f o o r u m i

Geological Survey of Finland stakeholder magazine2/2016

International GTKoffers numerous skills under one roofPage 8

Environmental surveys throughout the mine’slife cyclePage 14

The importanceof setting Page 5

Geofoorumi 2/2016Publisher: Geological Survey of Finland, www.gtk.fi

Editor in chief: Marie-Louise WiklundLayout and design: Mainostoimisto SST Oy

Editorial board: Olli Breilin, Veli-Matti Jalovaara, Jarmo Kohonen, Petri Lintinen, Satu Ojanen, Marie-Louise Wiklund.

Front cover: LehtikuvaPrinted by Lönnberg Painot OyISSN 1796-1475

In Brief . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

The importance of setting . . . . . . . . 5

International GTK offers:

Numerous skills under one roof . . 8

Research benefits everyone . . . . . 12

Environmental surveys throughout

the mine’s life cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

New publications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

Contents

Dramatic increase in the wheat crop on EthiopiaPage 9

3D modelling brings safetyto disposal of nuclear waste Page 17

Rapid growth of the Earth’s population and the middle class have created entirely new challenges for the management of sustainable development. People all over the world want their share of the increased well-being during their lifetime, not in the future.

Urbanisation, the digital lifestyle and global change are megatrends that grow increasingly rapidly all over the globe. The availability and sus-tainable production of minerals, food, clean water and low-carbon energy have become critical factors for sustainable development. The increasing pace in which our environment changes and becomes polluted deepens regional problems.

Geosciences are in a key role in solving all these challenges. Great challenges require, however, development of new competences in geo-sciences as well, and most of all, closer cooperation with other natural sciences, as well as actors in the fields of engineering, economics and social sciences. The problems are becoming increasingly complex, and geologists cannot solve them alone.

GTK’s strategy is based on four focus areas: digital solutions, clean-tech, built environments and mineral economics. Digital approach is crucial to all our processes, and easy access to high-quality geoscientific data forms the basis for all kinds of nature-based solutions. Cleantech refers to technology, services and processes that promote the sustainable use of natural resources while at the same time reducing emissions. We are well-positioned in the circular economy to advance processes and services that minimise waste, increase recyclability and protect our natural endowments. In order to build better environments, GTK generates geo-logical information critical to urban development, land use planning, con-struction, tunnelling, infrastructure and associated environmental issues. In the mineral sector, we play a key role in promoting mineral economics in accordance with the Green Mining Concept to secure the availability of mineral resources and ensure their future sustainable use.

In cooperation with our partners, we aim to provide our stakeholders geoscientific expertise that helps them succeed.

Pekka A. NurmiDirector, Science and Innovationspekka.nurmi@gtk.fi

Geosciences play a growing rolein supporting sustainable globaldevelopment

DIRECTOR’S NOTE

Geofoorumi is the in-house mag-azine of the Geological Survey of Finland (GTK). It is published twice a year and its articles cover topics of interest to professionals in ge-ology and the community at large. The spring issue is in Finnish and the autumn one in English.

Subscription requests and change-of-address information may be submitted by email to satu.ojanen@gtk.fi.

GTK Contact Information Geological Survey of Finlandwww.gtk.fi

Tel. +358 29 503 0000

Great challenges requirecloser cooperation withother natural sciences”

“

IN BRIEF

The annual review 2015 of GTK is available in online format. The annual review in-cludes numerous stories about our opera-tions. In the website, you can read about for example the new method developed for mine water purification.

Why is it so important to evaluate the environmental impact of mines and to implement the EIA process?

All available information on the most important metal and diamond deposits in the Arctic has been assembled and made accessible. The Geological Survey of Norway has led the project which has involved eight countries in the Arctic, GTK from Finland.

The products include a book, a data-base and a map, collectively representing the first systematic documentation of in-formation on the most important mineral deposits in the Arctic.

http://geo.ngu.no/kart/circumarctic/

Overview of the mostimportant mineraldeposits in the Arctic

Powerful methods for spatial data analysis are essential tools for ana-lyzing the vast and growing mineral exploration data. The expanding exploration campaigns and mining industry in northern Finland have created a demand for time- and cost-saving exploration techniques that are also environmentally neutral. Therefore, GTK aim to provide methods that will enhance data-analysis procedures.

The Mineral Prospectivity Modeler (MPM) project is aimed at address-ing this challenge by conducting research and developing new tools for spatial data analysis and mineral prospectivity modeling. The project is specifically focused on dynamic optimization of the spatial models used in target scale exploration, where the amount of information and data increases during an exploration campaign.

In addition, the project will develop a web-based map service that will utilize the public geodata provided by GTK. This tool will enable evalua-tion of the mineral potential in Finland in the early stages of exploration, which will complement the already existing services.

