the fact that lifestyle for Omani families has dramatically changed
during the last few years, however, Omani society still holds almost the same
view with regard to male and females duties within the family. This particular
image affects females more than males as the female role is to take care of the
children and do most of the in-house duties while the male tackles the
financial part. That is why management takes into consideration the impact of
such an image on its administrative decisions. (N9).
In general, as with the last two factors, the situation is the same regarding the level of
support EE receives from the Omani social system. Participants believe that the social
system is not providing the support that it should. This shortfall in enhancing EE
through the social system might need to be looked at and dealt with from both sides of
the equation, Omani government and society, by establishing an awareness campaign
with regard to the importance of EE.
7.1.5 Eliminating the negative impact of Stereotype, prejudice and demographic role (ESPDR)
Stereotypes are defined as ‗beliefs about particular social group‘ (Goldman et al., 2006:
795). This factor was measured by for items (Q2: 16, Q2: 17, Q2: 18, and Q2: 19) and
three of them were reverse coded. These items are as shown in Table 70.
237
Table 70: Eliminating the negative impact of stereotype, prejudice and
demographic role (ESPDR)
Statement
Strongly
disagree
(1)
Disagree
(2)
Neutral
(3)
Agree
(4)
Strongl
y agree
(5)
Mean SD
In this organization, there is a belief
that females are less productive than
males. (recoded)
20.5 37.2 21.2 17.7 3.5 3.53 1.107
In this organization, there is a belief
that disabled persons and older
workers are less productive than
other employees. (recoded)
8.7 32.5 28.7 25.6 4.5 3.15 1.043
In this organization, the decision
making process and management
practices are devoid of prejudice.
6.0 17.3 27.9 32.2 16.6 3.36 1.129
In the public sector, there is a belief
that men are more capable to handle
managerial positions than women,
while women are willing more to do
nursing and teaching. (recoded)
3.5 13.2 16.7 37.5 29.2 2.24 1.115
As table 70 indicates, most respondents (57.7%) reject the proposal that there is a
belief in their organization that females are less productive than males, while 21.2% are
neutral. Also, 41.2% disagree with the statement that there is a belief in their
organization that disabled persons and older workers are less productive than other
employees while 28.7% are neutral. In addition, 48.8% of respondents agree that
decision making and management practices are devoid of prejudice, while 27.9% are
neutral. However, the largest percentage (66.7%) of them agree that there is a belief in
the public sector that men are more capable of handling managerial positions than
women, while women are willing more to do nursing and teaching.
In general, the grand mean of SPDR at the current practice level (As Is) was 3.0773,
which puts it at a moderate level. This might be because females have been empowered
by the government during the last few years in the Omani public sector. However,
despite this empowerment, there is still a belief that males are more capable than
females of handling certain jobs according, as shown in the last statement. Therefore,
the grand mean of SPDR at Should Be level scores higher (4.1113) than it does at As Is
level. These two scores indicate a strong desire among participants to reduce the
negative impact of stereotype, prejudice and demographic role within the Omani public
sector.
One interviewee referred to the social term Hareem which refers to women and is
widely used in Oman and most of the Arab world. The word Hareem comes from
Haram, which means forbidden. He stated that:
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Omani society is still conservative in most of women's affairs. The
government has put quite a good effort during recent years into providing
females with great opportunities in most public sector organizations. Despite
this empowerment, women are still called ‗Hareem‘ and this shows how much
the community the Omani society is trying to separate males and females from
each other and putting women in restricted areas where men are not allowed
access. (N8)
Another interviewee referred to an Islamic term Qawamah (stewardship) and how
this Islamic view affects some administrative decisions, especially when it comes to
nomination for most leadership positions. He mentioned that:
To some extent, I think preferring male employees for leadership positions
more than females comes from a religious perspective. As Muslims, we all
know that Islam gives Qawamah (stewardship) to men not women in the
whole of life. (N9)
When interviewees were asked about government efforts with regard to gender
equity, all showed high appreciation for what has been done so far. For example, one
interviewee mentioned that:
Omani government from its top level has always supported females by
appointing them in many leadership positions such as minister and
ambassadors. (N6)
In addition, although a higher percentage of questionnaire participants (48.8%)
believe that administrative decisions are free of prejudice, an interviewee raised a valid
point with regard to this matter in the case of functional promotion. He stated that:
Most employment regulations support equity among employees. Nevertheless,
committees every now and then exclude some groups such as black people and
females especially from functional promotion because of their colour or
gender. It is unfair but because there are no clear steps or rules for functional
promotion, so committee members depend on their personal opinion which
mostly depends on prejudice to these groups. (N10)
To conclude, the situation with the success factor ‗eliminating the negative impact of
stereotype, prejudice and demographic role‘ is similar to that for previous factors of EE.
Participants demonstrated a need for greater effort towards eliminating the negative
impact of these personal or functional issues. Indeed, serious effort towards a positive
effect needs a collective effort from employees themselves, government, and society.
Making use of media and online social networks might be a possible solution to
coordinating such efforts.
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7.1.6 Enhancing Positive Psychological Climate (EPPC)
Brown and Leigh (1996: 359) define psychological climate as, ‗an individual rather than
an organizational attribute, measured in terms of perceptions that are psychologically
meaningful to the individual rather than in terms of concrete organizational features‘.
This factor was measured by four items: Q2: 21, Q2: 22, Q2: 23, and Q2: 24. These
items are shown in Table 71.
Table 71: Enhancing Positive Psychological Climate (EPPC)
Statement
Strongly
disagree
(1)
Disagree
(2)
Neutral
(3)
Agree
(4)
Strongl
y agree
(5)
Mean SD
In this organization, most employees
can express their ideas openly with
their supervisors.
9.4 27.2 22.6 32.1 8.7 3.03 1.149
In this organization, differences
between individuals are positively
recognized to better serve the
working environment.
5.2 25.3 32.3 32.6 4.5 3.06 0.984
In this organization, when an
employee does a good job, he/she
receives the praise and recognition
he/she deserve.
15.0 33.2 24.1 21.0 6.6 2.71 1.153
In this organization, management is
supporting team working among
employees.
2.4 15.3 25.0 44.8 12.5 3.50 0.977
As shown in Table 71, 40.8% of respondents believe that employees have the
required freedom of speech in their workplace and can express their ideas openly with
their supervisors, while 36.6% disagree with such a statement and 22.6% are neutral.
Also, 37.1% of them agree that in this organization, differences between individuals are
positively recognized to better serve the working environment, while 32.3% are neutral
and 30.5% disagree with this statement. With regard to motivation, the result shows a
high percentage of dissatisfaction among respondents concerning the current motivation
system as 48.2% of them believe that employees are not receiving the praise or
recognition that they deserve for a good job; 27.6% believe that they do receive this,
while 24.1% are neutral. In addition, 57.3% of respondents believe that team working
among employees is supported by management in their organizations, while 25% of
them are neutral and 17.7% disagree with such a statement.
In general, the grand mean for PPC at current practice level (As Is) was 3.0739,
which places it at a moderate level. However, the grand mean for PPC at Should Be
level was 4.4285, much higher than the As Is level. This result clearly indicates that
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respondents desire a more free atmosphere in their place of work and have a need for
greater recognition for competencies and of differences, extra support for team working,
and a more effective motivation system from their organization.
With regard to the interviewees, most of them agreed that vital amendments need to
be made to the current motivation system to benefit most employees. For instance, one
interviewee stated that:
From my own point of view, I think public sector organizations as a whole
have obvious deficiencies in their applied motivation systems. Therefore, it is
time for a thorough revision of these systems from different perspectives to be
able to perform to the fullest. (N11)
Another interviewee believed that employees have more freedom of speech
nowadays and attributed the reasons behind this to the influence of change in Omani
life. He stated that:
Nowadays, there is an acceptable percentage of speech freedom either among
employees themselves or employees and their supervisors, especially with the
increased openness to the outside world, the new style of life and the existence
of new telecommunication tools which have provided a large opportunity for
speech freedom through a virtual space. (N4)
In addition, interviewees mentioned administrative efforts towards providing a
positive psychological climate during the working day of seven hours. For example, an
interviewee mentioned that:
There are serious attempts that administration departments have made to
enhance psychological climate among employees. For instance, they tried to
put the right employee in the right place and to provide a friendly environment
among employees by supporting teamwork and admitting individual
differences among employees. However, these attempts need to be reviewed
and evaluated to better serve the aims behind them. (N5)
In conclusion, despite the acceptable assessment of current practice, participants still
believe that more effort towards enhancing the positive psychological climate in the
workplace in needed. And although they are important, laws and regulations might not
be the best way to achieve such a goal. From the researcher‘s point of view, expanding
justice among employees by equal treatment will further enhance the psychological
climate in an emotional culture such as that of Oman. Also, concentrating on identifying
good behaviour and rewarding it might also be an effective management approach.
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7.1.7 Eliminating Wasta (EW)
According to Whiteoak et al., wasta can be defined as:
…the degree to which an individual perceives a person‘s success as being
related to their ability to utilize connections with people, who are both able
and prepared to change the course of natural events on that person‘s behalf.
(Whiteoak et al., 2006: 81
This factor was assessed by three items (Q2: 13, Q2: 14, and Q2: 25) and the first two
items were reversed coded. These items are shown in Table 67.
Table 72: Eliminating wasta (EW)
Statement
Strongly
disagree
(1)
Disagree (2) Neutral
(3)
Agree
(4)
Strong
ly
agree
(5)
Mean SD
In this organization, officials do not
hesitate to favour relatives or friends
even if that may negatively affect
other citizens' interests. (recoded)
7.3 24.6 23.9 30.4 13.8 2.81 1.167
In most governmental departments,
the most effective way to follow-up
matters is through friends/relatives
working there. (recoded)
3.8 13.6 18.8 35.5 28.2 2.29 1.130
In this organization, most kinds of
wasta are strongly rejected. 25.6 29.1 27.0 12.1 6.2 2.44 1.175
As indicated by Table 72, a higher percentage of respondents (44.2%) believe that
officials in their organizations are using favouritism to benefit their relatives and
friends, even if such behaviour affects other citizens‘ interests, while 31.9% of them
disagree with such a statement and 23.9% were neutral. In addition, almost two third of
respondents (63.7%) believe that in most governmental departments, the most effective
way to follow-up matters is through friends/relatives working there. With regard to the
rejection of wasta within their organizations, most of respondents believe that wasta is
not rejected organizations while 27% of respondents were neutral.
As a grand mean, EW scored 2.5184 (slightly low), the smallest result among all
seven critical factors. Also, this result shows how the extent to which wasta plays a vital
role in employment procedures in the Omani public sector. Therefore, respondents
showed a strong desire towards eliminating wasta in their organizations, as shown by
the score for Should Be with a grand mean of 4.2163.
All interviewees showed the same desire with regard to eliminating the negative
impacts of wasta in the Omani public sector. For example, one interviewee stated that:
242
Wasta is the most negative behaviour which contradicts all employment equity
principles. How can justice be applied while some managers continue using
their authority to benefit a certain group of staff or relatives which they do not
deserve at the expense of other group of employees or citizens? In my opinion,
it is a shame. (N2)
Another interviewee added that:
Wasta is almost like a cancer. Therefore, it must be fought from the start
otherwise it will spread like wildfire in the whole organization. (N8)
Nevertheless, most interviewees admitted that wasta is part of Omani social
attributes. They expressed a belief that some kind of courtesy is needed in some cases.
For example, an interviewee stated that:
We are part of this society. Public sector organizations are part as well. Thus,
managers sometimes find themselves forced to favour some people who have
influence, either societal or functional, as this is part of the culture in Omani
society. Otherwise they will be socially isolated. (N12)
Furthermore, an interviewee referred to some false ideas in the Omani community,
stating that:
In Omani society, any employee with any kind of authority is required by his
relatives to favour them even at the expense of others. It is what so called his
societal duty towards his family and relatives. (N6)
At this point, it is obvious from the results for this factor that wasta is one of the
biggest problems that Arab culture, including Omani culture, is facing (see Chapter 3,
Section 3.7.7). To eliminate or minimize the negative impact of this phenomenon, as
required by the participants, all possible efforts from employees, government, and
society are needed. In fact, wasta has become a societal behaviour where its positive
impact has mixed with its negative impact and it is very hard to draw a clear line
between the two effects in many cases. Therefore, individual awareness here is more
significant than just a single regulation. Also, serious government attempts towards
equity in its citizens‘ lives in general, and in the treatment of public sector employees in
particular, are fundamental to dealing with such a powerful phenomenon.
To conclude, the above analysis has shown a significant result for all seven critical
success factors for employment equity (EE). As was hypothesized in Chapter 5
(methodology), all seven critical success factors have scored lower in the current
situation (As Is) than they have in the desired situation (Should Be) with a clear gap for
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each. Table 73 indicates that participants still believe that the Omani public sector is in
real need of improvements in EE. Also from Table 73, it can be observed that the degree
of satisfaction among participants for the current situation is low for all EE factors
compared to the hoped-for situation. LOS, EC, SSS, and EW scored slightly low while
CEOP, ESPDR and PPC scored a moderate score for the current situation (As Is). It
might be argued that the last three factors have reached a moderate level at this time
because of the efforts to empower women, the establishment of the administrative court,
the effect of the internet, and openness to the rest of the world. However, all seven
factors scored above 4 (slightly high) in the desired situation, which makes it clear that
current situation is below the required outcome.
Table 73: Critical Success Factors (As Is) versus Critical Success Factors (Should
Be)
Critical Success
Factors (As Is) Mean
Critical Success
Factors (Should
Be)
Mean
CEOPP 3.0595 Moderate CEOPV 4.6851 Slightly High
LOSP 2.7761 Slightly Low LOSV 4.5796 Slightly High
ECP 2.7402 Slightly Low ECV 4.4083 Slightly High
SSSP 2.7534 Slightly Low SSSV 4.0681 Slightly High
ESPDRP 3.0773 Moderate ESPDRV 4.1113 Slightly High
EPPCP 3.0739 Moderate PPCV 4.4285 Slightly High
EWP 2.5184 Slightly Low EWV 4.2163 Slightly High
7.2 Correlation between critical success factors
Another element that this study was designed to investigate is the interaction between
the critical success factors for EE. One hypothesis that was set for such a relationship
was based on the assumption that all of the seven critical success factors will be related
to each other to some extent. Therefore, any increment in one factor will somehow
positively motivate the other factors in either an implicit or explicit manner. To test this
hypothesis, a Pearson correlation was conducted to explore the relationship between the
seven critical success factors at both situation (As-Is) and (Should Be). Tables 74 and
75 illustrate this.
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Table 74: Correlation between critical success factors (As Is)
CEOPP LOSP ECP SSSP ESPDRP EPPCP EWP
CEOPP Pearson Correlation 1 .669** .367
** .522
** .282
** .556
** .347
**
Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000
N 290 290 290 290 290 290 290
LOSP Pearson Correlation 1 .456** .520
** .207
** .618
** .406
**
Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000 .000 .000
N 290 290 290 290 290 290
ECP Pearson Correlation 1 .531** .260
** .503
** .555
**
Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000 .000
N 290 290 290 290 290
SSSP Pearson Correlation 1 .442** .532
** .549
**
Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000
N 290 290 290 290
ESPDRP Pearson Correlation 1 .221** .353
**
Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000
N 290 290 290
EPPCP Pearson Correlation 1 .462**
Sig. (2-tailed) .000
N 290 290
EWP Pearson Correlation 1
Sig. (2-tailed)
N 290
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
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Table 75: Correlation between critical success factors (Should Be)
CEOPV LOSV ECV SSSV ESPDRV EPPCV EWV
CEOPV
Pearson Correlation 1 .676** .492
** .280
** .387
** .502
** .269
**
Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000
N 289 289 289 289 289 289 289
LOSV
Pearson Correlation 1 .447** .303
** .406
** .496
** .292
**
Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000 .000 .000
N 289 289 289 289 289 289
ECV
Pearson Correlation 1 .347** .432
** .482
** .446
**
Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000 .000
N 289 289 289 289 289
SSSV
Pearson Correlation 1 .346** .294
** .443
**
Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000
N 289 289 289 289
ESPDRV
Pearson Correlation 1 .490** .372
**
Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000
N 289 289 289
EPPCV
Pearson Correlation 1 .422**
Sig. (2-tailed) .000
N 289 289
EWV
Pearson Correlation 1
Sig. (2-tailed)
N 289
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
As Tables 74 and 75 show, all seven factors are positively correlated with each other
at practice and value levels. The correlation is significant but positive at the 0.01 level
(2-tailed) between all critical success factors at the levels both of As Is and Should Be.
This is consistent with one of this study‘s hypotheses (Section 5.4.1, Set 2, Hypothesis
6) which hypothesizes that critical success factors will be positively correlated with one
246
another at all levels. These positive correlations provide an indication that strengthening
or promoting one factor is likely to exert a positive effect on the other factors, and vice-
versa.
7.3 General view on adopting employment equity programs in the Omani public sector
In this section, two objectives of the study will be addressed and discussed. The first is
to assess, from the perspective of Omani employees, the most applicable employment
equity programme for the Omani public sector from three widely-recognized
programmes (merit based programme, quota based programme diversity based
programme), which have previously been implemented in western countries. The
second objective is to explore the extent of influences that other additional elements
may have on enhancing the effective adoption of equal employment policies and
programmes in the Omani public sector.
