The Importance of Teaching

Phrasal Vocabulary to

Second Language Learners

Victoria Escaip

INTRODUCTION

Vocabulary is not only comprised by individual words. Much of it involves ‘prefabricated’ sequences of words, which function as single units:

formulaic expressions or formulaic sequences

Formulaic language

Formulaic expressions constitute formulaic language (phrasal vocabulary)

Get on the bus; Keep a straight

face; Kick the bucket...

Definition of Formulaic Expression

“A sequence, continuous or discontinuous [slots to be filled...], of words or other elements [punctuation marks...], which is, or appears to be, prefabricated: that is, stored and retrieved whole from memory at the time of use, rather than being subject to generation or analysis by the language grammar”.

(Wray, 2002, p.9)

Formulaic expressions are essential in language

•  Everywhere in language use. •  Variety of communicative

functions. •  Improve fluency. •  Improve the general impression

of L2 speakers’ speech production.

Formulaic language is everywhere

•  30% spoken discourse and 21% of academic prose (Biber et al.(1999).

•  58.6% spoken discourse and 52.3% of written discourse (Erman & Warren, 2000).

•  Up to 70% of everything we say, hear, read, or write (Jimmie Hill, 2000).

Functions and meanings of formulaic language

•  Functional use I’m sorry to hear about...; I’d be

happy to... •  Social interaction Nice weather today; Oh, I see; I’ve got

it; Did you really?

•  Discourse organisation In other words...; On the other

hand...

•  Precise information in technical fields Taxi into position and hold.

Schmitt, N. (2005)

Formulaic Language improves fluency

Formulaic expressions are stored in the mind as individual wholes and are processed as such. Formulaic expressions are ‘ready to go’ lexical phrases. They give speakers more fluency and also assist the listener by reducing the processing effort.

Formulaic Language improves the general impression of L2 speakers’ speech production

Non-native speakers that use

formulaic language are judged as

more proficient in both spoken and

written discourse.

(Boers, Eyckmans, Kappel, Stengers, &

Demecheleer, 2006; Ohlrogge, 2009).

Phrasal vocabulary in every language

Phrasal vocabulary is not restricted to English, but it spreads through every other language. The importance of teaching phrasal vocabulary to second language learners applies to every language.

Changes in the language teaching approach

From the traditional view where

grammar was thought as “the bones

of the language and vocabulary as

the flesh to be added” (Hill, 2000),

phrasal vocabulary acquisition has

been moved to the forefront of

language teaching by many language

teachers.

Phrasal vocabulary in the language syllabus

•  Idioms Put the cat among the chickens

•  Phrasal verbs

Make up a story; Put the light out

•  Collocations Get lost; Make up for lost time; Speak your mind.

Collocations

•  “Words that are placed or found together in a predictable pattern”. (Graney, 2000)

•  “Words which are statistically

much more likely to appear together than random chance suggests”. (Woolard, 2000, p. 29)

Types of collocations

Verb + noun dispute findings; accept the outcome; predict the future

verb + adjective + noun learn a foreign language

verb + adverb live dangerously; struggle unceasingly against

adjective + noun huge profit; unaccompanied minor

adverb + adjective + noun highly irregular situation

adverb + adjective completely soaked

adverb + verb half understand

verb + preposition engage in; hear about

verb + preposition + noun speak through an interpreter

What phrasal vocabulary should I teach?

The primary responsibility for identifying the most useful phrasal vocabulary to teach corresponds to the teacher. Teaching Collocation: Further Developments in the Lexical Approach by Michael Lewis (2000)

Identifying useful collocations

Jane Conzett (2000, p. 74)

Discerning useful collocations

Noticing

Teachers need to encourage l e a r n e r s t o d e v e l o p a n appreciation for the different collocations they come across during their language training, and to expand this knowledge to subsequent collocations they meet.

Classroom activities

Classroom strategies, activities and exercises by Jimmie Hill, Morgan Lewis & Michael Lewis (2000) in Teaching Collocation: Further Developments in the Lexical Approach. Hove, England: Language Teaching Publications.

Underline verb + noun collocations

On the simplest level, teachers could encourage students to think bigger than the word –always look f o r t h e t w o o r t h r e e - w o r d expression. Ask students to u n d e r l i n e a l l v e r b + n o u n collocations in a text:

- accept the outcome - predict the future - give (special) attention

Recording collocations

Organized lexical notebooks. •  Avoid breaking it up. •  Avoid grammatical analysis. •  Do not translate word-for-word, but whole phrase to whole phrase.