New tools and methods for mineral prospectivity mapping

Pertti Sarala appointed jointResearch Professor ofgeochemical exploration

The Year of Geology2015

Mining projects integrated to their environments through EIA process

Pertti Sarala has been appointed joint Research Professor of geochemical exploration at the GTK and the Mining School of the University of Oulu. The appointment is for five years.

Pertti Sarala is specialised in applied Quaternary and surficial geology and geochemistry in ore exploration. His focus has been on advanced, low-impact geochemical exploration techniques that leave minor traces to the environment and are therefore suitable for northern regions.

– The joint professorship creates more opportunities for using soil surveying and applied geochemistry in ore exploration and for the de-velopment of new methods, especially in northern Finland, Pertti Sarala says.

annualreview2015.gtk.fi

4 Geofoorumi 2/2016

Overview of the mostimportant mineraldeposits in the Arctic

The importance of setting Text: Greg Moore

Backed by a mineral system approach, lasers, electron microscopes, mass spectrometers, nanotomography, neural networks and big data computing, geologists are exploring geological settings in surprising new ways. Geofoorumi talked with Research Professor Ferenc Molnár, structural geologist Muhammad Sayab and Research Professor Vesa Nykänen about the Mineral Systems and Prospectivity Mapping (MinSysPro) project.

Understanding critical processes

The MinSysPro research consortium, including GTK, the University of Oulu, private industry partners and interna-tional scientists now aims at exploration within the geological setting to pre-dict under-cover mineral resources in Finnish Lapland through application of novel research techniques and comput-er-based mineral prospectivity mapping based on mineral system models. The MinSysPro project is supported by the Academy of Finland’s Mineral Resources and Material Substitution Programme.

Ferenc Molnár, who leads the Min-SysPro project, encountered the “ho-listic” mineral systems approach in the 1990s while working in Canada.

– Back then it was more of an in-tuition as to how we might improve our exploration approach, but as the

power of analytical tools grew, geol-ogists began to make huge strides in evaluation of ore exploration areas through improved knowledge of be-havior of metals and their transport-ing media in large-scale geological systems. Today, we don’t jump to an analogous deposit until we have sys-tematically examined the context of ore

formation broadly to identify the pro-cesses critical in its creation. We con- vert this understanding into mappable parameters to establish vectors useful for finding ore deposits, and more spe-cifically, to establish the probability of finding related ore deposits.

Finland offers ideal conditions for developing the mineral systems ap-proach. GTK’s excellent database of discovered deposits is suitable for com-bining with mineral prospectivity map-ping and probability calculations, notes Molnár,

– We validate and calibrate our ap-proach by seeing if our models can ‘dis-cover’ or reveal known deposits. If they also predict unknown deposits, well, even better.

Through selection of relevant data based on an improved understanding of the geological evolution processes involved in ore formation, researchers

Microscaleunderstandingcan be easily

connectedto larger

structures.

“

Volume rendering of an arsenopyrite crystal (blue), showing pyrite (yellow) and rutile (red) inclusions. The image, generated through X-ray nanotomography, pro-vides a top-down view of the arsenopyrite crystal from the Suurikuusikko gold deposit in Finnish Lapland.

GTK’s Research Professor Ferenc Molnár leads the MinSysPro project.

RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT

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not only characterize the probability of an occurrence, but identify the critical parameters and incorporate them into mineral prospectivity mapping.

Sulfur surprise

Most of us associate sulfur with volca-noes, acid rain or sewer smells, but a quick look at the periodic table of the el-ements indicates why it is so important in ore exploration. Sulfur, because of its versatile atomic structure, seems to be a critical factor in formation of many, but certainly not all, ore deposits. It binds readily, for example, with copper, nickel and iron to form commercially impor-tant sulfide ores.

– The capacity for sulfidic ore for-mation in magmatic processes requires understanding the source of the parent melt such as a mantle plume or some melting process in the lower crust. But you also need sulfur, lots of sulfur. The intruding magma is not necessarily rich in sulfur and must encounter sul-fur-rich rocks during its emplacement. Sulfur is important both in making val-uable minerals and transporting certain

metals. Under appropriate conditions, gold is transported by sulfur-bearing complexes in hydrothermal solutions.

Sulfur, the ninth most common el-ement in the universe, forms deep in large stars and groups with the building blocks of life: hydrogen, carbon, oxy-gen, nitrogen, and phosphorous. In-deed, when life was starting out in the time before our oxygen atmosphere, bacteria relied on sulfate-reduction to “breathe.” The formation of Finland’s Paleoproterozoic basins, which took about 400 million years, coincided with an explosion in bacterial life on earth. These sediments are rich in sulfides from microbial activity that concentrat-ed metals such as nickel, cobalt, gold, copper, molybdenum and vanadium, says Molnár,

– One aspect of our interest in sul-fur, which has several stable isotope forms, are the specific isotopic signa-tures of these systems that allow us to date mobilizing events. The sea bottom where these metal-bearing sediments collected may have been anoxic for mil-lions of years, we then see a sudden high temperature gradient and mobilization

of hydrocarbons. Finland’s black schist deposits, which were great for metal deposit formation, display this feature.