For the first objective, participants were asked to choose only one of the following
statements which they believed would better serve employment equity in their
organization:
Table 76: Employment equity programmes
No. Statement Answer
1 Equity in employment should be based on merit only. 12.8%
2 Equity in employment should be based on applying quotas among
each group of employees (e.g. males and females).
0%
3
Equity in employment should be considered as a business advantage
by basing it on recognising individual differences, and ensuring the
right environment for each employee.
20.7%
4
Equity in employment should be based on the importance of the above
three statements where the most effective option among them will be
applied according to working environment, type of work and
individual’s ability.
66.5%
As table 76 shows, most participants (66.5%) chose the last statement, which is
based on all three elements (merit, quotas, and business advantage), so equity in
employment should be based on the importance of the above three statements where the
most effective option among them will be applied according to the working
environment, type of work and individual‘s ability. Only 20.7% of participants believed
that equity should be based on business advantage, while 12.8% of them chose the
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merit-based approach and none of them selected the quota approach as the only option
to ensure equity in employment.
Moreover, the outcome of the interviews supports this result as all interviewees
agreed that a good integration of the three programmes would best serve employment
equity in the Omani public sector. For instance, one interviewee mentioned that the
complexity of Omani society should be taken into consideration when deciding the
applicable employment equity programme for the Omani public sector, stating that:
The nature of Omani society may stand against applying a certain programme
in some jobs such as religious and judicial positions. Therefore, for the current
time, it is much better to apply the most applicable programme according to
the degree of readiness of the society. This will help both employees and
administrators to gain a better outcome of these programmes. (N10).
Another interviewee referred to differences between jobs and their requirements. He
stated that:
The Omani public sector has a diversity of jobs which differ in their
requirements. So considering the nature of jobs before applying any of these
three programmes will insure that the right programme will be applied in the
right place. (N1).
To conclude, it seems that most of this study‘s participants have no objection to
applying any of the three employment equity programmes in the Omani public sector.
However, the majority of them do not believe that a single programme can be effective
for application in all situations or in different working environments. They therefore
prefer that management should choose the most applicable one according to working
environment, type of work and individual ability. According to the respondent‘s point
of view, this method could work much better to serve the underlying objectives, as
discussed earlier, behind applying EE programmes in the Omani public sector.
With regard to the second objective, participants were asked to consider the impact
of a set of factors on adopting effective policies and practices on employment equity.
They were presented with ten factors and a possible 100 points to be allocated among
them according to the importance of each factor in their own view.
The question was: To what extent do the following factors influence the adoption of
effective policies and practice toward employment equity in your organization? The
factors and mean responses are shown in Table 77.
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Table 77: Additional factors to improve EE in the Omani public sector
No. Factors Points
1 State clear and detailed articles toward employment equity in the Oman
Civil Service law (or any similar law which is applicable in your
organization).
12
2 Call for more enforcement of Share'h Law (Islamic Law) 17
3 Provide more authorities for the Court of Legal Administration. 9
4 Raise the education level for employees at supervisory/leadership levels 10
5 Train HRM employees on equity programs 9
6 Create equity department/section in each organization 8
7 Educate employees about their rights at work 9
8 Audit employment decisions and practices regularly 9
9 Ensure an adequate level of presentation for minorities (e.g. females and
disabled persons) in the decision making process
6
10 Concentrate on promoting values like human rights, freedom of speech,
and equality.
11
Total 100
As Table 77 indicates, element number two, ‗call for more enforcement of Share'h
Law (Islamic Law)‘ gained the highest number of points (17 out of 100) out of the ten
elements. This result shows the amount of influence that Islam has on Omanis as
Muslims and on their decisions in their daily lives. This should not be a surprising
finding in a society like Oman. Interviewees also asserted such a point. One of them
stated:
If Share'h Law was implemented in the right way within the organizational
regulations, many of these unequal behaviours would disappear. If we really
seek for equity not in employment only but in all aspect of our lives, then we
should call for more enforcement for Share'h Law. (N5)
Another interviewee mentioned that:
Islam is not just a religion, it a way of life. The spirit of Islam encourages
nothing but equity as Prophet Mohammed (PUH) said: ‗There is no difference
between black and white except by piety‘. Therefore, Share'h law would better
serve equity among employees if it became part of the organizational process
in the Omani public sector. (N9)
Also, as discussed in the literature review, in the management area, Islam enhances
positive attitudes. Many authors agreed that Islam supports trust between managers and
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subordinates, honesty at work, loyalty, consultation in decision-making, cooperation
and team working (Tayeb, 1997; Al-Buraey, 2001; Ghafory-Ashtiany, 2009).
Furthermore, Ilhaamie (2009: 228) stated that: ‗Through Islamic human resource
practices, manpower that is high achiever, creative, innovative and most importantly;
God fearing and sound moral characters will be produced‘. Islam also ‗does not endorse
high power distance‘ (Carl et al., 2004: 521).
Despite the availability of a few studies, it is still the case that not enough attention
has been shown in the literature to the influence of Islam on organizational behaviour
and management (Swailes and Al Fahdi, 2011). The PhD study by Al-Hamadi (2004),
discussed in Chapter 5, found that Share'h law (Islamic law) was one of the most
effective factors from the employee perspective which influenced national culture and
HR policies and practices in Oman. Also, a PhD thesis called ‗Constraints and
Opportunities: The Shaping of Attitudes Towards Women‘s Employment in the Middle
East‘ (Price, 2011) concluded that Islam has greater importance for individuals‘ lives in
Middle Eastern communities than does any religion for any other region in the rest of
world, and this influence is negatively correlated with women‘s equity in employment.
However, the study also confirmed that Islam is not the only factor that plays a vital role
in employment equity, and other factors such as national context, culture, politics, and
demography also contribute to the current employment equity situation, with some of
these factors having an even larger negative impact than Islam.
The second highest element, scoring 12 out of 100, was statement number one: ‗State
clear and detailed articles toward employment equity in the Oman Civil Service Law (or
any similar law which is applicable in your organization)‘. This score suggests that
there is a clear gap in current laws and regulations for fulfilling the requirement of solid
implementation of employment equity policies and practices. The tenth element,
‗Concentrate on promoting values like human rights, freedom of speech, and equality‘,
scored third highest (11 out of 100). This means that participants think that by
promoting humanitarian values among employees, employment equity will be
enhanced. Element number four, ‗raise the education level for employees at
supervisory/leadership levels‘ scored in fourth place (10 out of 100). This is an
indication that participants view high level of education among managers as an
assurance of equity in employment in the workplace. Elements 3, 5, 7 and 8 scored the
same (9 points out of 100), which means that they have the same importance level. In
addition, elements number six and nine scored lowest among all ten elements 8 and 6
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out of 100, respectively. However, none of these ten elements scored zero, which means
they are all important in the adoption of employment equity programmes and policies.
Nevertheless, as this discussion shows, these elements vary in their amount of influence
or importance. To recap, in descending order, the highest four elements were enforcing
Share'h law (Islamic law), providing clear and detailed employment equity regulations,
promoting humanitarian values, and raising the educational level of managers.
Many authors have also referred to the importance of these elements. For instance,
Jain et al., arguing about the current status of employment equity in Canada, stated that:
Based on our evaluations of employment equity developments, the following
need serious attention: (1) increased and vigorous enforcement by the
Canadian Human Rights Commission (CHRC) and (2) more focus on
occupational inequities. Organizations must create a climate of acceptance and
tolerance by sensitizing top management to the need to eliminate glass ceilings
for both women and visible minorities. Furthermore, (3) there ought to be
more focus on industrial sector differences (e.g. communication and
transportation sectors) in which women and visible minorities are
underrepresented. (Jain et al., 2012: 15)
They also argued that educational level is important to ensure EE in organizations.
They added that, ‗Governments also need to be more proactive in educating employers
and enforcing the legislation‘ (Jain et al., 2012: 16).
In addition, Campa et al. (2011) argued that equity should be promoted across an
entire country. Jain et al. (2012: 14) supported this view, stating that, ‗To be effective,
employment equity has to be supported by coherent human resource development
priorities through the implementation of skills development legislation and changes in
organizational cultures‘. Further research found that employee training and management
commitment, especially HR expert support, are important to ensure equity in
employment (Samant et al., 2009). Regarding the importance of good HRM practices to
a positive environment within organizations, Herrea et al. (2011) insisted that HRM
policies and practices need to be applied in a proper organizational context to respond
positively to EE. Campa et al. (2011) agree with such a view, suggesting that a positive
local environment within organizations will enhance equity in employment.
With regard to the gender issue and how the religion and social system stand with
respect to gender equity in Middle Eastern countries, Campa et al. (2011) state that
greater heterogeneity between male and female in the labour market critically depends
on heterogeneity in the culture. Also, Bouclin observed that:
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Women in Kuwait may hold positions as investigative judges but are barred
from serving adjudicative functions. In Saudi Arabia women are barred from
all judicial functions… In these countries, Islamic law has been interpreted
restrictively by fundamentalists to deny women judicial appointments.
(Bouclin, 2011: 4)
To sum up, all EE critical factors are important in assuring the right implementation
of EE. In addition to these seven additional factors, other elements such as the ten
factors discussed earlier need to be considered as part of EE procedures and policies
depending of the context of the working environment. The next section of this chapter
will show how strongly these factors are related and interacting with one another in a
harmony and dynamic instrument.
7.4 The Influence of Culture on Employment Equity
The main aim of this study was to explore the degree of influence that societal and
organizational cultures, as specified by the GLOBE project, have on the adoption of
effective policies and practices toward employment equity in the Omani public sector.
Therefore, the researcher first evaluated the main cultural dimensions of Omani society
and public sector organizations, as discussed in Chapter 6. In this chapter, the main
critical success factors that contribute to or detract from employment equity were
identified and measured. Next, the study will first identify and investigate the
relationship between cultural dimensions at both societal and organizational levels and
the critical success factors that contribute to employment equity. A Pearson correlation
will be conducted to explore the relationship between these variables. After that, the
relationship between both cultures and EE in general will also be identified.
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7.4.1 Culture and critical success factors towards EE
Table 78: Correlation between societal culture and critical success factors towards
EE at the level of practice
CD CEOPP LOSP ECP SSSP ESPDRP EPPCP EWP
UASP
Pearson Correlation .330(**) .364(**) .129 .118 .163(*) .385(**) .215(**)
Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .118 .151 .047 .000 .009
N 149 149 149 149 149 149 149
FOSP
Pearson Correlation .202(*) .251(**) .151 .173(*) .160 .341(**) .219(**)
Sig. (2-tailed) .014 .002 .066 .035 .051 .000 .007
N 149 149 149 149 149 149 149
PDSP
Pearson Correlation -.262(**) -.364(**) -.386(**) -.367(**) -.282(**) -.406(**) -.463(**)
Sig. (2-tailed) .001 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000
N 149 149 149 149 149 149 149
C1SP
Pearson Correlation .134 .188(*) -.067 .009 .054 .122 .052
Sig. (2-tailed) .103 .022 .414 .918 .512 .139 .532
N 149 149 149 149 149 149 149
HOSP
Pearson Correlation .375(**) .353(**) .033 .078 -.002 .320(**) .107
Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .692 .343 .985 .000 .195
N 149 149 149 149 149 149 149
POSP
Pearson Correlation .256(**) .387(**) .268(**) .237(**) .159 .498(**) .326(**)
Sig. (2-tailed) .002 .000 .001 .004 .053 .000 .000
N 149 149 149 149 149 149 149
C2SP
Pearson Correlation .152 .157 .047 .128 .035 .161(*) -.025
Sig. (2-tailed) .063 .056 .568 .120 .675 .050 .761
N 149 149 149 149 149 149 149
GESP
Pearson Correlation -.064 -.142 -.051 .037 .016 .009 -.008
Sig. (2-tailed) .435 .083 .537 .658 .851 .912 .920
N 149 149 149 149 149 149 149
ASP
Pearson Correlation -.066 .007 .069 -.038 -.094 -.098 .032
Sig. (2-tailed) .421 .934 .406 .646 .252 .233 .698
N 149 149 149 149 149 149 149
** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
* Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
CD = Cultural Dimension
As shown in Table 78 for practice level, seven out of nine societal cultural
dimensions were significantly correlated with one or more critical success factors.
Uncertainty avoidance (AUSP) was positively correlated at the 0.01 level (2-tailed) with
CEOPP, LOSP, PPCP, and EWP and positively correlated with ESPDRP at the 0.05
level (2-tailed). Future orientation (FOSP) was positively correlated at the 0.01 level (2-
tailed) with LOSP, PPCP, and EWP and positively correlated with CEOPP and SSSP at
253
the 0.05 level (2-tailed). Power distance (PDSP) was negatively correlated with all
seven factors. Institutional collectivism (C1SP) was positively correlated with only
LOSP. Human orientation (HOSP) was positively correlated with CEOPP, LOSP, and
PPCP. Performance orientation (POSP) was positively correlated with all factors except
ESPDRP which has no significant correlation with this dimension. In-group
collectivism (C2SP) had a positive correlation only with PPCP. Gender egalitarianism
(GESP) and Assertiveness (ASP) had no significant correlation with any of these
factors.
Table 79: Correlation between societal culture and critical success factors towards
EE at the level of value
CD CEOPV LOSV ECV SSSV ESPDRV EPPCV EWV
UASV
Pearson Correlation .363(**) .303(**) .243(**) .188(*) .091 .248(**) .119
Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .003 .022 .272 .002 .150
N 148 148 148 148 148 148 148
FOSV
Pearson Correlation .302(**) .258(**) .273(**) .250(**) .093 .296(**) .176(*)
Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .002 .001 .002 .263 .000 .032
N 148 148 148 148 148 148 148
PDSV
Pearson Correlation -.297(**) -.297(**) -.458(**) -.416(**) -.435(**) -.326(**) -.437(**)
Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000
N 148 148 148 148 148 148 148
C1SV
Pearson Correlation .240(**) .228(**) .263(**) .246(**) -.016 .114 .108
Sig. (2-tailed) .003 .005 .001 .003 .845 .169 .193
N 148 148 148 148 148 148 148
HOSV
Pearson Correlation .075 .051 .093 -.072 .099 .076 .006
Sig. (2-tailed) .363 .541 .260 .384 .233 .360 .943
N 148 148 148 148 148 148 148
POSV
Pearson Correlation .353(**) .401(**) .307(**) .240(**) .249(**) .326(**) .181(*)
Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000 .003 .002 .000 .027
N 148 148 148 148 148 148 148
C2SV
Pearson Correlation .150 .195(*) .261(**) .120 .232(**) .210(*) .252(**)
Sig. (2-tailed) .068 .017 .001 .148 .005 .011 .002
N 148 148 148 148 148 148 148
GESV
Pearson Correlation -.168(*) -.145 -.096 -.150 .120 -.114 .055
Sig. (2-tailed) .042 .079 .248 .069 .146 .168 .509
N 148 148 148 148 148 148 148
ASV
Pearson Correlation -.257(**) -.191(*) -.310(**) -.166(*) -.297(**) -.173(*) -.207(*)
Sig. (2-tailed) .002 .020 .000 .044 .000 .035 .012
N 148 148 148 148 148 148 148
** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
* Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
CD = Cultural Dimension
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As shown in Table 79, at the value level, eight out of nine societal cultural
dimensions were significantly correlated with one or more critical success factors.
Uncertainty avoidance (AUSV) was positively correlated with CEOPV, LOSV, ECV,
SSSV, and PPCV. Future orientation (FOSV) was positively correlated with all factors
except ESPDRP, which has no significant correlation with this dimension. Power
distance (PDSV) was negatively correlated with all seven factors. Institutional
collectivism (C1SV) was positively correlated with CEOPV, LOSV, ECV, and SSSV.
Performance orientation (POSP) was positively correlated with all factors. In-group
collectivism (C2SP) has a positive correlation with all factors except CEOPV and
SSSV. Gender egalitarianism (GESV) has a negative correlation with only CEOPV and
no significant correlation with other factors. Assertiveness (ASV) has a significant
negative correlation with all factors. Human orientation (HOSV) has no significant
correlation with any of these factors.
As shown in Table 80 (below), at practice level, seven out of nine organizational
cultural dimensions were significantly correlated with one or more critical success
factors. Uncertainty avoidance (AUOP) was positively correlated with CEOPP, LOSP,
ECP, SSSP, PPCP, and EWP. Future orientation (FOOP) was positively correlated with
all seven factors. Power distance (PDOP) was negatively correlated with all factors.
Institutional collectivism (C1OP) was positively correlated with LOSP, ECP, SSSP, and
PPCP. Human orientation (HOOP) was positively correlated with all factors except
ESPDRV. Performance orientation (POOP) and In-group collectivism (C2OP) were
positively correlated with all factors. Gender egalitarianism (GEOP) and Assertiveness
(AOP) had no significant correlation with any of these factors.