Collocation dictionaries

Encourage students to record new nouns in boxes like these and look for collocates in their collocation dictionaries. Leave some spaces to add other words later.

(p. 99)

Brainstorming exercises

Do collocations’ brainstorming exercises regularly in class. Ask “or” questions to the students: Do you always come by bus or do you sometimes come by car?/ Do you sometimes break promises or do you always keep them? (Lewis, 2000)

Collocation games

Domino-type games Match the cards end to end by matching

the collocations.

Find your partner Two-word collocations are split between members of the class who then have to

find their partner.

Memory game With cards placed face down on the table and, in groups, students take turns to turn over two cards at a time hoping to

find the collocations.

(Hill, Lewis & Lewis, 2000)

Incorporate collocation teaching in your practice!

If we do not teach collocations...

we are ignoring a large set of items which express often complex i d e a s v e r y s i m p l y a n d y e t precisely. Set yourself a realistic objective.

vs. You must know what you want to do but it must not be too much for it to be possible for you to do.

Conclusions 1

•  The centrality of vocabulary means that the traditional teaching of grammar structures should play a less important role than in the past. Less grammar, more vocabulary.

•  Language consists largely of formulaic sequences, that is, prefabricated chunks of lexis. Teaching phrasal vocabulary should then be a top priority in every language course.

•  Language teachers and students must be aware of collocation as a key element to language learning.

•  Although students may be successful on communicating the intended meaning by manipulating single words with grammar, having an extended phrasal vocabulary increases the accuracy and fluency of their language production. “Formulaic language is intrinsically connected with functional, fluent, and communicative language use” (Schmitt, 2005, p. 16).

Conclusions 2

References 1

Biber, D., Johansson, S., Leech, G., Conrad, S., & Finegan, E. (1999). Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English: Longman.

Boers, F., Eyckmans, J., Kappel, J., Stengers, H., & Demecheleer, M. (2006). Formulaic sequences and perceived oral proficiency: Putting a lexical approach to the test. Language teaching research, 10(3), 245-261.

Conzett, J. (2000). Integrating collocation into a reading and writing course. In M. Lewis (Ed.), Teaching Collocation: Further Developments in the Lexical Approach. Hove, England: Language Teaching Publications.

Erman, B., & Warren, B. (2000). The idiom principle and the open choice principle. TEXT-THE HAGUE THEN AMSTERDAM THEN BERLIN-, 20(1), 29-62.

Graney, J. M. (2000). Teaching collocation: Further developments in the lexical approach - Review. TESL-EJ (The Electronic Journal for English as a Second Language, 4(4).

Hill, J. (2000). Revising priorities: from grammatical failure to collocational success. In M. Lewis (Ed.), Teaching Collocation: Further Developments in the Lexical Approach (pp. 47-69). Hove, England: Language Teaching Publications.

Hill, J., Lewis, M., & Lewis, M. (2000). Classroom strategies, activities and exercises. In M. Lewis (Ed.), Teaching Collocation: Further Developments in the Lexical Approach. Hove, England: Language Teaching Publications.

Lewis, M. (1993). The Lexical Approach. Hove, England: Language Teaching Publications.

References 2

Lewis, M. (1997). Implementing the Lexical Approach. Hove, England: Language Teaching Publications. Lewis, M. (2000). Teaching Collocation: Further Developments in the Lexical Approach. Hove, England: Language

Teaching Publications. Lewis, M. (2000). There is nothing as practicas as a good theory. In M. Lewis (Ed.), Teaching Collocation: Further

Developments in the Lexical Approach. Hove, England: Language Teaching Publications. Nattinger, J. R., & DeCarrico, J. S. (1992). Lexical phrases and language teaching: Oxford University Press. Ohlrogge, A. (2009). Formulaic expressions in intermediate EFL writing assessment. In R. Corrigan, E. A. Moravcsik, H. Ouali & K. M. Wheatley (Eds.), Formulaic Language Volume 2: Acquisition, Loss, Psychological Reality, and

Functional Explanations (pp. 375-386): John Benjamins Publishing Company. Schmitt, N. (2005). Formulaic language: fixed and varied. Elia, 6(6), 13-39. Woolard, G. (2000). Collocation - encouraging learner independence. In M. Lewis (Ed.), Teaching Collocation: Furher

Developments in the Lexial Approach. Hove, England: Language Teaching Publications. Wray, A. (2002). Formulaic language and the lexicon. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.