Synchrotron time

GTK micro-structural geologist, Senior Scientist Muhammad Sayab notes that geologists are enlisting powerful non-traditional tools in their work.

– Microscale studies allow a close-up examination of the transportation channels in the rock, mineral texture and composition. Nature has fractal properties. What we see at microscale manifests most of the time at the mac-roscale.

The revolution in microtomography, the 3D imaging of tiny objects, is leading developments in microstructural geol-ogy.

– Traditionally, structural geologists relied on cutting thin slices to see in-side the rock. Thin-section preparation is both time-consuming and destroys sample integrity. Microtomography is a non-destructive technique and that gives us the inside story of the rock sample without cutting it! Last year we

3D distribution of gold grains and mineral inclusions in three grains of arsenopyrite from the Suurikuusikko deposit imaged with Synchrotron radia-tion-based nanotomography carried out at the European Synchrotron Radiation Facility, Grenoble, France:

A: Rutile inclusions rendered in red and pyrite inclusions in yellow.

B: Individual minerals and crystal rendered in different colors for better visibility and contrast in 3D. Gold is ren-dered in vivid yellow, rutile in red, what is probably chromium oxide (CrO) in green, and pyrite in brown.

C: The gold grain is rendered yellow and rutile in red. The preferential alignment of rutile inclusions within the crystal is quite clear here.

A B C

6 Geofoorumi 2/2016

performed our first ultra-high-resolu-tion X-ray nanotomography experiment at the European Synchrotron Radiation Facility in Grenoble, France, reports Sayab.

Microscale understanding can be easily connected to larger structures, the fabric of the rock, the distribution of metals and minerals in the rock. It also gives valuable clues about the channels of mineral formation.

– We can today take a single mineral grain and collect tremendous amounts of information, including compositional data, trace elements, isotopic data, and 3D mineral quantification down to the nanoscale to determine shape, volume and orientation of individual minerals.

With limited availability of synchro-tron beam time, competition is intense and only peer-reviewed projects get approved.

– When we applied for Europe-an Synchrotron beam time, we turned out to be rather odd birds. You don’t see too many geologists using syn-chrotrons! We thought we had rath-er mundane samples, some arseno-pyrite grains from the well-studied Suurikuusikko deposit in north-ern Finland, site of Europe’s biggest gold mine operated by Agnico-Eagle Finland Oy. We had already scanned the prepared drill core samples to es-tablish the size, shape, spatial distribu-tion and geometrical orientation of the

mineralsin situ before we removed the crystals for the nanotomography scans.

– The 3D nanotomography showed the distribution of gold grains and other mineral inclusions within the crystals. The gold was not free, but locked and oriented in the arsenopyrite crystal. The microstructure was astounding! You could easily see a rule of distribu-tion at ten micrometers that correlated back up to the visual level of around one centimeter.

The experiment also showed the ef-fects of geological processes in micro-scopic fractures within the crystal. How-ever, as the Synchrotron beam could not capture the antimony-nickel-cobalt inclusions, the sample was further examined at GTK with a laser ablation inductively coupled mass spectrome-ter (LA-ICP-MS), which enables highly sensitive elemental and isotopic anal-ysis to be performed directly on solid samples.

Summarizes Sayab, – Our 3D micro- and nanoscale

analysis provided insights into the mi-crostructural processes affecting gold formation. It comports well with our broader goal of obtaining information useful exploration, and provides a new multi-modal approach for ore geolo-gists in analyzing ore textures through the combining of micro- and nanoto-mography with the trace element geo-chemistry.

Targeting the work

Prospectivity mapping is the final piece of the ore discovery puzzle. With the relevant data based on the mineral sys-tem model established, the patterns found in the data are imposed on the data, which may come from physical geology, geochemistry, or airborne and ground geophysics measurements. The results are integrated with the model and subject to weights of evidence, fuzzy logic, neural networks and logistic re-gression. The result is a prospectivity map that can be tested against known deposits.

Vesa Nykänen, who heads up Min-SysPro mineral prospectivity mapping projects, says,

– Once our data are integrated with the model to provide a basis for the pro-spectivity mapping workflow, we move to the crucial step of validation. Here, we first perform statistical tests on what we think we know about mineral de-posits to see how well the prospectivity model classifies known deposits or oc-currences. The ultimate test, of course, is to drill predicted targets not known earlier. Exploration costs can skyrock-et at this point. But if we have done the science right and we have asked the right questions, we should find new deposits.