255
Table 80: correlation between organizational culture and critical success factors
towards EE at the level of practice
CD CEOPP LOSP ECP SSSP ESPDRP EPPCP EWP
UAOP
Pearson Correlation .356(**) .379(**) .212(*) .268(**) .125 .267(**) .213(*)
Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .012 .001 .139 .001 .011
N 141 141 141 141 141 141 141
FOOP
Pearson Correlation .359(**) .351(**) .223(**) .342(**) .256(**) .361(**) .279(**)
Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .008 .000 .002 .000 .001
N 141 141 141 141 141 141 141
PDOP
Pearson Correlation -.290(**) -.359(**) -.344(**) -.349(**) -.237(**) -.431(**) -.183(*)
Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000 .000 .005 .000 .030
N 141 141 141 141 141 141 141
C1OP
Pearson Correlation .267(**) .143 .224(**) .262(**) .059 .297(**) .105
Sig. (2-tailed) .001 .090 .008 .002 .490 .000 .216
N 141 141 141 141 141 141 141
HOOP
Pearson Correlation .265(**) .182(*) .226(**) .229(**) .106 .379(**) .218(**)
Sig. (2-tailed) .002 .031 .007 .006 .212 .000 .009
N 141 141 141 141 141 141 141
POOP
Pearson Correlation .391(**) .413(**) .356(**) .313(**) .193(*) .538(**) .242(**)
Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000 .000 .022 .000 .004
N 141 141 141 141 141 141 141
C2OP
Pearson Correlation .452(**) .478(**) .453(**) .459(**) .250(**) .522(**) .317(**)
Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000 .000 .003 .000 .000
N 141 141 141 141 141 141 141
GEOP
Pearson Correlation -.149 -.118 -.095 -.033 .026 -.042 .007
Sig. (2-tailed) .080 .166 .267 .699 .764 .619 .938
N 140 140 140 140 140 140 140
AOP
Pearson Correlation -.105 -.055 .078 -.061 -.070 .075 -.038
Sig. (2-tailed) .215 .520 .360 .474 .407 .376 .651
N 141 141 141 141 141 141 141
** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
* Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
CD = Cultural Dimension
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Table 81: Correlation between organizational culture and critical success factors
towards EE at the level of value
CD CEOPV LOSV ECV SSSV ESPDRV EPPCV EWV
UAOV
Pearson
Correlation .156 .136 .062 -.033 -.081 .003 .020
Sig. (2-tailed) .064 .109 .466 .696 .337 .974 .817
N 141 141 141 141 141 141 141
FOOV
Pearson
Correlation .353(**) .387(**) .366(**) .232(**) .248(**) .330(**) .230(**)
Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000 .006 .003 .000 .006
N 141 141 141 141 141 141 141
PDOV
Pearson
Correlation -.380(**) -.419(**) -.313(**) -.201(*) -.262(**) -.444(**) -.225(**)
Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000 .017 .002 .000 .007
N 141 141 141 141 141 141 141
C1OV
Pearson
Correlation .096 .090 .138 .048 -.005 .063 .060
Sig. (2-tailed) .258 .286 .104 .569 .957 .459 .476
N 141 141 141 141 141 141 141
HOOV
Pearson
Correlation .086 .086 -.001 .023 .014 .102 -.076
Sig. (2-tailed) .312 .310 .992 .786 .866 .230 .369
N 141 141 141 141 141 141 141
POOV
Pearson
Correlation .324(**) .466(**) .341(**) .134 .236(**) .311(**) .235(**)
Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000 .112 .005 .000 .005
N 141 141 141 141 141 141 141
C2OV
Pearson
Correlation .242(**) .381(**) .370(**) .175(*) .229(**) .156 .104
Sig. (2-tailed) .004 .000 .000 .038 .006 .065 .218
N 141 141 141 141 141 141 141
GEOV
Pearson
Correlation .006 .052 .034 .036 .312(**) -.003 .001
Sig. (2-tailed) .946 .541 .693 .672 .000 .971 .992
N 140 140 140 140 140 140 140
AOV
Pearson
Correlation .255(**) .282(**) .238(**) .310(**) .274(**) .267(**) .089
Sig. (2-tailed) .002 .001 .004 .000 .001 .001 .296
N 141 141 141 141 141 141 141
* Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
CD = Cultural Dimension
As shown in Table 81, at value level, six out of nine organizational cultural
dimensions were significantly correlated with one or more critical success factors.
Future orientation (FOOV) was positively correlated with all seven factors. Power
distance (PDOV) was negatively correlated with all seven factors. Performance
orientation (POOP) was positively correlated with all factors except SSSV, which has
257
no significant correlation with this dimension. In-group collectivism (C2OP) has a
positive correlation with all factors except PPCV and EWV. Gender egalitarianism
(GEOV) has a positive correlation with only ESPDRV only and no significant
correlation with other factors. Assertiveness (AOV) has a significant positive
correlation with all factors except EWV, where there is no significant correlation
between the two variables. Uncertainty avoidance (AUOV), Institutional collectivism
(C1OV), and Human orientation (HOOV) have no significant correlation with any of
these factors.
In addition, from the above results for the correlations at the four levels, there are
three main issues that should be noted. Firstly, where there is a significant correlation
between a cultural dimension and more than one EE factor, these correlations seem to
follow the same direction, either positively or negatively; that is, where there is a
significant correlation between a cultural dimension and more than one success factors,
these correlations are either all positive or all negative. Secondly, Power Distance (PD)
at practice and value levels was negatively correlated, for both societal and
organizational culture, with all seven critical success factors of employment equity.
Thirdly, Gender egalitarianism (GE) and Assertiveness (A) have no significant
correlation with any of these factors at societal and organizational practice levels.
Finally, except for Power Distance, Gender Egalitarianism, and Assertiveness, all
significant correlations were positive between the six dimensions and critical factors at
all levels.
7.4.2 Employment equity in general
In this section, the results of the high-low relationship will be tested according to the
final results for EE and cultural dimensions. The grand mean of twenty-five questions
on EE critical success factors will be extracted, then correlated with the nine dimensions
of societal and organizational cultures at practice and value levels, as shown in Tables
82 and 83.
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Table 82: EE as viewed by questionnaire Beta participants
Beta Questionnaire N Minimum Maximum Mean Std.
Deviation
Equity_Soc_As Is 149 1.80 4.56 2.9628 .60899
Equity_Soc_Should Be 148 2.95 5.00 4.3786 .45126
Valid N (list wise) 148
Table 83: EE as viewed by questionnaire Alpha's participants
Alpha Questionnaire N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation
Equity_Org_As Is 141 1.48 4.12 2.7884 .55386
Equity_Org_Should Be 141 2.96 5.00 4.3672 .41056
Valid N (list wise) 141
As shown in Tables 82 and 83, the grand means of EE at the practice level of the
societal and organizational culture questionnaire scored 2.9628 and 2.7884 respectively.
This means that EE is slightly low according to this measurement. On the other hand,
the grand mean at value level of the two cultures scored 4.3786 and 4.3672 respectively,
which means that EE is slightly high according to the same measurement at value level.
This result is consistent with one of this study hypothesis (Section 5.4.1, Set two,
Hypothesis 5):
The Omani public sector will score LOWER in its readiness in respect of the
adoption of EE (As Is) compared to the desire for such adoption (Should Be).
In addition, to explore the relationship between societal and organizational cultures
on one side and EE on the other side, a Pearson correlation was conducted between the
nine cultural dimensions at both levels and the grand mean of EE. The result was as
shown in Table 84:
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Table 84: Pearson correlation (PC) between societal culture dimensions (SCD) and
organizational culture dimensions (OCD) with EE in general
Societal culture Organization culture
As Is Should Be As Is Should Be
SCD PC with EE SCD PC with EE OCD PC with EE OCD PC with EE
UASP .335** UASV .287** UAOP .373** UAOV .052
FOSP .291** FOSV .311** FOOP .437** FOOV .448**
PDSP -.484** PDSV -.529** PDOP -.449** PDOV -.450**
C1SP .108 C1SV .216** C1OP .279** C1OV .098
HOSP .266** HOSV .066 HOOP .319** HOOV .033
POSP .412** POSV .398** POOP .500** POOV .421**
C2SP .125 C2SV .281** C2OP .585** C2OV .346**
GESP -.052- GESV -.078- GEOP -.088- GEOV .101
ASP -.046- ASV -.316** AOP -.038- AOV .350**
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
The results shown in Table 84 indicate that the findings of this study partially
confirm hypotheses 9 and 10 of this study. As can be seen from the table, five out of
nine cultural dimensions at societal practice level were significantly correlated with EE.
UASP, FOSP, HOSP, and POSP were positively correlated with EE while PDSP was
negatively correlated with EE. In contrast, seven out of nine cultural dimensions at
societal value level were significantly correlated with EE. UASV, FOSV, C1SV, and
C2SV were positively correlated with EE, while PDSV and ASV were negatively
correlated with EE.
With regard to organization culture, the same table (84) also shows that seven out of
nine cultural dimensions at organization practice level were significantly correlated with
EE. UAOP, FOOP, C1OP, HOOP, POOP and C2OP were positively correlated with
EE, while PDOP was negatively correlated with EE. In contrast, five out of nine cultural
dimensions at societal value level were significantly correlated with EE. FOOV, POOV,
C2OV, and AOV were positively correlated with EE while PDOV was negatively
correlated with EE.
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In general, three cultural dimensions (FO, PD, and PO) are significantly correlated
with EE at all levels. PD is the only cultural dimension which has a negative but
significant correlation with EE at all for levels, which means that a high score on PD at
any of these levels is associated with a low score on EE. Also, FO is positively
correlated with EE at all levels, which means that a greater FO is associated with a
greater level of EE. Similarly, PO is positively correlated with EE at all levels. UA has a
positive but significant correlation with EE for societal culture practice, societal culture
value, and organizational culture practice, while there is no significant correlation
between UA and EE at organizational culture value level. Institutional collectivism (C1)
has a significant but positive correlation with EE for societal culture value and
organizational culture practice only. Moreover, HO is significantly and positively
correlated with EE at the level of practice for societal and organizational culture and has
no significant correlation at the level of value for either culture. For In-Group
collectivism (C2), the results show a significant and positive correlation with EE at the
level of societal culture value, organizational culture practice, and organizational culture
value, while there is no significant correlation between the two variables at societal
practice level. Assertiveness (A) has a significant but negative correlation at the level of
societal culture value and a significant positive correlation at organizational culture
value level, while there is no significant correlation between the two variables at
practice level. To conclude, except for PD at all four levels and A at societal value level,
all other factors which have a significant correlation are positively correlated with EE.
Furthermore, at practice level for both cultures, gender egalitarianism (GE) and
assertiveness (A) have no significant correlation with EE. In fact, Gender egalitarianism
(GE) has no significant correlation with EE at any level. This last result is surprising as
it was hypothesized that GE will be positively correlated with EE. However, the study
will show – later on in this section – that similar results were obtained in another study
which used dimensions of organizational culture practice only (see Table 85).
As mentioned earlier in the literature review and methodology chapters, this study
may be unique as the researcher could not find any similar study that used the same set
of variables. However, there were three studies which were to some extent related to
this study, as mentioned in the literature review (EE chapter). The first was a PhD thesis
called ‗A Study of the Relationships between Attitudes toward Diversity Management
and Cultural Preferences‘ (Herrera, 2008). The independent variables were the nine
dimensions of GLOBE organizational culture practices and the dependent variables
260
were attitudes toward diversity management, which included CEO commitment; human
capital; recruitment and retention; disabilities; gay, lesbian, bi-sexual & transgendered;
and the existence of supplier diversity management.
This study only used the organizational culture practice dimensions whereas the
other two studies used only societal culture practice dimensions, therefore the
discussion will be tackled through two tables. Table 85 illustrates the similarities and
differences between the results of Herrera‘s study and this study at the level of
organizational culture practice.
Table 85: comparison between CADOP and CEEOP
CD CADOP CEEOP
UA Negative Positive
FO Negative Positive
PD Positive Negative
C1 Not-significant Positive
HO Negative Positive
PO Negative Positive
C2 Negative Positive
GE Not-significant Not-significant
AS Not-significant Not-significant
CD = Cultural Dimensions
CADOP = Correlation with attitude toward diversity at organizational practice level
CEEOP = Correlation with EE at organizational practice level
Table 85 shows the result of the correlation between organizational culture practice
and first, diversity management (Herrera study) on one side and second employment
equity (this study) on the other side. The results coincide only in two cultural
dimensions (GE and AS) for which the correlation was not-significant between these
two dimensions and DM and EE. For the other seven dimensions, the results of the
correlation were contradictory between the two studies. Herrera himself mentioned that
he would normally expect the opposite result especially for UA, PD, and FO. However,
he attributed such a result to the lack of serious commitment from management and
leadership towards employment equity, as their organizations were not serious in
262
attempting to build a solid corporate culture that supports equity and equality in the
workplace. In addition, there are many other reasons which might explain the
differences in the results between the two studies. For instance, it might be because of
the cultural differences between western culture (USA) and eastern culture (Oman). It
might also be because of differences in sampling strategy used in each study as the
Herrera study‘s questionnaire was distributed to graduate and undergraduate student at
Texas University while participants in this study were employees of the public sector in
Oman.
The second study was carried out by Seleim and Bontis (2009) who conducted a
comparative analysis between cultural dimensions as they scored in the GLOBE project
and the findings of the Corruption Perception Index (CPI) to explore the relationship
between culture and corruption. The results show a significant correlation between most
cultural dimensions and CPI (low corruption).
The third study was a cross-cultural study which was tackled among 21 countries,
including one country from the Middle East (Turkey), to measure the effect of national
culture on employees‘ willingness to justify ethically suspect behaviour. The study, by
Parboteeah et al. (2005), used only six out of nine GLOBE cultural dimensions as the
researchers believed that these six dimensions were the dimensions most closely related
to the study area. The dimensions used were: uncertainty avoidance; institutional
collectivism; human orientation; performance orientation; power distance; and
assertiveness. The researcher believed that these three studies were somehow linked to
EE. Diversity management is one of the EE programmes, and low corruption leads to
higher commitment to EE as eliminating corruption is one of seven critical success
factors for EE, and having a willingness to justify ethical behaviour in the workplace
leads to better practice of EE from both employees and management.
Table 86 illustrates the similarities and differences between the results of the second
and third studies and this study at the level of societal culture practice.
263
Table 86: Comparison between CLCSP, CWJEBSP, and CEESP
CD CLCSP CWJEBSP CEESP
UA Positive Negative Positive
FO Positive Not included Positive
PD Negative Negative Negative
C1 Positive Negative Not-significant
HO Negative Negative Positive
PO Positive Positive Positive
C2 Negative Not included Not-significant
GE Not significant Not included Not-significant
AS Negative Positive Not-significant
CD = Cultural Dimensions
CLCSP = Correlation with CPI (low corruption) at societal practice level
CWJEBSP = Correlation with willingness to justify ethically suspect behaviour at
societal practice level
CEESP = Correlation with EE at societal practice level
As Table 86 indicates, the three studies have a common result for the correlation of
two cultural dimensions. The first one is PD, where the correlation was negative
between this dimension and CLC, WJEB, and EE. The second dimension was PO with
the result of a positive significant relationship between this dimension and the CLC,
CEE, and CWJEB. Beside PO, and while FO, C2, and GE were not included in the
CWJEBSP study, there are common results between this study and the CLCSP study for
cultural dimensions of UA, FO, and GE. In addition, all three studies show a different
result for C1 and AS dimensions. Furthermore, the CLCSP study and this study show a
different correlation result in HO and C2. However, although this study has common
results with CLCSP in five cultural dimensions – PD, PO, UA, FO, and GE, still there is
a need for more in-depth studies to better understand the relationship between EE and
cultural dimensions at all levels. More investigation will enable researchers to have
more confidence in rejecting or accepting any of the correlations that the previous four
studies have identified in their results.
264
7.5 Conclusion:
Within this chapter, the results of the critical success factors behind employment equity
were analysed and discussed. Participants showed a remarkable desire for more
enhancement of these factors in the Omani public sector as the level of the value
(Should Be) scored higher than the level of practice (As Is) in all factors. In addition,
the results show that all seven factors have a positive relationship between them, which
means that promoting one factor will lead to promoting other factors and vice-versa.
Further, the correlation between societal and organizational culture on one side and
employment equity on the other side was addressed. The findings were clearly
illustrated and then compared with available similar studies. Positive and negative
correlations were found at different levels of societal and organizational cultures. The
entire set of results supports the positive influence of some cultural dimensions as well
as negative influence for other dimensions – or even the same dimensions – at different
levels.
In the next chapter, the researcher will draw a clear conclusion of the main results of
the study as well as stating the limitations of the research. Additionally, some
recommendations for further studies in the same area will be provided.
265
Chapter Eight
Summary of Results and Conclusion
8.0 Introduction
Several studies have been carried out to explore the influence of societal and
organizational culture on management practices (Hofstede, 1983; Denison and Mishra,
1995; Landes, 2000; Herrera, 2008). This study supplements these attempts as its
overall aim is to explore the degree of influence that societal and organizational
cultures, as specified by the GLOBE project, have on employment equity in the Omani
public sector. To achieve this, the study firstly examined the impact of culture on the
adoption of effective policies and practices toward employment equity in the Omani
public sector and secondly, when such a relationship was identified, explored the most
influential cultural dimensions. To attain this goal, seven objectives were established. A
summary of the findings related to these objectives is given in Table 87, below.
This chapter will firstly present a summary of what has been deeply discussed and
analysed in the literature review chapters with regard to societal culture, organizational
culture, and employment equity. Then, the main results of the empirical study, the
questionnaire and interviews, will be presented and linked to the objectives of the study.
Subsequently, the overall contribution of the study will be highlighted, followed by a
discussion of the limitations of the study and some suggestions for further research in
this area. Finally, the study will formulate some recommendations to enhance
employment equity policies and processes within the Omani public sector.
266
Table 87: Summary of objectives and findings
No Objective Summary of the main finding
1 To measure Omani cultural preferences within society,
and public sector organizations; and to identify the main
differences between the cultural practice (As Is) and
cultural values (Should Be) in both society and public
sector organizations.
At the level of practice, the main preferences for Omani societal
culture are ‘High’ in C1, C2, PD, HO, and UA; ‘Moderate’ in PO
and AS; and ‘Low’ in FO and GE. On the other hand,
organizational culture practice is ‘High’ in FO while all other eight
dimensions have scored ‘Moderate’ level.
At the level of value, the result shows that societal culture has
scored ‘Low’ in gender egalitarianism, assertiveness, and power
distance; and ‘High’ in other dimensions. Organizational culture
scored ‘High’ in seven cultural dimensions, while scored ‘Low’ in
power distance and ‘Moderate’ in gender egalitarianism.
2 To identify the main critical success factors that
contribute to employment equity.
Throughout the literature review (chapter three), seven critical
success factors were identified which are: Having a national policy
for equal employment, Management and leadership support,
Eliminating Corruption at workplace, Social system support,
Eliminating the negative impact of Stereotype, prejudice and
demographic role, Positive Psychological Climate, and Eliminating
wasta.
3 To critically explore the degree of application of the
critical success factors behind the adoption of EE in the
Omani public sector.
The current practice (As Is) of critical success factors towards
effective EE in Oman is either ‘Low’ or ‘Moderate’. Four factors,
out of seven, scored ‘Low’ which are LOS, EC, SSS, and EW,
while CEOP, ESPDR, and PPC scored ‘Moderate’. At the level of
value (Should Be), all factors scored ‘High’. This result (value is
higher than practice) provides a clear indication that employees in
the Omani public sector are in real need for higher application and
enforcement of EE policies and practices.
4 To assess the most applicable employment equity
programmes (merit based programme, quota based
programme diversity based programme, which have
been implemented in Western countries, from the
perspective of Omani employees.
The result shows that none of these known programmes can fit by
itself for all departments in Omani public sector. The
implementation of the most applicable one depends on its
effectiveness according to working environment, type of work and
individual’s ability.
5 To identify and investigate the relationship between
cultural dimensions and the critical success factors that
contribute to employment equity.
The result shows that not all cultural dimensions for societal and
organizational cultures are significantly correlated with all seven
factors towards EE. The correlation was positive at all levels,
except for three dimensions which are: Power Distance, Gender
Egalitarianism, and Assertiveness. Power Distance (PD) for both
cultures, societal and organizational, is the only dimension that has
a negative significant correlation at practice and value levels with
all seven critical success factors behind employment equity.
Gender egalitarianism (GE) and Assertiveness (AS) at the practice
level of societal and organizational cultures have no significant
correlation with any of these factors.
6 To add to the body of literature by developing a
grounded theory in regard to exploring the relationship at
the level of practice between the dimensions of
organizational and societal culture, as specified by the
GLOBE project, and employment equity, with specific
reference to the public sector in Oman.
The result confirms that there is a relationship between some
cultural dimensions and EE. This relationship could be theoretically
formed as shown in the figure 8.2
7 To provide recommendations and suggestions which will
help management practitioners in the Arab World in
general and Oman in particular to eradicate, or limit the
current discrimination in employment, and encourage the
development of positive cultural influences in this
respect.
As it is shown in section 8.5 in this chapter, several
recommendations were developed throughout this study, such as:
Societal and organizational culture should be taken in
consideration throughout all management practices as a vital
element.
EE will be more effective when recognizing the impact of both
cultures on EE.
From participants' point of view, Islam law could play an important
role in assuring effective EE in the Omani public sector.
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8.1 Culture and Employment Equity
Throughout the literature review presented in Chapters 2 and 3, three main areas were
discussed, which were: culture, employment equity, and the relationship between the
two concepts. With regard to culture, the study reviewed the best-known studies which
have attempted to understand culture through groups of cultural dimensions. Five
theories were reviewed: Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck cultural orientations; Hofstede
cultural dimensions; World Values Survey (WVS); Schwartz‘s value dimensions; and
the GLOBE study for societal and organizational cultures‘ dimensions (see Chapter 2,
section 2.5). Among these five theories, cultural dimensions for societal and
organizational culture, as proposed by the GLOBE study, were chosen for the purposes
of this study. There were several reasons for selecting the GLOBE study dimensions, as
discussed in Chapter 3. For instance, GLOBE is theory-driven research, which means
that GLOBE cultural dimensions were designed according to several theoretical
attempts within the same field (Rao, 2009). In addition, many authors regard the
GLOBE study as the most comprehensive study of culture and one which can be
expected to be widely used in research studies (Alas, 2006; Gerhart, 2008).
Additionally, Kim and Gray (2009: 61) describe the study as ‗an attempt to move
beyond Hofstede‘s approach‘.
Moreover, scholars from several disciplines are engaged in an ongoing debate about
the influence of the term culture on management studies. For example, Kedia and
Bhagat (1988) studied the influence of culture on marketing, Terlutter et al. (2006)
looked at the impact of culture on technology transfer, and Mohammed et al. (2008)
studied the influence of cultural dimensions on project management. All these attempts
have confirmed the influence of culture on different aspects of management and other
social science fields (see Chapter 3, section 3.8).
Nevertheless, defining complicated terms such as culture, equity, and employment
equity has been always problematic. According to Kroeber and Kluckholm (1952), over
160 definitions have been proposed for the term culture. The situation is almost the
same with the term employment equity. Therefore, for the purpose of this research as
explained in Chapter 2, the study used the GLOBE study definition of culture as:
‗shared motives, values, beliefs, identities, and interpretations or meanings of
significant events that result from common experiences of members of collectives and
are transmitted across generations‘ (House and Javidan, 2004: 15). Also, equity in
general and employment equity (EE) in particular have several meanings and definitions
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in the literature. As the context of this study is the Sultanate of Oman However, the
definition of equity chosen was based on Article 17 of The Basic Statute of the State
(Oman), where it is defined as: ‗All citizens are equal before the Law and share the
same public rights and duties‘. The most applicable definition of EE which best suited
the researcher‘s point of view was selected as:
[E]qual rights for and in employment for all individuals, focusing on all stages
of the employment relationship [application, recruitment, promotion, transfer,
training, health and safety, terms of employment, benefits, facilities and
services, grievances, disciplinary procedures and victimization, dismissals,
redundancies, and other unfavourable treatment of employees. (EOC, 1985,
cited in Adams et al., 1995: 88)
After presenting different academic views, throughout Chapters 2 and 3, concerning
culture, employment equity and the importance of these in management science and the
employment cycle, the study highlighted several attempts to partially explore the
relationship between the two concepts (see Chapter 3, section 3.8). As observed in these
attempts, many authors agreed that culture has a significant influence on employment
equity (see, for example, Wang, 2011; Krause, 2009; Keddie, 2007; Rizzo, et al., 2007;
Al-Ghailani, 2005). However, the researcher was not able to find a study that contained
the whole set of societal and organizational culture factors, in their two forms, values
and practices, as well as all critical success factors behind successful implementation of
EE. Therefore, this study built its argument by exploring in depth the influence of
societal and organizational culture on employment equity. The nine cultural dimensions
described by the GLOBE study to define societal and organizational culture were the
independent variables here (see Chapter 2, section 2.5.6.2). In addition, EE in general
and the seven critical success factors behind EE, which were identified by the research
as common to many studies in the literature (see Chapter 3, section 3.7), acted as
dependent variables. A conceptual framework was developed by the researcher to
simplify the main study areas, as shown in Figure 5, section 5.4, and reproduced below
for convenience.
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Figure 5: Overall conceptual model for the study.
8.2 The main results of the study
Throughout Chapters 6 and 7, the main questions and hypotheses of this thesis were
analysed and discussed. In this section, the thesis will recap the objectives of the study,
which were explained in the introduction chapter, and link each one of them with the
main findings of the fieldwork. Out of the seven objectives, six will be treated in this
section while the last one will be looked at in Section 8.5, ‗Recommendations of the
study‘. The first six objectives are as described below.
8.2.1 First Objective
The first objective was, ‗To measure Omani cultural preferences within society and
public sector organizations; and to identify the main differences between the cultural
practice (As Is) and cultural values (Should Be) in both society and public sector
organizations.‘
As was explained in Chapter 2, the GLOBE study identified nine dimensions and
these dimensions were repeated at four levels. This gives a total of thirty-six
dimensions, as shown in Table 88.
Table 88: GLOBE cultural dimensions
Societal Culture Nine dimensions for actual
practice (As Is)
Nine dimensions for values
(Should Be)
Organizational Culture Nine dimensions for actual
practice (As Is)
Nine dimensions for values
(Should Be)
After examining these dimensions through the responses of the 290 participants from
the Omani public sector, the results showed the following:
Societal Culture (SC)
(Independent Variables)
Critical Success Factors
toward Adopting Effective
Employment Equity
(Dependent Variables)
Culture and Employment
Equity Adoption in Oman
(Hypothesised Outcome)
Organizational Culture (OC) (Independent Variables)
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Table 89: Main results for societal and organizational cultures in Oman
Dimension Practice (As Is) Value (Should Be)
Society Organization Society Organization
Performance Orientation (PO) 3.8087 4124.3 5.9732 014545
Future Orientation (FO) 3.4349 313.44 5.6113 013505
Gender Egalitarianism (GE) 3.0993 31.134 3.2376 3153.0
Assertiveness (AS) 3.7315 31.433 3.0492 015.10
Institutional Collectivism (C1) 4.7942 315423 4.8518 310154
In-Group Collectivism (C2) 5.9642 314140 5.6460 01432.
Power Distance (PD) 5.1174 31.100 2.7094 410142
Humane Orientation (HO) 5.3141 313534 5.1851 312334
Uncertainty Avoidance (UA) 4.6957 313344 5.6617 013314
Table 90: Main results for societal and organizational cultures in Oman (cont.)
Dimension Practice (As Is)
Society Absolute Organization Absolute
Performance Orientation (PO) 3.8087 Moderate 4124.3 Moderate
Future Orientation (FO) 3.4349 Low 313.44 High
Gender Egalitarianism (GE) 3.0993 Low 31.134 Moderate
Assertiveness (AS) 3.7315 Moderate 31.433 Moderate
Institutional Collectivism (C1) 4.7942 High 315423 Moderate
In-Group Collectivism (C2) 5.9642 High 314140 Moderate
Power Distance (PD) 5.1174 High 31.100 Moderate
Humane Orientation (HO) 5.3141 High 313534 Moderate
Uncertainty Avoidance (UA) 4.6957 High 313344 Moderate
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Table 91: Main results for societal and organizational cultures in Oman (cont.)
Dimension Value (Should Be)
Society Absolute Organization Absolute
Performance Orientation (PO) 5.9732 High 014545 High
Future Orientation (FO) 5.6113 High 013505 High
Gender Egalitarianism (GE) 3.2376 Low 3153.0 Moderate
Assertiveness (AS) 3.0492 Low 015.10 High
Institutional Collectivism (C1) 4.8518 High 310154 High
In-Group Collectivism (C2) 5.6460 High 01432. High
Power Distance (PD) 2.7094 Low 410142 Low
Humane Orientation (HO) 5.1851 High 312334 High
Uncertainty Avoidance (UA) 5.6617 High 013314 High
As discussed in Chapter 6, several trends can be observed from the tables above (89,
90 and 91). Firstly, at the level of practice, the main preferences for Omani societal
culture are ‗High‘ in C1, C2, PD, HO, and UA; ‗Moderate‘ in PO and AS; and ‗Low‘ in
FO and GE. Societal culture value is ‗High‘ in PD, FO, C1, C2, HO, and UA; and
‗Low‘ in FE, AS, and PD. On the other hand, organizational culture practice is ‗High‘ in
FO while all other eight dimensions score at ‗Moderate‘ level.
At the level of value, the results show that societal culture has scored ‗Low‘ in
gender egalitarianism, assertiveness, and power distance; and ‗High‘ in other
dimensions. Organizational culture scored ‗High‘ in seven cultural dimensions, while
scoring ‗Low‘ in power distance and ‗Moderate‘ in gender egalitarianism.
Secondly, the results for societal culture and organizational culture have some
similarities and differences in the case of Oman. For instance, (HO) scored High for
both cultures at the level of value. However, the same dimension at the level of practice
scored High within societal culture, while it scored ‗Moderate‘ at organizational culture
level. Although each culture has its own preferences, this result might provide some
indication of the impact that societal culture has on organizational culture, as discussed
by many authors (for example, Dickson et al., 2004).
In addition, the results, as shown in Table 89, indicates some differences between the
scores of cultural dimensions at the practice and value levels for both societal and
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organizational cultures. For societal culture, PO, FO, GE, C1, and UA dimensions
scored higher at the value level than they did at practice level, while AS, C2, PD, and
HO scored higher at practice level than they did at value level. On the other hand, PO,
FO, AS, C1, C2, HO, and UA dimensions of organizational culture scored higher at the
level of practice than they did at the level of value, while GE and PD scored lower at the
value level than they did at the level of current practice. As explained in the literature
review, when culture scores high at the value level it means that people are seeking for
less of this dimension, and vice-versa. The surprising result here is that the cultural
dimension of Gender egalitarianism (GE) has no significant correlation with EE at any
level. At first sight, it might be expected that this dimension in would be expected to
have a significant positive correlation with EE, as part of equity in employment is
gender equity. However, this outcome confirms similar findings in the PhD study of
Herrera (2008) which used the nine cultural dimensions of organizational culture at the
level of practice only. One of the conclusions of that study was that GE at
organizational practice level does not have a significant correlation with diversity
management.
8.2.2 Second Objective
The second objective was, ‗To identify the main critical success factors that contribute
to employment equity.‘
The identification of critical success factors behind EE was discussed in the literature
review (Chapter 3). The researcher looked at many different studies related to
employment equity (for example, Schuster and Miller, 1984; Goldman et al., 2006;
French and Sheridan, 2009). After an in-depth investigation into these studies, seven
critical success factors were identified and slightly redesigned to better fit the purposes
and the context of this study. These factors are as the following:
- Having a national policy for equal employment: to have a clear and details
policy for employment equity which includes all stages of employment and can
deal effectively with any type of negative employment discrimination.
- Management and leadership support: to have a solid management style against
employment discrimination with an unlimited support from leadership and top
management.
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- Eliminating Corruption at workplace: to ensure the existence of a vital system
against any kind of corruption at workplace such as nepotism, favouritism, and
all other injustice treatment.
- Social system support: to spread the principles of equity and fairness among the
society which in retain will reflect on employees behaviour within the
organization.
- Eliminating the negative impact of Stereotype, prejudice and demographic role:
to reject any kind of negative mental image that may an individual has about
particular group of people because of reasons that have nothing to do with such
as their gender, colour, language, and nationality.
- Positive Psychological Climate: to ensure that employees agreed on ‗the extent
to which management is perceived as flexible and supportive, role clarity,
freedom of self-expression, the employee's perceived contribution toward
organizational goals, adequacy of recognition received from the organization,
and job challenge‘ (Brown and Leigh, 1996: 359).
- Eliminating wasta: to eliminate the idea that an individual could ‗perceives a
person‘s success as being related to their ability to utilize connections with
people, who are both able and prepared to change the course of natural events on
that person‘s behalf‘ (Whiteoak et al., 2006: 81).
8.2.3 Third objective
The third objective was, ‗To critically explore the degree of application of the critical
success factors behind the adoption of EE in the Omani public sector.‘
This objective was addressed in Chapter 7, section 7.1. The main results are
illustrated in Table 92.
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Table 92: Critical Success Factors (As Is) versus Critical Success Factors (Should
Be)
Critical Success
Factors (As Is) Mean
Critical Success
Factors (Should Be) Mean
CEOPP 3.0595 Moderate CEOPV 4.6851 Slightly High
LOSP 2.7761 Slightly Low LOSV 4.5796 Slightly High
ECP 2.7402 Slightly Low ECV 4.4083 Slightly High
SSSP 2.7534 Slightly Low SSSV 4.0681 Slightly High
ESPDRP 3.0773 Moderate ESPDRV 4.1113 Slightly High
PPCP 3.0739 Moderate PPCV 4.4285 Slightly High
EWP 2.5184 Slightly Low EWV 4.2163 Slightly High
As can be seen from Table 92, the current practice (As Is) of critical success factors
towards EE is either ‗Low‘ or ‗Moderate‘. Four factors, out of seven, scored ‗Low‘:
LOS, EC, SSS, and EW, while CEOP, ESPDR, and PPC scored ‗Moderate‘. At the
level of value (Should Be), all factors scored ‗High‘. This result (value is higher than
practice) provides a clear indication that employees in the Omani public sector perceive
a genuine need for higher application and enforcement of EE policies and practices.