2. Mappable criteria selected according to the mineral system model are integrated into a prospectivity map with known deposits (circles) to highlight areas favorable for orogenic gold depos-its in Central Lapland.

1. Analysis of the compositional zoning in pyrite, a technique for reconstructing the ore-forming process, is applied here to a pyrite sample from the Suurikuusik-ko deposit. A: False-color scanning electron microscope image of zoning in arsenic distribution (warmer = more As). B: Zoned pyrite showing outer zone lacks

gold and subtle changes in S-isotope composition that suggest the Au-bear-ing and Au-absent fluids have different origins. The Au-absent rim of pyrite was formed during the superimposing deformation of the gold-bearing pyrite. Microscale analyses were performed with laser ablation ICP-MS technique.

1 2

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CO-OPERATION

International GTK offers:

NumerousSKILLSunder one roofText: Jaana Ahlblad

Food security, urban geology, mineral resources, sustainable mining, cleantech, risk management, digital solutions. GTK has comprehensive expertise in many fields. In Africa, GTK has gained experience over many decades, starting in the 1970s.

During these years, GTK has participated in co-operation projects in Angola, Ghana, Ethiopia, Mozambique, Namibia, Tanzania, Uganda and Zambia. GTK – one of the largest geo-logical research centres in Europe – is now heading to Malawi and Cameroon.

Minerals in the Golden TriangleThe “Golden Triangle” megaproject connects three industrial centres between the Nile River and the Red Sea in southern Egypt. The project aims to create new industrial and mining projects and develop agriculture and tourism. The area of 6,000 square kilometres has oil reserves, rich mineral re-sources, ongoing mining, important agricultural areas and a growing travel business.

The Federation of Egyptian Industries recently visited Fin-land. Egyptian delegates and GTK geospecialists discussed the specific needs of the Golden Triangle. There is a need for mod-ern solutions regarding the mineral potential and re-mining, as well as the mining environment and cleantech.

The delegates were also interested in GTK’s capability to support Egypt in establishing certified laboratories.

Another important topic in Espoo was food security. – We are delighted that the Egyptian business delegation

contacted us and we hope to conduct projects together with our Egyptian partners, says Philipp Schmidt-Thomé, Head of International Cooperation at GTK.

He adds that GTK collaborates with the Natural Resources Institute Finland to combine the best possible expertise, for example, in issues concerning food security.

Schmidt-Thomé also emphasises GTK’s knowledge in cli-mate change adaptation and risk management.

– We address challenges through vulnerability analyses and communication with local experts to identify best ways to manage different types of risks.

With this methodology, GTK has successfully supported climate change adaptation in more than 10 countries.

A sample of mixed Azurite and Malachite.

8 Geofoorumi 2/2016

Dramatic increase in the wheat crop in Ethiopia

Remarkably good things can come out of a relatively small project.

In many parts of Ethiopia the soil is highly acidic. This dis-turbs agriculture and drastically reduces crop yields. Adding the right amount of carbonate (lime) with the right proportion of fertilizers significantly increases soil health and produc-tivity.

Adding lime cuts the need for fertilization in half. The ma-jor increase in productivity reduces labour-intensive activities on the farm, ensures household food security and increases the possibilities for basic education of children. It also lessens pressure on deforestation, as more land does not need to be acquired for farming.

The beneficial results of the project implemented by GTK, the Geological Survey of Ethiopia, the Oromia Agricultural Re-search Institute, the Natural Resources Institute of Finland and the Ministry of Agriculture of Ethiopia have also been noted by FAO, UNDP, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Ethiopia and many public and private operators. The budget for the project implemented in 2014–15 was only 500,000 euros.

The Ministry for Foreign Affairs of Finland has awarded another 700,000 euros in funding.

– We will now assess the lime resources and plan farm trials lasting three seasons. It would be important to know whether a single dosage of lime could be enough to maintain sufficient soil productivity for at least five years, says project manager, Senior Scientist Tegist Chernet from GTK.

This would help to keep the agricultural costs as low as possible for the farmers, especially by minimizing lime trans-portation expenses.

– Based on trial results from upscaled experimental areas, we could compile specific recommendations for the region, Chernet continues.

Research was conducted on actual farms in the Oromia region.

– I wanted to hear the experiences of the real farmers and learn from them. The average size of smallholder farmers’ land is less than 0.5 hectares, so it is crucial to make the soil productive, says Tegist Chernet.

She points out that the population of Ethiopia is rapid-ly growing, but the overall land area will remain the same. Small fields will soon be further divided among the children of farmers, and smaller fields must produce enough to feed the families.

Agriculture is a key sector in Ethiopia’s economy. More than 40% of its GDP and 85% of export earnings come from agriculture. The government puts a lot of emphasis on secure food production in the country.