8.2.4 Fourth objective
The fourth objective was, ‗To assess the most applicable employment equity
programmes (merit based programme, quota based programme diversity based
programme), which have been implemented in Western countries, from the perspective
of Omani employees.‘
This objective was investigated in Chapter 7, section 7.3. As Table 93 shows, 66.5%
of participants preferred that all three programmes should be available in the workplace.
The implementation of the most applicable one should depend on its effectiveness
according to working environment, type of work and individual ability.
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Table 93: Employment equity programmes
No. Statement Answer
1 Equity in employment should be based on merit only. 12.8%
2 Equity in employment should be based on applying quotas among
each group of employees (e.g. males and females). 0%
3
Equity in employment should be considered as a business advantage
by basing it on recognising individual differences, and ensuring the
right environment for each employee.
20.7%
4
Equity in employment should be based on the importance of the above
three statements where the most effective option among them will be
applied according to working environment, type of work and
individual’s ability.
66.5%
8.2.5 Fifth objective
The fifth objective was ‗to identify and investigate the relationship between cultural
dimensions and the critical success factors that contribute to employment equity.‘
This objective was addressed in Chapter 7, section 7.4.1. The results show that not
all cultural dimensions for societal and organizational cultures are significantly
correlated with all seven factors towards EE. The results vary from one dimension to
another. However, there are some main elements which can be noted here. Firstly, the
direction of any significant correlation between a certain cultural dimension and critical
factors behind EE seems to be either positive with all or negative with all, no matter
how many significant correlations there are. In other words, there is no cultural
dimension which has a positive significant correlation with some EE factors and a
negative significant correlation with other EE factors, as the significant relationship is
either positive with all or negative with all. Secondly, Power Distance (PD) for both
cultures, societal and organizational, is the only dimension that has a significant
correlation at both practice and value levels with all seven critical success factors
behind employment equity. Thirdly, Gender egalitarianism (GE) and Assertiveness
(AS) at the practice level of societal and organizational cultures have no significant
correlation with any of these factors. Finally, where the results show a significant
correlation between cultural dimensions and critical factors, this correlation was
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positive at all levels, except for three dimensions, these being: Power Distance, Gender
Egalitarianism, and Assertiveness.
8.2.6 Sixth Objective
The sixth objective was, ‗To add to the body of literature by developing a grounded
theory in regard to exploring the relationship at the level of practice between the
dimensions of organizational and societal culture, as specified by the GLOBE project,
and employment equity, with specific reference to the public sector in Oman.‘
As explained in the literature review (Chapter 3), the researcher could not find any
comprehensive study which tackled the relationship between societal and organizational
culture on one side, and employment equity on the other. Thus, one of the main
objectives of this research was to suggest a well-founded theory regarding such a
relationship.
After analysing the data from the fieldwork which was related to this part (see
Chapter 7, section 7.4.2), the results showed that not all dimensions of societal and
organizational cultures have a significant correlation with employment equity. In fact
while some dimensions have a positive significant correlation with EE, others have
negative significant correlation, while some dimensions have no significant correlations
at all. According to these results, the researcher suggests that the relationship between
societal and organizational cultures, and employment equity could be theoretically
framed as shown in Figure 17.
277
Societal Culture Organizational Culture
As illustrated in Figure 17, at actual practice level, EE supposed to be high if UA,
FO, HO, and PO, for both societal culture (SC) and organizational culture (OC) are
high; C1 and C2 for OC are high; and PD for both cultures is low. Other SC and OC
dimensions have no influence on EE as the correlation between the two concepts was
not significant. Having high AU will support EE as societies with high UA tend to ‗rely
on formalized policies and procedures, establishing and following rules, verifying
communications in writing‘ (Luque and Javidan, 2004: 618). This reliance on rules and
formal regulations will enhance EE by assuring that the working environment is
surrounding by a solid legal framework to maintain equal treatment among all
employees. Also, societies with high FO tend to ‗have flexible and adaptive
organizations and managers‘ (Ashkanasy et al., 2004: 302). With such flexibility,
organizations and top management will be more capable of adapting the workplace to
best fit the terms of EE. In addition, members of societies with High HO tend to ‗be
sensitive to all forms of racial discrimination‘ (Kabasakal and Bodur, 2004: 570). This
tendency of sensitiveness to racial discrimination will act like a fence against negative
employment discrimination. Furthermore, Javidan (2004: 245) mentioned that societies
High UAOP
High FOSP
High HOOP
High POOP
High C1OP
High C2OP
Low PDOP
High EE
Actual
Practice
(As Is)
High UASP
High FOSP
High HOSP
High POSP
Low PDSP
Figure 17: Correlation between societal and organizational cultural dimensions and EE at the
level of practice
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with high PO ‗value what you do more than who you are‘, which means that they value
and reward people on the outcome of their work not on their tribe, relatives, educational
level or relationships. On the other hand, having low PD, means that, ‗All the groups
enjoy equal involvement, and democracy ensures parity in opportunities and
development for all‘ and ‗Civil liberties are strong and public corruption low‘ (Carl et
al., 2004: 536). Indeed, all these societal and organizational attributes towards low PD
will enlarge EE opportunities within the Omani public sector.
In addition to the previous dimensions which are common factors for SC and OC, the
results show that there are two more OC cultural dimensions (C1 and C2) which are
positively correlated with EE. Gelfand et al. (2004: 459) explained that members in
organizations with high C1 ‗assume that they are highly interdependent with the
organization and believe it is important to make personal sacrifices to fulfil their
organization obligation‘. This loyalty will not be at the required level unless
organizations assure EE among employees in the workplace. Also, as Gelfand et al.
(2004: 459) suggest, organizations with high C2 ‗are primarily interested in the work
that employees perform and not their personal or family welfare‘. This interest will
enhance EE as employees will be treated according to their performance, not their
backgrounds.
In conclusion, to ensure effective EE practices and policies within the Omani public
sector, the Omani government needs to work on both societal culture and organizational
culture. It should produce a total equity agenda which involves – internally – public
sector organizations, and – externally – the whole society. Within organizational culture
and societal culture, a high practice of the four dimensions of AU, FO, PO, and HO and
low practice of the PD dimension should be enhanced, as doing so will support fairness
and equitable treatment among employees. In addition, high practice of C1 and C2
dimensions for organizational culture only will also add value to the practice of
effective EE, as shown from the fieldwork results.
8.3 Gap and Contribution to Existing Knowledge
As mentioned in the introduction chapter, the main aim of this study was to explore the
degree of influence that societal and organizational cultures have on employment
equity, with specific reference to the Omani public sector. However, the two concepts,
employment equity and culture, which were used as the main variables of this study, are
very complicated, as discussed in the literature review chapters. Further, Arab and
Middle East countries have not received enough attention to date with regard to societal
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and management studies. Therefore, this study contributes strongly in helping to satisfy
knowledge gaps in three main areas, as discussed below.
8.3.1 Management and Cultural Studies
As discussed in the introduction chapter, the influence of culture on different
management and employment area has been a subject of academic inquiry for a very
long time. However, little current research in this area was identified and more in-depth
research in this area is therefore needed (Aycan et al., 2007; Stone et al., 2007). Within
this study, the researcher has added to the existing knowledge by exploring the
influence of societal and organizational culture on employment equity. This relationship
had not previously been analysed in the depth that this study was able to. The total set
of societal and organizational culture factors at both practice and value levels were used
in this study. Thus, this study has provided a wider picture regarding the influence of
societal and organizational cultures on employment equity at the four different levels of
societal culture practice, societal culture value, organizational culture practice, and
organizational culture value. As revealed by the researcher‘s research and literature
review, none of the previous studies in this area has done the same extensive analysis.
Therefore, this study will help scholars in discovering the different dimensions of the
relationship between culture and EE which, in return, will expand the level of
understanding about the nature of the relationship between the two terms.
Also, choosing GLOBE cultural dimensions, informed by other studies, is another
vital element which enlarges the contribution of this study to the existing knowledge
base. The GLOBE study embodied several theoretical cultural studies within its design
and so is considered to be the most current study in its field and one which provides
researchers with up-to-date tools with which to study culture (Hutzschenreuter and Voll,
2008). This thesis may be unique in using the GLOBE framework to study the influence
of Arab and Middle Eastern culture on employment equity as most existing studies in
this region have used only Hofstede‘s cultural dimensions in their research. Further,
many authors referred to the positive effect that Arab cultural values have on equity and
fairness (see, for example, Tayeb, 1997; Al-Buraey, 2001; Ghafory-Ashtiany, 2009,
Ilhaamie, 2009). Using cultural dimensions has provided an opportunity to discover the
impact of Arab culture on EE. As explained in section 8.2.6 of this chapter, the cultural
dimensions of Omani society and public sector organizations have a significant
correlation with EE. If this relationship can be exploited to enhance employment justice
in the workplace, the positive and negative interaction between cultural dimensions and
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EE, which was explained earlier (section 8.2.6) could act as a vital element in reducing
negative employment discrimination and better controlling this worldwide phenomenon.
This could be done in two main stages. Firstly, by strengthening, socially and
organizationally, the importance of the cultural dimensions which have a positive
relationship with EE and at the same time reducing the effectiveness of those
dimensions that have a negative correlation with EE, and secondly by intelligently
building the foundation of a national and professional strategy of EE on the
transactional relationship between cultural dimensions and EE.
Moreover, Oman as a country contains several elements and manifestations which
make it attractive for cultural studies, such as its strategic geographical position, deep-
rooted history, and different sub-cultural groups. However, it has not previously been
included in a large cultural project such as that of Hofstede (1980) or GLOBE (2004).
While not forgetting that some Arab countries were included in one or more of these
projects, the results of this study nevertheless provide a good opportunity to explore the
similarities and differences between Oman and other Arab cultures as well as
contributing to the outcome of these studies by comparing the result for Omani culture
and confirming or rejecting some of their main results with regard to Arab culture,
especially when we know that it is over eighteen years since the GLOBE study
collected its data. Further, participants in the GLOBE study were mostly chosen from
commercial industries (House and Javidan, 2004: 22). By comparing the results for
Oman and other Middle Eastern countries we will be able to compare commercial and
non-commercial organizations. However, the results of this study, as shown in Chapter
6, section 6.6, confirm that twelve cultural dimensions for Omani societal culture fell
within the existing range for the Middle Eastern cluster in the GLOBE study. The
results for the other six dimensions were not far from the result of the grand mean of the
GLOBE study. Omani societal culture has scored the highest mean value among the
Middle Eastern cluster in the level of practice of C1, C2, HO and UA dimensions; and
in the level of value at UA dimension. Also, it scored the lowest mean in FO and C1 at
the level of value. However, these partial differences in the result could be attributed
either to the time difference between the GLOBE project surveys and this study, or to
the privacy of the Omani societal culture.
In addition, the GLOBE project has been criticized for using only managers as their
sample. In this study, participants were both managers and employees. Therefore,
looking at the differences between managers‘ and employees‘ answers is another
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contribution of this study. By using a one way ANOVA test, as shown in Chapter 6,
section 6.4, the results confirmed that there were no significant differences between the
answers of employees and the answers of managers with regard to 34 out of 36 cultural
dimensions (including societal and organizational culture at both practice and value
level). Only two dimensions, FO and HO at societal value level, showed significant
differences between the answers of managers and employees. As this was the first time
that employees were involved in such a study, this result warrants further study to
confirm or reject these findings.
8.3.2 Organizational justice, ethics and employment equity studies
Within this study, a contribution to knowledge in the field of equity and its relationship
with societal and organizational culture has been made. Involving not only some
dimensions of societal and organizational cultures at the levels of both practice and
value, as the few previous studies did, but all of them and using them as independent
variables greatly enhanced in-depth understanding of this relationship. Sections 7.4.2 in
Chapter 7 and section 8.2.6 in this chapter have shown the extent of the influences that
societal culture and organizational culture have on employment equity. Admitting and
making use of such relationships will raise awareness among employees and
management with regard to the nature this mechanism and how this interaction happens.
Further, this understanding could be used to improve how managers and employees
might recognize some types of culturally-based unfair employment discrimination and
use cultural preferences as an important tool to eliminate such discrimination.
In addition, the influence of culture on ethical issues in management, such as
corruption, has also been overlooked until now (Jackson, 2001). Thus, in section 7.4.1
this study provided an overview of this influence and its importance, as eliminating
corruption is one of the seven critical success factors behind effective EE. The results
show that only the societal cultural dimension of PO at practice level and the
dimensions of UA, FO, PO, C1, and C2 at value level were positively correlated with
elimination of corruption (EC) in the workplace, while PD at practice level and PD and
AS at value level were negatively correlated with EC. With regard to organizational
culture, dimensions of UA, FO, HO, PO, C1, and C2 at the level of practice, and
dimensions of FO, PO, C2, and AS at the level of value were positively correlated with
EC, while PD, at both the level of practice and the level of value, was negatively
correlated with EC. These results provide a clearer picture of the impact of societal and
organizational culture. Thus, besides the additional knowledge that this study has
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contributed in this area of study, it may also help organizations to gain advantage in the
promotion of effective procedures to eliminate corruption in the workplace by
considering the impact of societal and organizational culture on EC.
8.3.3 Middle Eastern and Arab World Studies
As discussed in the introduction chapter, many authors have observed out that there are
insufficient studies concerned with management in the Middle East and the Arab World
(Behery, 2009; Leat and El-Kot, 2008; Budhwar and Mellahi, 2007; Leat and El-Kot,
2007; Kabasakal et al., 2012). More specifically, the Arabian Gulf region, especially
Bahrain and Oman, suffers from the same neglect in the literature (Common, 2008).
Therefore, by choosing Oman as the context of the study, this study adds to existing
knowledge about societal and organizational cultures, management, and employment
equity in the region of the Arab Middle East and the Gulf. It also helps to achieve a
better understanding of the reasons behind negative employment discrimination
phenomena in the region, as scholars have noted that wasta, favouritism, and nepotism
are widespread in the Arab world (Al-Asmi, 2008).
In addition, the Gulf region, including Oman, as discussed earlier, remains an
important location for multinational companies because of its geographic location and
natural resources. Therefore, knowing and understanding the main themes of the
surrounding culture is an important issue for these companies as it can help them to
maintain and develop their business in this area of the world. Accordingly, this study
has contributed vital knowledge which can be helpful for these companies to understand
the culture of the Gulf area in general and the culture of Oman in particular. This
knowledge could be used as a roadmap when any of these companies decides to develop
a regional policy, either in marketing or any other areas of business, for its work in the
Gulf region or Oman.
Recent events known as the Arab Spring and the slogans used by participants have
shown a strong desire for equity and equality in much of the Arab world. The need for
equal opportunities among citizens can be considered as one of the main factors behind
the Arab Spring. However, the immediate results of the Arab Spring in countries such
as Egypt and Libya have not yet shown any improvement in gender equity in particular
(Alvi, 2012). Therefore, the findings of this study can be used to enhance Arab
governments‘ and organizations‘ efforts to assure and develop employment equity by
recognizing and effectively profiting from the influences that societal and organizational
culture have on equity.
283
8.4 Limitations of the Study
The existence of limitations is inevitable in any research study as it is highly unlikely
that a single research project can address all aspects of the topic under study, especially
in the humanities in general. One of the main limitations of this study is that the
fieldwork looked at the public sector only. It could be argued that the results of some
parts of this study may vary if the samples were collected from the private sector,
especially the results for EE. The private sector is concerned with commercial profits,
therefore the level of unfairness and inequality may not be as high or as apparent as it is
in the public sector. However, this hypothesis needs to be investigated through further
research.
Furthermore, although the reasons for using mixed methods here were clearly
identified and discussed in Chapter 5, some scholars prefer not to use mixed methods in
their research as they prefer to concentrate on either qualitative or quantitative methods.
So the use of mixed methods could be seen as a limitation here. In addition, there are
some limitations within the study instrument. One of these limitations is the length of
the questionnaire. Having two versions of the questionnaire with more than 120
questions can lead to participants losing their interest after some time, which might
reduce the reliability of their answers. In addition, the sample size of 291 participants is
another potential limitation. Although, as explained in the methodology chapter, this
number of participants is sufficient for the purposes of the research, nevertheless, in
order to generalize the results of the study to give a more reliable overview of national
culture, a larger survey may be required. Moreover, this study used a single case study
method to collect the qualitative data. Other researchers may prefer to use multiple case
studies or different qualitative methods. Nevertheless, while recognizing this limitation,
the researcher sought to minimize its impact by choosing a representative case study,
selecting Royal Court Affairs (RCA) as explained in Chapter 5 (methodology).
In addition, the choice of the GLOBE study is one of this thesis‘s potential
limitations. As mentioned in Chapter 2, different attempts have been made to assign
dimensions to the concept of culture in order to study it. It could be argued that the
GLOBE dimensions were not the best choice for this study as other scholars may prefer
alternative models of culture, such as Hofstede‘s cultural dimensions. Nevertheless, the
researcher has explained the reasons behind his choice and the door is open for any
replication of this study using different cultural dimensions.
284
8.5 Recommendations of the Study
This section will advance a number of recommendations which could extend the
benefits available from this study and in particular bring benefits to the Omani public
sector. These recommendations require as a precondition serious recognition of the
importance of the impact of the main three elements of this study, which are: societal
culture, organizational culture, and employment equity.