Tegist Chernet has worked hard to obtain more funding to continue and upscale the project, even to other regions. She has put her whole heart into this work. Chernet left Ethiopia 20 years ago to study in Finland, and she feels that she owes a lot to her home country.

– I received a good education and a good start in life. I know that most of my relatives can’t get a proper meal even once a day. I follow my father’s advice: “Remember! These farmers paid for your education without educating themselves. They gave you all out of their poverty.” Now it’s my time to pay them back.

I owe this tomy home country.“

It would be important to know whethera single dosage of lime could be enoughto maintain sufficient soil productivity for at least five years, says project manager, Senior Scientist Tegist Chernet from GTK.

Modern tools to find minerals

Much of Africa’s mineral resources are still undiscovered and underexploited, as noted by the African Union Conference of Ministers. By developing systematic geological mapping, much larger resource potential could be brought to daylight. The PanAfGeo project is now addressing this demand.

PanAfGeo is an EU–African initiative to improve geoscien-tific knowledge, skills and practices, as well as the availability of good quality data from geological surveys in Africa.

– We will develop and apply the latest methods of mineral exploration with our African colleagues, says Senior Expert Riitta Teerilahti from GTK.

By collecting and combining different types of data, it is possible to create specific models to evaluate the mineral po-tential and find new mineral resources. Upgrading of geolog-ical data and making it easily available in digital format will attract foreign investors and enhance business opportunities in Africa.

– Geoscientific information can also be used in monitor-ing the environmental status, planning strategic land use and supporting agriculture, Teerilahti adds.

Ten European geological surveys are taking part in the ambitious PanAfGeo project. In Africa, the counterpart is the Organization of African Geological Surveys (OAGS), which rep-resents a large number of national geological surveys. PanAf-Geo consists of eight work packages; GTK is the leader of the mineral resources entity.

– The project’s aim is to cover more than 50 African coun-tries. Training will be provided in English, French and Portu-guese. After three years, possible continuation of the project will be assessed, Teerilahti tells.

Riitta Teerilahti has solid experience in capacity building and training co-operation in Africa. She stepped onto her Af-rican path over 20 years ago in Namibia.

The stakeholders in PanAfGeo (Geoscientific Knowledge & Skills in African Geological Surveys) are the African Union, the World Bank, Unesco, UNDP and many others.

http://panafgeo.eurogeosurveys.org/

Digitalising bedrocks in Malawi and Cameroon“Enormous project, excellent results” is how one could de-scribe the assessment work carried out in Uganda a few years ago. GTK was the leader in a project that targeted the updat-ing of Uganda’s geodata and compiling of geological maps in a modern form. Digimaps are especially beneficial for investors interested in mineral resources.

– Before Uganda, we carried out related work in Mozam-bique. Large projects of this kind require the special expertise that GTK has, assures Senior Scientist Hannu Mäkitie.

Next, GTK’s specialists and their partners are heading to Malawi and Cameroon to work on similar bedrock mapping projects in co-operation with the French Geological Survey (BRGM).

– The fields of geochemistry, geophysics and ore geology are also included these projects. In addition, we will train our Malawian and Cameroonian colleagues on the latest mapping techniques, which is a very important part of the work, Mäkitie adds.

The mapping of the geology and mineral resources of Uganda was implemented by a consortium headed by the GTK together with the Geological Survey and Mines Department ofUganda (DGSM).

Sustainable mineral economyHow can sustainability be created? At GTK we know. Our solid knowledge covers the entire life cycle of mining. Our expertise in this area is globally highly valued. We have a wide spectrum of know-how in mineral potential exploration and ecologically efficient processing of ores. GTK Mintec is Europe’s leading test laboratory in customised research and continuous process testing at the pilot scale.

Built environments

How can better environments be built? At GTK we know. We generate critical geological information for urban develop-ment, land-use planning, infrastructure and construction. For example, mineral aggregates, from asphalt and concrete aggregates to railway ballast, play a significant role in our modern world. We know how to assess and manage aggre-gate resources. Plus, we have over 10 years of experience in developing and implementing climate change adaptation and natural hazard mitigation.

Food securityHow can soil productivity be increased? At GTK we know. We have long-term experience in the improvement of agricultur-al soils and in agro-mineral resources. We also have strong knowledge in securing groundwater resources.

Cleantech

How can recyclability be increased? At GTK we know. We are advancing processes that reduce waste and increase recycla-bility. We identify in the potential of geo-energy as source of energy, as well as in heating and cooling.

Digital solutions

How can geological information be digitalized? At GTK we know. We have over 35 years of experience in digital data man-agement. Our cartographic skills and techniques represent all the possibilities for the dynamic and innovative use of digital information. We take advantage of the latest state-of-the-art technology.

GTK’s areas of expertise

CO-OPERATION

Finnish supervisors in Mozambique

It requires plenty of careful planning to build a major project. Elaborate and close supervision is also needed to achieve the planned goals efficiently and correctly. GTK has now taken on this demanding supervisory role in Mozambique, together with the Ministry of Mineral Resources and Energy of Mozambique.

The Mining and Gas Technical Assistance Project (MAG-TAP) has five components, each with multiple sub-compo-nents. One of the sub-projects covers the themes of acquiring and utilising geodata. Under this project are 16 sub-projects that GTK is precisely monitoring.

– We make sure that the projects are planned well, the best operators are chosen and the work is carried out properly in every way. We can also take part in negotiations considering changes in the project plans, says Maija Kurimo, Senior Spe-cialist at GTK.

Kurimo says GTK is globally well known for its good rep-utation.

– GTK has proven its competence and reliability through the continuity of its work. In Africa, we started working in the 1970s, and co-operation is still going on. We emphasize the quality of our work.

Maija Kurimo’s personal career in Africa began 20 years ago. Ms Kurimo always enjoys meeting people in Africa.

– They have made a big impression. I enjoy working with my African colleagues, Kurimo tells.

Maija Kurimo and other specialists from GTK will supervise a geoscientific infrastructure development programme in Mo-zambique lasting five years. One project sector comprising an airborne geophysical survey in selected strategic areas rich in mineral resources has already effectively achieved its goals.

Ensuring food security is one of the most important tasks of any state. The geological approach allows to understand the quality of soil in different areas and what measures are required in order to improve the productivity of the soil.

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CO-OPERATION

The Finnish Geosciences Research Lab-oratory (SGL) located in Espoo produc-es and publishes new research data on a frequent basis.

The laboratory is a joint collabo-ration of GTK and the universities of Aalto, Helsinki, Oulu, Turku, and Åbo Akademi. For analysing minerals and materials to sub 100 nanometer scale, SGL features a field emission scanning electron microscope (FE-SEM). For detecting ultra-trace element concen-trations, the laboratory uses a single collector inductively coupled plasma spectrometry (SC-ICPMS) and for iso-tope work, a multi-collector inductive-ly coupled plasma mass spectrometry (MC-ICPMS). Both are equipped with Excimer lasers.

– Now we can do a lot of measure-ments that were not possible in Finland earlier. We can analyze lower concen-trations of elements in minerals, create isotope profiles for them and with the right minerals, determine their age. The most important fact is that we can do

this work in situ, directly on the sample, so we know exactly the relationships of the minerals we are analyzing” says the isotope group head, Senior Scientist Hugh O’Brien.

I addition to solid samples, also liq-uids can be analysed in the laboratory. Analysing water samples from rivers using the ultra-trace capability of the laboratory, for example, could identify an anomaly that might ultimately lead to the discovery of an ore deposit.

Method development is important

Nowadays, cooperation is more of a rule than an exception in research, where analytical instrumentation is expensive and budgets are tight.

– The only alternatives are to in-crease cooperation or stop doing cut-ting-edge research. For us, coopera-tion is the only possible option, Hugh O´Brien says.

Third parties can also reserve SGL’s

equipment for their own use for a fee by using the public calendar on the laboratory’s website. The laboratory’s reputation has grown through a network of users, and customers from China, Spain, Sweden, Denmark and the United States have used the facilities for their own research.

The University of Helsinki uses the equipment for both research projects and conducting studies for students’ theses.

– It is very important for us to cre-ate interaction between researchers through the laboratory, which also allows us to develop our methods. In the future, we must work together on spearhead projects and on method de-velopment, says Tapani Rämö, Profes-sor of geology and mineralogy at the University of Helsinki.

Joint use of equipment can also give birth to new innovations when person-nel and students of different organ-isations meet each other in a natural setting.

The Finnish Geosciences Research Laboratory is a place for networking and creating new information and methods for the geo-sector. An increasing amount of research is based on cooperation.

Research benefits everyoneText: Outi Airaksinen

12 Geofoorumi 2/2016

According to Hugh O’Brien, there is no need to acquire new laboratory equipment in the near future. However, one goal is to upgrade the measurement capabilities of the MC-ICPMS acquired in 2008. “It is a relatively small invest-ment, but an important one. It would allow us to make measurements that are as much as 50 times more sensitive than today,” O’Brien explains.

A wide perspective of the research subject

GTK has an extensive network and works in cooperation with many organ-isations in various fields. In the field of marine research, for example, GTK is a member of a consortium that, in ad-dition to marine geology, studies ma-rine biology among other subjects. The Finnish Marine Research Infrastructure (FINMARI) network, founded in 2013, includes four research institutions, three universities and Arctia Shipping Ltd, which is owned by the Finnish gov-ernment.