Firstly, according to the results of this thesis, the Omani public sector needs to better
understand the influence of societal and organizational culture on all aspect of
management and HRM practices. Taking into consideration such impact will help
managers and employees to deal more effectively with many daily situations in the
workplace. In addition, it will help top management to set culturally-based policies at
the level of organization strategy. Such policies will enhance the overall performance of
employees as they will be based on societal and organizational knowledge and needs
which reflect the values and beliefs of the employees themselves.
Secondly, EE at all employment stages including recruitment, promotion, training,
rewards, and retirement will be more effective if the impact of both cultures on EE
practices is recognized. Therefore, public sector organizations in Oman should pay
more attention to the importance of such a relationship and try to positively use the
outcomes of this study to promote equity in employment.
Thirdly, with regard to EE programmes, the results indicate that of the best-known
programmes for employment equity applied in western countries (merit based
programme; quota based programme; diversity based programme; and application upon
need), participants were most strongly in favour of the last option (needs based option).
This means that participants believe that all first three programmes can be implemented
in the Omani public sector according to the nature of the workplace itself. Therefore,
management should first study and recognize the nature of the internal environment
before deciding which EE programme is the most applicable for a particular department
or organization.
Finally, participants asked for more enforcement of ‗Share'h‘ law (Islamic law) as
they believe that this factor is the factor which could most effectively enhance
employment equity in their place of work. This vision among participants reflects the
power of Islam in Oman. Islam has not received enough attention in the literature as a
vital element in management practices and organizational behaviour (Swailes and Al
Fahdi, 2011). However, from this researcher‘s point of view, the public sector should
285
pay particular attention to such opinion when applying any programme or developing a
policy as doing so could support and assure better acceptance of these programmes
among employees.
8.6 Recommendations for Further Study
As explained earlier, this study is thought to be unique in its exploration of the influence
of societal and organizational culture on employment equity in Arab and Middle
Eastern countries. Therefore, replicating it may be useful to confirm the main outcomes
of the study and validate its results.
Also, this study has been solely concerned with the public sector. Therefore, one of
the first suggestions that it should be advanced here is to extend this study to the private
sector environment and then, compare the results determine the differences and
similarities between the two sectors.
Moreover, participants in this study chose the element ‗Call for more enforcement of
Share'h Law (Islamic Law)‘ as the most important of ten proposed additional elements
which could enhance the application of EE policies within the Omani public sector.
Therefore, further investigation of the impact of Islam in general and ‗Share'h‘ law in
particular on employment equity will provide a better understanding of the relationship
between these factors and EE.
Furthermore, as mentioned in Chapter 6, the cultural dimensions interact among
themselves to some extent. This observation needs to be examined in depth to
understand the type of interaction and how strong or weak it is, especially when more
than one society is involved as the result may be vary from one society to another
society, therefore a cross-cultural study will provide a broader understanding.
Finally, the one way ANOVA test explained in Chapter 6, section 6.4, shows that
there are no significant differences between the answers of managers and the answers of
employees regarding their views about 34 out of the 36 cultural dimensions. This result
needs further investigation to confirm or reject it as it was one of the points of
contention between Hofstede (2006) and Javidan et al. (2006), as discussed in Chapter
2, section 2.5.6.
8.7 Final Remarks
The relationship between culture and employment equity is a very complicated and
manifold issue. Therefore, using different theories or methods in such a way as to better
understand the relationship between the two concepts is vital. It will not only enrich the
286
academic field, but will also enhance the field of managerial practice in many aspects.
The researcher believes that this study has shed a partial light on this matter, and has
highlighted additional areas that need to be addressed through further research and
investigation.
Although the relationship of culture and equity has been a difficult and complicated
topic to handle and study, there was a significant element of enjoyment throughout all
stages of carrying out this PhD programme. There has been a great deal to be learned
from the perseverance, both personal and academic, required to reach this point of the
study. Reflection on the journey this experience has entailed has raised the researcher‘s
satisfaction and confidence. From my personal point of view, I feel that this study will
add much not only to my country and people, but to the academic field in general and
the Arab and Middle Eastern countries in particular.
287
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315
Appendix 1:
Oman, the ongoing changes
Since completion of the fieldwork for this thesis, Oman has gone through several
changes. More than 12 ministries have been changed, the Ministry of National
Economy has been abolished, and the geographical structure of the country has been
changed as well. Also, in late 2011and early 2012, the government announced the
creation of over 50,000 jobs in the public and private sectors to mitigate the anger of
Omani job seekers, especially undergraduates, during the Arab Spring. However, there
are no clear statistics regarding the real number of new employees in either sector as
many of them are still in the recruitment stages. Therefore, whatever has been
mentioned in this study regarding the Sultanate of Oman, especially with regard to
public and private sector employment, is valid up to early 2011.
316
Appendix 2
Letter and Guiding Questions for Interviewing General Managers
10/3/2011
Dear/ General Manager
I am a lecturer at the Institute of Public Administration and a PhD student at The
University of Manchester, UK. I am preparing a research entitled " The Influence of
Societal and Organisational Culture on Employment Equity The Case of the
Public Sector in the Sultanate of Oman " to obtain the scientific degree.
Among the study sources that were approved by a relevant committee supervising
me are the interviews with some general managers working for the Royal Court Affairs.
The purpose of these interviews is to seek their views regarding the influence of societal
and organisational culture on employment equity. Therefore, I seek your kind approval
to do interview with you to benefit from your views that will enrich my research. Your
answers will only be used for the purposes of this research and you will have the right to
mention your name and position in the thesis or not. If you agree, please kindly inform
me about the interview appointment on [telephone number] or Email: [e-mail address]
Thank you for your kind cooperation
Nasser Mohammed Ali Al-Badri
317
Guiding Questions for Interviewing General Managers
1. What do you think about employment equity and employment discrimination
in general?
2. To what extent do you believe that employment equity exists in the Omani
public sector in general and RCA in particular?
3. From your point of view, when does employment discrimination occur in
general? And why?
4. What are the causes of employment discrimination from your point of view?
5. Why are conditions like age, gender, or region of the candidates always stated
in job advertisements in the local newspapers?
6. Do you believe in demographic role such as gender role?
7. What kind of reflection does societal culture have on employment in the
Omani public sector?
8. To what extent do you think that culture is responsible for employment
discrimination? Illustrate your opinion.
9. Do you think that managers are sometimes forced, either by their relatives,
social system, or top management, to discriminate between employees or
potential employees? If yes, exemplify how that could happen.
10. Do you think that ―wasta‖ can be considered as a cause of employment
discrimination? Illustrate your justification.
11. When do people resort to wasta?
12. From your point of view, do you think that RCA provides and supports a
positive climate among employees?
13. Are there any particular steps that RCA has taken to eliminate negative
discrimination in employment?
14. What suggestions can you give to ensure equity in employment?
318
Appendix 3 A
Questionnaire Alpha:
The Influence of Culture on Adopting Effective Policies and
Practices toward Employment Equity
12/12/2010
Dear participants
I am a PhD student in the Institute of Development Policy and Management (IDPM) at
the University of Manchester, UK. My research title is ―The Influence of Culture on
Adopting Effective Policies and Practices toward Employment Equity‖.
I am conducting this questionnaire in order to achieve the aims and objectives of my
research. The questionnaire contains six sections as follows:
- Section one: Section one: culture (actual practice)
- Section two: employment equity (actual practice)
- Section three: culture (preferred)
- Section four: employment equity (preferred)
- Section five: general statement in adopting employment equity programs in the
Omani public sector.
- Section six: general information about the participant
Therefore, I will be very much grateful if you kindly fill in the questionnaire attached
with this letter. Please carefully state your opinion about each statement and return the
full questionnaire as soon as possible after putting it in the enclosed envelope. I assert
that obtained information will be kept confidential and will be used only for academic
purposes only. If there are any further questions pertaining to any aspect of the
questionnaire, please feel free to contact me either on: [telephone number] or E-mail
address: [e-mail address]. Please note that your right of withdrawing is reserved at any
time.
Finally, as your honest and accurate response to this questionnaire is very essential to
my study, I would like to take this opportunity to thank you in advance for taking part in
this project.
Yours certainly
Nasser Mohammed Ali Al Badri
Doctoral researcher
The University of Manchester
319
Introduction
The purpose of this research is to learn about national cultures, management practices,
and Perceptions of employment equity. The questionnaire that you are asked to
complete will take about forty five mints of your time.
The resulting information will be useful for individuals who conduct business or
government relations with the countries studies. This information may be used for
classroom instruction of students and managers in universities, technological institutes,
and other organizations throughout the world. Hopefully, this information will be
helpful to better understand business and leadership in other cultures.
In the following pages, you are asked to choose a number of statements that reflect
your observations of cultural or organizational practices, your beliefs, your values, or
your perceptions. This is not a test, and there are no right or wrong answers. We are
mainly interested in learning about the beliefs and values in your society, and how
various societal and organizational practices are perceived by you and the others
participating in this research. Your responses will be kept completely confidential. No
individual respondent will be identified to any other person or in any written form.
Further, the name of your organization will not be publicly released.
301
General Instructions
In completing this survey, you will be asked questions focusing on the organization in
which you work, and on your perceptions of employment equity. Most people complete
the survey in approximately 45 minutes.
There are three sections to this questionnaire. Sections 1 and 3 ask about your
organization.
Section 2 asks about employment equity. Section 4 asks about you.
There are several different types of questions in this questionnaire. Sections 1 and 3
have questions with two different formats. An example of the first type of question is
shown below
A. In this country, the weather is generally:
Very
Pleasant
Moderately
Pleasant
Very
Unpleasant
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
For a question like this, you would circle the number from 1 to 7 that is closest to
your perceptions about the country. For example, if you think the weather in your
country is ―very pleasant,‖ you would circle 1. If you think the weather is not quite
―very pleasant‖ but is better than ―moderately pleasant,‖ you could circle either 2 or 3,
depending on whether you think the weather is closer to ―very pleasant‖ or to
―moderately pleasant.‖
The second type of question asks how much you agree or disagree with a particular
statement.
An example of this kind of question is given below.
B. The weather in this country is very pleasant.
Very
Pleasant
Moderately
Pleasant
Very
Unpleasant
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
For a question like this, you would circle the number from 1 to 7 that is closest to
your level of agreement with the statement. For example, if you strongly agree that the
weather in your country is very pleasant, you would circle 1. If you generally agree with
the statement but disagree slightly, you could circle either 2 or 3, depending on how
strongly you agree with the statement. If you disagree with the statement, you would
circle 5, 6, or 7, depending on how much you disagree with the statement.
300
Section 1
The Way Things Are in Your Work Organization.
Instructions
In this section, we are interested in your beliefs about what the norms, values, and
practices are in the organization in which you work as a manager. In other words, we
are interested in the way your organization is—not the way you think it should be.
There are no right or wrong answers, and answers don‘t indicate goodness or badness
of the organization.
Please respond to the questions by circling the number that most closely represents
your Observations about your organization.
Section 1 questions begin here
1-1. In this organization, orderliness and consistency are stressed, even at the expense
experimentation and innovation.
strongly
agree
neither agree
nor disagree
strongly
disagree
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1-2. In this organization, people are generally:
aggressive non-
aggressive
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1-3. The way to be successful in this organization is to:
plan
ahead
take events
as they
occur
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1-4. In this organization, the accepted norm is to:
plan for
the future
accept the
status quo
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1-5. In this organization, a person’s influence is based primarily on:
one’s ability
and
contribution
to the
organization
the
authority of
one’s
position
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
302
1-6. In this organization, people are generally
assertive non-
assertive
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1-7. In this organization, managers encourages group loyalty even if individual goals
suffer.
strongly
agree
neither agree
nor disagree
strongly
disagree
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1-7. In this organization, managers encourages group loyalty even if individual goals
suffer.
strongly
agree
neither agree
nor disagree
strongly
disagree
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1-8. In this organization, meetings are usually:
spontaneous
(planned less
than
an hour in
advance)
planned
well in
advance
(2 or more
weeks in
advance)
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1-9. In this organization, people are generally:
not at all
concerned
about
others
very
concerned
about
others
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1-10. In this organization, people are generally:
non-
dominant
dominant
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1-11. In this organization, group members take pride in the individual accomplishments of
their group manager.
Strongly
disagree
neither
agree
nor
disagree
strongly
agree
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
303
1-12. The pay and bonus system in this organization is designed to maximize:
Collective
interests
individual
interests
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1-13. In this organization, subordinates are expected to:
question their
boss when in
disagreement
obey their
boss
without
question
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1-14. In this organization, people are generally:
tender
tough
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1-15. In this organization, employees are encouraged to strive for continuously improved
Performance.
strongly
disagree
neither
agree
nor
disagree
strongly
agree
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1-16. In this organization, most work is highly structured, leading to few unexpected events.
strongly
disagree
neither
agree
nor
disagree
strongly
agree
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1-17. In this organization, men are encouraged to participate in professional development
activities more than women.
strongly
disagree
neither
agree
nor
disagree
strongly
agree
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
304
1-18. In this organization, major rewards are based on:
only factors
other
than
performance
effectiveness
(for
example,
seniority or
political
connections)
performance
effectiveness
and other
factors (for
example,
seniority or
political
connections)
only
performance
effectiveness
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1-19. In this organization, job requirements and instructions are spelled out in detail so
employees know what they are expected to do.
strongly
disagree
neither
agree
nor
disagree
strongly
agree
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1-20. In this organization, being innovative to improve performance is generally:
not
rewarded
somewhat
rewarded
substantially
rewarded
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1-21. In this organization, people are generally:
not at all
sensitive
toward
others
very
sensitive
toward
others
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1-22. In this organization, physically demanding tasks are usually performed by:
Women Men
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1-23. In this organization, group managers take pride in the individual accomplishments of
group members.
strongly
disagree
neither
agree
nor
disagree
strongly
agree
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
305
1-24. In this organization, people are generally:
very
unfriendly
very
friendly
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1-25. In this organization, people in positions of power try to:
distance
from less
powerful
people
decrease
their social
increase
their
social
distance
from less
powerful
individuals
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1-26. In this organization, employees feel loyalty to the organization.
strongly
disagree
neither
agree
nor
disagree
strongly
agree
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
11-27. In this organization, most employees set challenging work goals for themselves.
strongly
disagree
neither
agree
nor
disagree
strongly
agree
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1-28. Members of this organization:
take a great
deal of
pride in
working for
the
organization
take a
moderate
amount of
pride
in working
for
the
organization
take no
pride in
working for
the
organization
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1-29. In this organization, people are generally:
not at all
generous
very
generous
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
306
1-30. In this organization:
individualism
is more
valued than
group
cohesion
group
cohesion
and
individualism
are equally
valued
group
cohesion
is more
valued
than
individualism
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1-31. In this organization, most people believe that work would be more effectively managed if
there were :
many less
women in
positions of
authority
than there
are now
about the
same
number of
women in
positions of
authority as
there are now
many more
women in
positions of
authority
than
there are
now
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1-32. When people in this organization have serious disagreements with each other, whom do
they tell about the disagreements?
anyone
they
want to tell
only other
members
of
the work
group
no one
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1-33. This organization shows loyalty towards employees.
strongly
disagree
neither
agree
nor
disagree
strongly
agree
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1-34. What percentage of management positions in this organization are filled by women?
more than
90%
76-90%
56-75% 45-55% 26-44% 10-25% less than
10%
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
This is the end of Section 1 of the questionnaire. Please continue on to Section 2.
307
Section 2
Section Two: employment equity
In this section, the questionnaire will ask questions about employment equity. The
following definitions are used:
Employment Equity means: ‗equal rights for and in employment for all individuals,
focusing on all stages of the employment relationship [application, recruitment,
promotion, transfer, training, health and safety, terms of employment, benefits, facilities
and services, grievances, disciplinary procedures and victimization, dismissals,
redundancies], and other unfavourable treatment of employees‘.
This section of the questionnaire seeks to find out how things are (actual practices)
from your point of view in terms of securing employment equity in your organization.
Please indicate the degree of your agreement with each of the following statements.
There are no wrong answers to any of these statements; it is most important that you
record your own true agreement with each one. Please circle the appropriate number as
all statements are measured on a five-point scale ranging from 5, ‗strongly agree‘, to 1,
‗strongly disagree‘.
No. Statement
Str
on
gly
ag
ree
(5)
Ag
ree (
4)
Neu
tral (3
)
Dis
ag
ree (
2)
Str
on
gly
dis
ag
ree (
1)
1
Citizens are receiving equal opportunities in
education and training which provide them equal
chance when applying for a job.
2
In this organization, there is a separate policy for
employment equity which cover most explicit and
implicit aspects of employment discrimination.
3
In this organization, most employees are treated
equally at any stage of employment regardless of
their gender, origin, tribes, or colour.
4 In this organization, most employees are aware of
their rights at work.
5
In this organization, the law provides employees with
a clear path to appeal against any kind of unfair
discrimination in employment.
6 In this organization, equity in employment is
supported by leadership and top management.
7
In this organization, employees’ production is more
important than the number of hours they spend at
work.
8
In this organization, employment practices and
decision making process are regularly audited by a
legal department to ensure equity among employees.