GTK also participates in the RAMI (Raw MatTERS Finland Infrastructure) project in cooperation with VTT and Aalto University. The organisations par-ticipating in the project are planning to acquire microtomography equipment next year. It will allow us to analyse the structure and strength properties of

substances without physically breaking them. The purpose of the project is to combine research from across the entire raw material chain and become a global leader in the field.

– In circular economy, better under-standing of both primary and recycled raw materials is needed in order to uti-lise the materials in the most cost-effi-cient and environmentally friendly way. We must participate in creating a Finn-ish solution for the circular economy of geological materials, says Research Professor Raimo Lahtinen from GTK.

GTK has also participated in coordi-nation of large EU projects that have in-creased the visibility of GTK’s expertise – not to mention new requests for part-nership in many international research projects. For example, GTK is one of the 120 members of the EIT Raw Materials consortium, which consists of research institutions, companies and universities from all over Europe.

Cooperation and networking are necessary not only from the point of view of costs, but also competence. In Finland GTK is at the centre of the field of geology and can act as a hub with which universities can cooperate.

– At the national level, it is very important that we create competence clusters and innovation ecosystems that are strong enough and reach the high

standard required to keep up with in-ternational competition, Lahtinen says.

Cooperation also in education

Cooperation benefits everyone. Univer-sities benefit when students get funding and have the opportunity to work in real environments in the research institu-tions. GTK’s specialists, on the other hand, regularly travel to different places to develop their competence or to par-ticipate in different research projects.

The national economy also benefits when the best specialists work together and research can be targeted in an op-timal way. – We try to apply for funding for projects and, in the future, we also plan to develop more joint research pro-jects with universities, Lahtinen says.

In addition to joint research pro-jects, GTK participates in thesis projects of universities, which have traditionally used a lot of GTK’s facilities. GTK and the University of Helsinki have also had extensive cooperation in the field of ed-ucation.

– Many of GTK’s experts are docents who teach specific courses in their own field of expertise. These experts also often supervise theses. An important portion of our Master’s theses is relat-ed to collaboration with the GTK, Tapani Rämö says.

Valokuva: Päivi Kauppila, GTK

Page 12:At the Finland Geosciences Research Laboratory from left: Senior Scientist Hugh O’Brien from GTK, academy postdoctoral researcher Shenghong Yang from University of Oulu and Research Professor Raimo Lahtinen from GTK.

Page 13:In the future, we must work together on spearhead projects and on method development, says Tapani Rämö, Professor of geology and mineralogy at the University of Helsinki.

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Environmentalsurveys throughoutthe mine’s life cycle

Text: Timo Hämäläinen

GTK makes its first surveys on a mining environment when the mine is in its planning stage and its involvement only ends when the mine is closed down.

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS

All stages of a mines life cycle require knowledge of environmental impact based on adequate expertise.

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Environmentalsurveys throughoutthe mine’s life cycle

- The first surveys are already made when the mining com-pany is preparing plans for the mine and is applying for the environmental permit, explains Päivi Kauppila, Senior Scientist at GTK.

GTK maps the soil and the geochemical baseline of groundwater and surface water, examines the characteristics of the mining waste generated by the operations and prepares reports on the environmental impacts of the mining oper-ations. The information will be used in the environmental permit application.

For the environmental impact assessment, scientists at GTK determine how the waters and waste of the mining area can be managed so that the operations are in accordance with the principle of sustainable development.

- We determine how the waste should be handled and what would be its best location, what would be the suitable disposal method and could the waste be used in some way, says Kauppila.

The environmental surveys will continue when the mine is already operational. The aim is to develop processes that are more efficient and less polluting.

The closure of the mine and the time after the closure are also considered in the plans. For example, the aim is to en-sure that the waste is disposed and processed so that it will not cause any environmental damage after the closure. GTK is also actively involved in the development of other tools and methods for mine closure. Mine Closure Wiki (http://mineclo-sure.gtk.fi), a wikisite on mine closure was launched last year.

Broad range of different research

The environmental impacts of a mine largely depend on which ore is extracted and how well the waters and waste of the mine are managed.

- There is now more emphasis on water management and active water treatment methods are under development. We have been cooperating with the University of Eastern Finland in the development of methods in which uranium and sul-phate are removed from mine water.

Experts at GTK are also examining whether natural pro-cesses could be used in water treatment. For example, wet-lands could be used to supplement active water treatment methods.

The aim in the KaiHaMe project is to develop waste man-agement methods. The project is funded by the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF), GTK, Kemira Oyj, FQM Kevitsa Mining Oy and Endomines Oy.

The aim is to reduce the amount of waste generated by the operations and their environmental impacts and to increase waste utilization. Beneficiation tests and lysimeter tests are under way.