308
9
In this organization, HR employees are well-trained
to ensure employment equity in most administrative
procedures and decisions.
10
In this organization, employees tend to use their
functional status to gain personal, financial, or
societal benefits. (recoded)
11 In this organization, mutual interests play a vital role
in managerial decisions and practices. (recoded)
12 In this organization, honesty and transparency are
the main elements in the decision making process.
13
In this organization, officials do not hesitate to favour
relatives or friends even if that may negatively affect
other citizens' interests. (recoded)
14
In most governmental departments, the most
effective way to follow-up matters is through
friends/relatives working there. (recoded)
15
In this organization, social status, kinship, tribal
affiliation (non-job criteria), play a significant role in
most administrative procedures and decisions
(recoded)
16 In this organization, there is a belief that females are
less productive than males. (recoded)
17
In this organization, there is a belief that disables
persons, and older workers are less productive than
other employees. (recoded)
18 In this organization, the decision making process and
management practices are devoid of prejudice.
19
In the public sector, there is a belief that men are
more capable to handle managerial positions than
women, while women are willing more to do nursing
and teaching. (recoded)
20
In this organization, management believes that family
role and social traditions affect negatively
performance of females’ employees more than
males. (recoded)
21 In this organization, most employees can express
their ideas openly with their supervisors.
22
In this organization, differences between individuals
are positively recognized to better serve the working
environment.
23 In this organization, management is supporting team
working among employees.
24
In this organization, when an employee does a good
job, he/she receives the praise and recognition
he/she deserve.
25 In this organization, most kinds of wasta are strongly
rejected.
This is the end of Section 2. Please continue on to Section 3.
309
Section 3
The Way Things Generally Should Be in Your Work Organization
Instructions
In this section, we are interested in your beliefs about what the norms, values, and
practices should be in the organization in which you work as a manager.
Again, there are no right or wrong answers, and answers don‘t indicate goodness or
badness of the organization.
Please respond to the questions by circling the number that most closely represents
your observations about your organization.
Section 3 questions start here.
3-1. In this organization, orderliness and consistency should be stressed, even at the expense
of experimentation and innovation.
Strongly
disagree
neither
agree nor
disagree
Strongly
agree
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
3-2. In this organization, people should be encouraged to be:
non-
aggressive
aggressive
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
3-3. In this organization, people who are successful should:
take
events as
they occur
plan ahead
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
3-4. In this organization, the accepted norm should be to:
accept the
status quo
plan for the
future
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
321
3-5. In this organization, a person’s influence should be based primarily on:
the
authority of
one’s
position
one’s ability
and
contribution
to the
organization
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
3-6. In this organization, people should be encouraged to be:
non-
assertive
assertive
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
3-7. I believe that in this organization, managers should generally encourage group loyalty
even if individual goals suffer.
Strongly
disagree
neither
agree nor
disagree
Strongly
agree
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
3-8. In this organization, meetings should be:
Spontaneous
(planned less
than an hour in
advance)
planned
well in
advance (2
or more
weeks in
advance)
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
3-9. In this organization, people should be encouraged to be:
Very
unconcerned
about others
very
concerned
about
others
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
3-10. In this organization, people should be encouraged to be
non-
dominant
dominant
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
3-11. In this organization, group members should take pride in the individual
accomplishments of their group manager.
strongly
disagree
neither
agree nor
disagree
strongly
agree
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
320
3-12. In this organization, the pay and bonus system should be designed to maximize
collective
interests
individual
interests
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
3-13. In this organization, subordinates should:
question their
boss when in
disagreement
obey their
boss
without
question
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
3-14. In this organization, people should be encouraged to be:
tender tough
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
3-15. In this organization, employees should be encouraged to strive for continuously
Improved performance.
strongly
disagree
neither
agree nor
disagree
strongly
agree
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
3-16. In this organization, a person whose work is highly structured with few unexpected
events :
is missing
a lot of
excitement
has a lot to
be thankful
for
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
3-17. In this organization, men should be encouraged to participate in professional
development activities more than women.
strongly
disagree
neither
agree nor
disagree
strongly
agree
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
3-18. In this organization, major rewards should be based on:
only factors
other than
performance
effectiveness
(for
example,
seniority or
political
connections)
performance
effectiveness
and other
factors (for
example,
seniority or
political
connections)
only
performance
effectiveness
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
322
3-19. In this organization, job requirements and instructions should be spelled out in detail so
employees know what they are expected to do.
strongly
disagree
neither
agree nor
disagree
strongly
agree
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
3-20. In this organization, being innovative to improve performance should be:
not
rewarded
somewhat
rewarded
substantially
rewarded
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
3-21. In this organization, people should be encouraged to be:
not at all
sensitive
toward
others
very
sensitive
toward
others
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
3-22. In this organization, physically demanding tasks should usually be performed by:
woman men
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
3-23. In this organization, group managers should take pride in the individual
accomplishments of group members.
strongly
disagree
neither
agree nor
disagree
strongly
agree
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
3-24. I believe that managers in this organization should:
allow
subordinates
freedom in
determining how
to achieve goals
provide
detailed
instructions
concerning
how to achieve
goals
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
3-25. I believe that in this organization, work would be more effectively managed if there
were:
many less
women in
positions of
authority
than there
are now
about the
same number
of women in
positions of
authority as
there are now
many more
women in
positions of
authority
than there
are now
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
323
3-26. In this organization, rank and position in the hierarchy should have special privileges.
strongly
disagree
neither
agree nor
disagree
strongly
agree
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
3-27. In this organization, employees should feel loyalty to the organization.
strongly
disagree
neither
agree nor
disagree
strongly
agree
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
3-28. I feel that in this organization, being accepted by the other members of a group should
strongly
disagree
neither
agree nor
disagree
strongly
agree
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
3-29. How important should it be to members of your work organization that your organization
is viewed positively by persons in other organizations?
it should
be very
important
it should be
moderately
important
it should not
be
important at
all
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
3-30. In this organization, people should:
plan for
the future
worry
about
current
crises
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
3-31. How much should it bother people in your organization if an outsider publicly made
negative comments about the organization?
it should
bother
them a
great deal
it should
bother them
a moderate
amount
it should
not bother
them at all
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
3-32. In this organization, people should be encouraged to be:
not at all
tolerant of
mistakes
very
tolerant of
mistake
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
324
3-33. In this organization, employees should set challenging work goals for themselves.
strongly
disagree
neither
agree nor
disagree
strongly
agree
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
3-34. In this organization, important organizational decisions should be made by:
employees management
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
3-35. I believe that in this organization, time devoted to reaching consensus is:
Time well
spent
sometimes
wasted and
sometimes
well spent
a waste of
time
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
3-36. When in disagreement with superiors, subordinates in this organization should generally
go along with what superiors say or want.
strongly
disagree
neither
agree nor
disagree
strongly
agree
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
3-37. Members of this organization should:
take a great
deal of pride
in working
for the
organization
take a
moderate
amount of pride
in working for
the
organization
take no pride in
working for the
organization
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
3-38. In this organization, people should be encouraged to be:
not at all
generous
very
generous
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
3-39. In this organization, opportunities for management positions should be:
More
available
for women
than for
men
equally
available
for men
and
women
more
available
for men
than for
women
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
325
3-40. In this organization, people should work on:
only team
projects
some
individual
and some
team
projects
only
individual
projects
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
3-40. In this Organization , it should be worse for a man to fail in this job than for a woman to
strongly
disagree
neither
agree
nor
disagree
strongly
agree
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
This is the end of Section 3. Please continue on to Section4
326
Section Four: employment equity (Should Be)
In this section the questionnaire will ask questions in regard to your opinion and view
about how things should be (ideal situation) in terms of securing employment equity in
your organization. Please indicate the degree of your agreement with each of the
following statements. All statements are measured on a five-point scale ranging from 5,
‗strongly agree‘ to 1, ‗strongly disagree‘.
No. Statement
Str
on
gly
ag
ree
(5)
Ag
ree (
4)
Neu
tral (3
)
Dis
ag
ree (
2)
Str
on
gly
dis
ag
ree (
1)
1
Citizens should be receiving equal opportunities in
education and training which provide them equal
chance when applying for a job.
2
In this organization, a separate policy for employment
equity should be adopted to cover most explicit and
implicit aspects of employment discrimination.
3
In this organization, most employees should be
treated equally at any employment stage regardless
of their gender, origin, beliefs, or colour.
4 In this organization, most employees should be
aware of their rights at work.
5
In this organization, the law should provide
employees with an easy path to appeal against any
kind of unfair discrimination in employment.
6 In this organization, employment equity should be
supported more by leadership and top management.
7
In this organization, employees’ production should be
more important than the number of hours they spend
at work.
8
In this organization, employment practices and
decision making processes should be audited
regularly by a legal department to ensure equity
among employees.
9
In this organization, HR employees should be well-
trained to ensure employment equity in most
administrative procedures and decisions.
10
In this organization, employees should not be
allowed to use their functional status to gain
personal, financial, or societal benefits.
11
In this organization, mutual interests should play a
vital role in managerial decisions and practices.
(recoded)
12
In this organization, honesty and transparency should
be the main elements in managerial decisions and
practices.
327
13
In this organization, officials should not hesitate to
favour relatives or friends even if that may negatively
affect other citizens' interests. (recoded)
14
In most governmental departments, the most
effective way to follow-up matters should be through
friends/relatives working there. (recoded)
15
In this organization, social status, kinship, tribal
affiliation (non-job criteria), should play a significant
role in most administrative procedures and decisions.
(recoded)
16 In this organization, females should not be treated as
less productive than males.
17
In this organization, disabled persons and older
workers should not be treated as less productive than
other employees.
18 In this organization, the decision making process and
management practices should be devoid of prejudice.
19
In this organization, managerial positions should be
based on applicants’ competencies regardless of
their gender.
20
In this organization, management should believe that
family role and social traditions negatively affect the
performance of females’ employees more than
males. (recoded)
21
In this organization, most employees should be
allowed to express their ideas openly with their
supervisors.
22
In this organization, differences between individuals
should be positively recognized to better serve the
working environment.
23 In this organization, management should be
supporting teamwork among employees.
24
In this organization, when an employee does a good
job, he/she should receive the praise and recognition
he/she deserves.
25 In this organization, most kinds of wasta should be
strongly rejected.
This concludes Section 4. Please continue on to Section5
328
Section five:
General view on adopting employment equity programs in Oman
A- Choose only one of the following statements which you think it will better serve
employment equity in your organization:
No. Statement Your Answer
1
Equity in employment should be based on merit only.
2
Equity in employment should be based on applying quotas
among each group of employees (e.g. males and females).
3
Equity in employment should be considered as a business
advantage by basing it on recognising individual differences,
and ensuring the right environment for each employee.
4
Equity in employment should be based on the importance of
the above three statements where the most effective option
among them will be applied according to working environment,
type of work and individual’s ability.
329
B- Please consider the impact of the below factors on adopting effective policies
and practices toward employment equity. You are presented with ten factors and
possible 100 points to be allocated to them according to the importance of each
factor in your own view..
To what extent do the following factors influence the adoption of effective
policies and practice toward employment equity in your organization?
No. Factors points
1 State clear and detailed articles toward employment equity in the Omani's Civil
Service law (or any similar law which is applicable in your organization).
2 Call for more enforcement of Share'h Law (Islamic Law)
3 Provide more authorities for the Court of Legal Administration.
4 Raise the education level for employees at supervisory/leadership levels
5 Train HRM employees on equity programs
6 Create equity department/section in each organization
7 Educate employees about their rights at work
8 Audit employment decisions and practices regularly
9 Ensure an adequate level of presentation for minorities (e.g. females and disabled
persons) in the decision making process
10 Concentrate on promoting values like human rights, freedom of speech, and equality.
Total 100
331
Finally we would like to know some general information about you:
Please place a check (√) beside the most appropriate choice to each of the following
variables.
1. Age:
Below 25years ( ) From 25 to 35 years ( )
From 36 to 45years ( ) 46 years and above ( )
2. Gender: Male ( ) Female ( )
3. place of birth: Muscat ( ) Dhufar ( ) Alwusta ( ) Ash-sharqiyah ( )
Ad-Dakhliyah ( ) Adh-Dhahirah ( ) Musandam ( ) AlBatinah ( ) outside Oman ( )
4. place of work: Muscat ( ) Dhufar ( ) Alwusta ( ) Ash-sharqiyah ( )
Ad-Dakhliyah ( ) Adh-Dhahirah ( ) Musandam ( ) AlBatinah ( )
5. Last Educational Qualification:
Below high school certificate ( ) High school certificate ( )
Intermediate college diploma ( ) Bachelor degree ( ) Masters degree ( )
Another ( ), specify: ………………………………………………………………
6. Total Work Experience ( Since you have started your work life ):
Less than five years ( ) 5 years to less than 10 years ( )
10 years to less than 15 years ( ) 15 years and more ( )
7. Employment position:
Deputy-General manager ( ) middle manager ( )
Head of section ( ) employee ( )
End of the questionnaire, thank you for your valuable participation and kind
patience.
330
Appendix 3 B
Questionnaire Beta
Introduction
The purpose of this research is to learn about national cultures, management practices,
and perceptions of employment equity. The questionnaire that you are asked to
complete will take about forty five mints of your time.
The resulting information will be useful for individuals who conduct business or
government relations with the study countries. This information may be used for
classroom instruction of students and managers in universities, technological institutes,
and other organizations throughout the world. Hopefully, this information will be
helpful to better understand business and leadership in other cultures.
In the following pages, you are asked to choose a number of statements that reflect
your observations of cultural or organizational practices, your beliefs, your values, or
your perceptions. This is not a test, and there are no right or wrong answers. We are
mainly interested in learning about the beliefs and values in your society, and how
various societal and organizational practices are perceived by you and the others
participating in this research Your responses will be kept completely confidential. No
individual respondent will be identified to any other person or in any written form.
Further, the name of your organization will not be publicly released.
General Instructions
In completing this survey, you will be asked questions focusing on the organization in
which you work, and on your perceptions of employment equity. Most people complete
the survey in approximately 45 minutes.
There are three sections to this questionnaire. Sections 1 and 3 ask about your
organization.
Section 2 asks about employment equity. Section 4 asks about you.
There are several different types of questions in this questionnaire. Sections 1 and 3
have questions with two different formats. An example of the first type of question is
shown below
332
A. In this country, the weather is generally:
Very
Pleasant
Moderately
Pleasant
Very
Unpleasant
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
For a question like this, you would circle the number from 1 to 7 that is closest to
your perceptions about the country. For example, if you think the weather in your
country is ―very pleasant,‖ you would circle 1. If you think the weather is not quite
―very pleasant‖ but is better than ―moderately pleasant,‖ you could circle either 2 or 3,
depending on whether you think the weather is closer to ―very pleasant‖ or to
―moderately pleasant.‖
The second type of question asks how much you agree or disagree with a particular
statement.
An example of this kind of question is given below.
B. The weather in this country is very pleasant.
Very
Pleasant
Moderately
Pleasant
Very
Unpleasant
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
For a question like this, you would circle the number from 1 to 7 that is closest to
your level of agreement with the statement. For example, if you strongly agree that the
weather in your country is very pleasant, you would circle 1. If you generally agree with
the statement but disagree slightly, you could circle either 2 or 3, depending on how
strongly you agree with the statement. If you disagree with the statement, you would
circle 5, 6, or 7, depending on how much you disagree with the statement.
333
Section 1
The Way Things Are in Your society.
Instructions
In this section, we are interested in your beliefs about the norms, values, and practices
in your society. In other words, we are interested in the way your society is — not the
way you think it should be.
There are no right or wrong answers, and answers don‘t indicate goodness or badness
of the society.
Please respond to the questions by circling the number that most closely represents
your observations about your society.
Section 1 questions begin here:
1-1. In this Society, orderliness and consistency are stressed, even at the expense
experimentation and innovation.
strongly
agree
neither agree
nor disagree
strongly
disagree
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1-2. In this Society , people are generally:
aggressive non-
aggressive
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1-3. The way to be successful in this Society is to:
plan
ahead
take events
as they
occur
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1-4. In this Society , the accepted norm is to:
plan for
the future
accept the
status quo
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
334
1-5. In this Society , a person’s influence is based primarily on:
one’s ability
and
contribution
to the
Society
the
authority of
one’s
position
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1-6. In this Society, people are generally
assertive non-
assertive
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1-7. In this Society, leaders encourages group loyalty even if individual goals suffer.
strongly
agree
neither agree
nor disagree
strongly
disagree
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1-8. In this Society, social gatherings are:
spontaneous
(planned less
than
an hour in
advance)
planned
well in
advance
(2 or more
weeks in
advance)
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1-9. In this Society , people are generally:
not at all
concerned
about
others
very
concerned
about
others
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1-10. In this Society , people are generally:
non-
dominant
dominant
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1-11. In this Society , children take pride in the individual accomplishments of their parents.
Strongly
disagree
neither
agree
nor
disagree
strongly
agree
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
335
1-12. The economic system in this society is designed to maximize:
Collective
interests
individual
interests
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1-13. In this society, followers are expected to:
question their
leaders when
in
disagreement
obey their
leaders
without
question
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1-14. In this Society , people are generally:
tender
tough
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1-15. In this Society , teen-aged students are encouraged to strive for continuously improved
performance.
strongly
disagree
neither
agree
nor
disagree
strongly
agree
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1-16. In this Society, most people lead highly structured lives with few unexpected events.
strongly
disagree
neither
agree
nor
disagree
strongly
agree
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1-17. In this Society , boys are encouraged more than girls to attain a higher Education
strongly
disagree
neither
agree
nor
disagree
strongly
agree
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
336
1-18. In this Society , major rewards are based on:
only factors other
than performance
effectiveness (for
example, seniority
or
political
connections)
performance
effectiveness and
other factors (for
example,
seniority or
political
connections)
only
performance
effectiveness
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1-19. In this Society , societal requirements and instructions are spelled out in detail so
citizens know what they are expected to do :
strongly
disagree
neither
agree
nor
disagree
strongly
agree
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1-20. In this Society , being innovative to improve performance is generally:
not
rewarded
somewhat
rewarded
substantially
rewarded
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1-21. In this Society , people are generally:
not at all
sensitive
toward
others
very
sensitive
toward
others
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1-22. In this Society , there is more emphasis on athletic programs for:
Girls boys
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1-23. In this Society , parents take pride in the individual accomplishments of their children:
strongly
disagree
neither
agree
nor
disagree
strongly
agree
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
337
1-24. This society has rules or laws to cover:
very few
situations
some
situations
almost all
situations
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1-25. In this society, people are generally:
very unfriendly very
friendly
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1-26. In this Society , people in positions of power try to:
decrease
their social
distance from
less
powerful
people
increase their
social distance
from less
powerful
individuals
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1-27. In this Society, rank and position in the hierarchy have special privileges.
strongly
disagree
neither
agree
nor
disagree
strongly
agree
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1-28. In this society, aging parents generally live at home with their children..
strongly
disagree
neither
agree
nor
disagree
strongly
agree
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1-29. In this society, being accepted by the other members of a group is very Important.
strongly
disagree
neither
agree
nor
disagree
strongly
agree
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
338
1-30. In this society, more people:
live for the
future than
live
for the
present
live for the
present than
live
for the future
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1-31. In this society, people place more emphasis on:
planning for
the
future
solving
current
problems
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1-32. In this society, people are generally:
not at all
tolerant of
mistakes
very tolerant
of
mistakes
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1-33 In this society, people are generally:
not at all
generous
very
generous
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1-34. In this society, power is:
shared
throughout the
society
concentrated at
the top
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1-35. In this society:
individualism is
valued more than
group cohesion
group cohesion
and
individualism
are equally
valued
group cohesion
is valued more
than
individualism
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1-36. In this society, it is worse for a boy to fail in school than for a girl to fail in school
strongly
disagree
neither
agree
nor
disagree
strongly
agree
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
339
1-37. In this society, people are generally:
non-
physical
physical
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1-38. In this society, who is more likely to serve in a position of high office?
Women Men and
women are
equally likely to
serve
Men
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1-39. In this society, children generally live at home with their parents until they get married.
strongly
disagree
neither
agree
nor
disagree
strongly
agree
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
This is the end of Section 1 of the questionnaire. Please
continue on to Section 2.
341
Section Two: employment equity
In this section, the questionnaire will ask questions about employment equity. The
following definitions are used:
Employment Equity means: ―equal rights for and in employment for all individuals,
focusing on all stages of the employment relationship [application, recruitment,
promotion, transfer, training, health and safety, terms of employment, benefits, facilities
and services, grievances, disciplinary procedures and victimization, dismissals,
redundancies, and other unfavourable treatment of employees‖
This section of the questionnaire seeks to find out how things are (actual practices)
from your point of view in terms of securing employment equity in your organization.
Please indicate the degree of your agreement with each of the following statements.
There are no wrong answers to any of these statements; it is most important that you
record your own true agreement with each one. Please circle the appropriate number as
all statements are measured on a five-point scale ranging from 5, ‗strongly agree‘ to 1,
‗strongly disagree‘.
No. Statement S
tron
gly
agre
e (
5)
Agre
e (
4)
Neutr
al (3
)
Dis
agre
e (
2)
Str
on
gly
dis
agre
e (
1)
1
Citizens are receiving equal opportunities in
education and training which provide them equal
chance when applying for a job.
2
In this organization, there is a separate policy for
employment equity which cover most explicit and
implicit aspects of employment discrimination.
3
In this organization, most employees are treated
equally at any stage of employment regardless of
their gender, origin, tribes, or colour.
4 In this organization, most employees are aware of
their rights at work.
5
In this organization, the law provides employees with
a clear path to appeal against any kind of unfair
discrimination in employment.
6 In this organization, equity in employment is
supported by leadership and top management.
7
In this organization, employees’ production is more
important than the number of hours they spend at
work.
8
In this organization, employment practices and
decision making process are regularly audited by a
legal department to ensure equity among employees.
340
9
In this organization, HR employees are well-trained
to ensure employment equity in most administrative
procedures and decisions.
10
In this organization, employees tend to use their
functional status to gain personal, financial, or
societal benefits. (recoded)
11 In this organization, mutual interests play a vital role
in managerial decisions and practices. (recoded)
12 In this organization, honesty and transparency are
the main elements in the decision making process.
13
In this organization, officials do not hesitate to favour
relatives or friends even if that may negatively affect
other citizens' interests. (recoded)
14
In most governmental departments, the most
effective way to follow-up matters is through
friends/relatives working there. (recoded)
15
In this organization, social status, kinship, tribal
affiliation (non-job criteria), play a significant role in
most administrative procedures and decisions
(recoded)
16 In this organization, there is a belief that females are
less productive than males. (recoded)
17
In this organization, there is a belief that disables
persons, and older workers are less productive than
other employees. (recoded)
18 In this organization, the decision making process and
management practices are devoid of prejudice.
19
In the public sector, there is a belief that men are
more capable to handle managerial positions than
women, while women are willing more to do nursing
and teaching. (recoded)
20
In this organization, management believes that family
role and social traditions affect negatively
performance of females’ employees more than
males. (recoded)
21 In this organization, most employees can express
their ideas openly with their supervisors.
22
In this organization, differences between individuals
are positively recognized to better serve the working
environment.
23 In this organization, management is supporting team
working among employees.
24
In this organization, when an employee does a good
job, he/she receives the praise and recognition
he/she deserve.
25 In this organization, most kinds of wasta are strongly
rejected.
This is the end of Section 2 of the questionnaire. Please
continue on to Section 3.
342
Section 3 — The way things generally should be in your society
Instructions:
In this section, we are interested in your beliefs about what the norms, values, and
practices should be in your society.
Again, there are no right or wrong answers, and answers don‘t indicate goodness or
badness of the society.
Please respond to the questions by circling the number that most closely represents
your observations about your society.
Section 3 questions start here
3-1. I believe that orderliness and consistency should be stressed, even at the expense of
experimentation and innovation.
strongly
disagree
neither
agree
nor
disagree
strongly
agree
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
3-2. In this society , people should be encouraged to be:
non-
aggressive
aggressive
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
3-3. I believe that people who are successful should:
take
events
as they
occur
plan ahead
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
3-4. I believe that the accepted norm in this society should be to:
accept the
status quo
plan for
the future
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
343
3-5. I believe that a person’s influence in this society should be based primarily on :
the
authority of
one’s
position
one’s ability
and
contribution
to the
society
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
3-6. In this society , people should be encouraged to be:
non-
assertive
assertive
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
3-7. I believe that in this society , leaders should generally encourage group loyalty even if
individual goals suffer.
strongly
disagree
neither
agree
nor
disagree
strongly
agree
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
3-8. I believe that social gatherings should be:
spontaneous
(planned less
than
an hour in
advance)
planned well
in
advance (2 or
more
weeks in
advance)
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
3-9. In this society , people should be encouraged to be:
very
unconcerned
about others
very
concerned
about others
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
3-10. In this society , people should be encouraged to be
non-
dominant
dominant
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
344
3-11. In this society, children should take pride in the individual
Accomplishments of their parents.
strongly
disagree
neither
agree
nor
disagree
strongly
agree
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
33-12. I believe that the economic system in this society should be designed to maximize:
collective
interests
individual
interests
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
3-13. I believe that followers should :
question their
leaders when
in
disagreement
obey their
leaders
without
question
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
3-14. In this society , people should be encouraged to be:
tender tough
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
3-15. I believe that teen-aged students should be encouraged to strive for continuously
improved performance
strongly
disagree
neither
agree
nor
disagree
strongly
agree
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
3-16. I believe that a person who leads a structured life that has few unexpected events:
is missing
a lot of
excitement
has a lot to
be thankful
for
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
3-17. I believe that boys should be encouraged to attain a higher education more than girls.
strongly
disagree
neither
agree
nor
disagree
strongly
agree
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
345
3-18. I believe that major rewards should be based on:
only factors
other than
performance
effectiveness
(for
example,
seniority or
political
connections)
performance
effectiveness
and other
factors (for
example,
seniority or
political
connections)
only
performance
effectiveness
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
3-19. I believe that societal requirements and instructions should be spelled out in detail so
citizens know what they are expected to do.
strongly
disagree
neither
agree
nor
disagree
strongly
agree
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
3-20. I believe that being innovative to improve performance should be:
not
rewarded
somewhat
rewarded
substantially
rewarded
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
3-21. In this society , people should be encouraged to be:
not at all
sensitive
toward
others
very
sensitive
toward
others
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
3-22. I believe that there should be more emphasis on athletic programs for:
girls boys
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
3-23. In this society, parents should take pride in the individual
accomplishments of their children
strongly
disagree
neither
agree
nor
disagree
strongly
agree
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
346
3-24. This society has rules or laws to cover:
very few
situations
some
situations
almost all
situations
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
3-25. I believe that leaders in this society should:
allow the people
freedom in
determining how best to
achieve
goals
provide detailed
plans
concerning how
to achieve goals
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
3-26. I believe that this society would be more effectively managed if there were:
strongly
disagree
neither
agree
nor
disagree
strongly
agree
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
3-27. In this society, people should be encouraged to be: .
very unfriendly very
friendly
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
3-28. I believe that people in positions of power should try to:
decrease
their social
distance
from less
powerful
people
increase their
social distance
from less
powerful
individuals
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
3-29. How important should it be to members of your work society that your society is
viewed positively by persons in other society s?
it should
be very
important
it should be
moderately
important
it should not
be
important at
all
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
347
3-30. I believe that people should:
live for the
future
live for the
present
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
3-31. In this society, people should be encouraged to be:
not at all
tolerant of
mistakes
very tolerant
of
mistakes
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
3-32. I believe that people should set challenging goals for themselves.
strongly
disagree
neither
agree
nor
disagree
strongly
agree
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
3-33. When in disagreement with adults, young people should defer to elders. :
strongly
disagree
neither
agree
nor
disagree
Strongly
agree
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
3-34. Members of this society should:
take a great deal
of pride in
being a member
of the
society
take a
moderate
amount of pride
in being a member of
the
society
take no pride in
being a member
of the society
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
3-35. I believe that power should be:
shared throughout
the organization
concentrated at
the top
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
3-36. In this society, most people prefer to play:
only team
sports
some
individual
and some
team
sports
only individual
sports
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
348
3-37. I believe that:
individualism is
better than group
cohesion
group cohesion
and individualism
are equally
valuable
group cohesion
is better than
individualism
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
3-38. I believe that it should be worse for a boy to fail in school than for a girl to fail in school.
strongly
disagree
neither
agree
nor
disagree
strongly
agree
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
3-39. I believe that opportunities for leadership positions should be:
more
available
for women
than
for men
equally
available for
men and
women
more
available
for men than
for
women
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
This concludes Section 3. Please continue on to Section4
349
Section Four: employment equity (Should be)
In this section the questionnaire will ask questions in regard to your opinion and view
about how things should be (Ideal situation) in terms of securing employment equity in
your organization. Please indicate the degree of your agreement with each of the
following statements. All statements are measured on a five-point scale ranging from 5,
‗strongly agree‘ to 1, ‗strongly disagree‘.
No. Statement
Str
on
gly
ag
ree
(5)
Ag
ree (
4)
Neu
tral (3
)
Dis
ag
ree (
2)
Str
on
gly
dis
ag
ree (
1)
1
Citizens should be receiving equal opportunities in
education and training which provide them equal
chance when applying for a job.
2
In this organization, a separate policy for employment
equity should be adopted to cover most explicit and
implicit aspects of employment discrimination.
3
In this organization, most employees should be
treated equally at any employment stage regardless
of their gender, origin, beliefs, or colour.
4 In this organization, most employees should be
aware of their rights at work.
5
In this organization, the law should provide
employees with an easy path to appeal against any
kind of unfair discrimination in employment.
6 In this organization, employment equity should be
supported more by leadership and top management.
7
In this organization, employees’ production should be
more important than the number of hours they spend
at work.
8
In this organization, employment practices and
decision making processes should be audited
regularly by a legal department to ensure equity
among employees.
9
In this organization, HR employees should be well-
trained to ensure employment equity in most
administrative procedures and decisions.
10
In this organization, employees should not be
allowed to use their functional status to gain
personal, financial, or societal benefits.
11
In this organization, mutual interests should play a
vital role in managerial decisions and practices.
(recoded)
12
In this organization, honesty and transparency should
be the main elements in managerial decisions and
practices.
351
13
In this organization, officials should not hesitate to
favour relatives or friends even if that may negatively
affect other citizens' interests. (recoded)
14
In most governmental departments, the most
effective way to follow-up matters should be through
friends/relatives working there. (recoded)
15
In this organization, social status, kinship, tribal
affiliation (non-job criteria), should play a significant
role in most administrative procedures and decisions.
(recoded)
16 In this organization, females should not be treated as
less productive than males.
17
In this organization, disabled persons and older
workers should not be treated as less productive than
other employees.
18 In this organization, the decision making process and
management practices should be devoid of prejudice.
19
In this organization, managerial positions should be
based on applicants’ competencies regardless of
their gender.
20
In this organization, management should believe that
family role and social traditions negatively affect the
performance of females’ employees more than
males. (recoded)
21
In this organization, most employees should be
allowed to express their ideas openly with their
supervisors.
22
In this organization, differences between individuals
should be positively recognized to better serve the
working environment.
23 In this organization, management should be
supporting teamwork among employees.
24
In this organization, when an employee does a good
job, he/she should receive the praise and recognition
he/she deserves.
25 In this organization, most kinds of wasta should be
strongly rejected.
This concludes Section 4. Please continue on to Section5
350
Section five:
General view on adopting employment equity programs in Oman
C- Choose only one of the following statements which you think it will better serve
employment equity in your organization:
No. Statement Your Answer
1
Equity in employment should be based on merit only.
2
Equity in employment should be based on applying quotas
among each group of employees (e.g. males and females).
3
Equity in employment should be considered as a business
advantage by basing it on recognising individual differences,
and ensuring the right environment for each employee.
4
Equity in employment should be based on the importance of
the above three statements where the most effective option
among them will be applied according to working environment,
type of work and individual’s ability.
D- Please consider the impact of the below factors on adopting effective policies
and practices toward employment equity. You are presented with ten factors and
possible of' 100 points to be allocated to them according to the importance of
each factor in your own view.
To what extent do the following factors influence the adoption of effective
policies and practice toward employment equity in your organization?
352
No. Factors points
1 State clear and detailed articles toward employment equity in the Omani's
Civil Service law (or any similar law which is applicable in your
organization).
2 Call for more enforcement of Share'h Law (Islamic Law)
3 Provide more authorities for the Court of Legal Administration.
4 Raise the education level for employees at supervisory/leadership levels
5 Train HRM employees on equity programs
6 Create equity department/section in each organization
7 Educate employees about their rights at work
8 Audit employment decisions and practices regularly
9 Ensure an adequate level of presentation for minorities (e.g. females and
disabled persons) in the decision making process
10 Concentrate on promoting values like human rights, freedom of speech,
and equality.
Total 100
353
Finally, we would like to know some general information about you:
Please place a check (√) beside the most appropriate choice to each of the following
variables.
8. Age:
Below 25years ( ) From 25 to 35 years ( )
From 36 to 45years ( ) 46 years and above ( )
9. Gender: Male ( ) Female ( )
10. Place of birth: Muscat ( ) Dhufar ( ) Alwusta ( ) Ash-sharqiyah ( )
Ad-Dakhliyah ( ) Adh-Dhahirah ( ) Musandam ( ) AlBatinah ( ) outside Oman ( )
11. Place of work: Muscat ( ) Dhufar ( ) Alwusta ( ) Ash-sharqiyah ( )
Ad-Dakhliyah ( ) Adh-Dhahirah ( ) Musandam ( ) AlBatinah ( )
12. Last Educational Qualification:
Below high school certificate ( ) High school certificate ( )
Intermediate college diploma ( ) Bachelor degree ( ) Masters degree ( )
Another ( ), specify: …………………………………………………………….…
13. Total Work Experience ( Since you have started your work life ):
Less than five years ( ) 5 years to less than 10 years ( )
10 years to less than 15 years ( ) 15 years and more ( )
14. Employment position:
Deputy-General manager ( ) middle manager ( )
Head of section ( ) employee ( )
End of the questionnaire, thank you for your valuable participation and kind patience.