The beneficiation tests are carried out at GTK Mintec, GTK´s pilot-scale test plant located in Outokumpu.

Reduction of arsenic content in tailings is one area under investigation in the beneficiation tests. This would help to reduce the amount of hazardous arsenic waste. One idea is to use tailings to cover other mining waste.

- The smaller the amount of environmentally hazardous waste, the lower the costs arising from processing and dispos-al of the waste. More efficient recovery of valuable substances from side streams and wastewater and efficient use of raw materials contained in the ores would help to make production more profitable.

GTK, the National Institute for Health and Welfare and the University of Eastern Finland have jointly developed an inte-grated risk assessment model for assessing both ecological and health risks.

The partners in SUSMIN project have investigated and developed tools to support environmentally, socially and economically sustainable gold mining in EU.

The cooperation project, which is coordinated by GTK, involves sev-en research institutes and universities in different parts of Europe and nine international mining and technology companies.

Gold provides an opportunity for more economic prosperity in Europe. However, there are problems: the low content of gold in ores, the cyanide

solutions used in their extraction and the fact that gold often occurs in com-bination with arsenopyrite. Arsenic is a toxic substance and must not be allowed to spread into the environment.

In the SUSMIN project, GTK has fo-cused on the development of mining environments and enrichment tech-nologies.

- We have developed risk-assess-ment tools that the mines and author-ities can use in quantifying the risks caused by discharge waters, explains Antti Pasanen, Chief Scientist at GTK.

GTK has also developed measuring

methods based on electrical conductiv-ity, which allow estimation of mixing in such environments as rivers to be deter-mined.

The method based on the monitor-ing of stable isotopes provides a tool for determining the sources of the water occurring in a mine.

GTK and its SUSMIN partners will present the results in more detail in the final seminar, which will be held in Finland in October 2016. The reports will be used as a basis for recommendations for the mining industry, environmental authorities and consultancies.

Tools for sustainable gold mining

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GTK’s services are also available to customers outside Finland. For example, in Namibia, GTK was preparing a na-tional uranium policy, while in Peru and Tanzania, it has de-veloped environmental management practices for small-scale mining projects.

Cooperating with partners

GTK plans the research requirements in cooperation with its customers (mining companies and consultancies). The areas concerned usually require in-depth research expertise.

Most of the projects are joint undertakings receiving funding from more than one source. In these projects, GTK is co-operating with research institutes, universities, mining companies and consultancies.

GTK is also involved in the development of environmental impact management in a number of major EU projects, such as ProMine and EuRARE.

Detecting leaksby means offibre opticmeasurements

Acid mine drainage. Photo: Päivi Kauppila, GTK.

The broad range of different fibre measurement methods are extremely well suited to continuous and long-term monitoring in urban and natural environments.

The DTS method detects weak points in dams through which liquids can pene-trate the structure.

GTK applies the DTS method (Dis-tributed Temperature Sensing) to such purposes as the monitoring of temper-atures in energy wells and mine dams.

The condition of a dam can be moni-tored using an arrangement in which an optical fibre cable inside the structure receives laser pulses from a measuring instrument. If the temperature of the measurement point differs from what is normal, liquid has probably penetrated the structure.

Based on the backscattering of the laser pulses, the temperatures can be measured every metre and with an ac-curacy of 0.1 degrees Celsius. The length of the cable can be several kilometres.

– The method is low-cost with good accuracy. The temperatures can be measured for the whole length of the ca-ble simultaneously, explains Ilkka Mar-tinkauppi, Research Assistant at GTK.

Continuous monitoring

If the temperature of the dam and the liquid are the same, the structure can be monitored by means of the active A-DTS method.

In the A-DTS method, as the tem-perature is being measured, the fibre ca-ble is heated and the effective thermal conductivity of the structure is deter-mined. Changes in thermal conductiv-ity of the structure give an indication of changes in liquid content.

Depending on the site, seismic sig-nals can also be determined by means of the acoustic DAS method or the DTSS (strain) method, which measures strain and pressure inside the structure.

The broad range of different fibre measurement methods are extreme-ly well suited to continuous and long-term monitoring in urban and natural environments. The contract with the GTK may only include the planning and supply of technology or it may also cover the monitoring of the dam.

– We can also train the customer’s personnel to use the equipment. Moni-toring of temperatures can be on the site or by means of remote monitoring. We will provide the customers with moni-toring reports, Martinkauppi adds.

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3D modelling brings safety to disposal of nuclear wasteText: Vesa Tompuri

GTK has performed R&D work serving the safety of nuclear waste disposal for almost 40 years. At the current estimate, the disposal of nuclear waste in the Finnish bedrock in the immediate vicinity of the Olkiluoto nuclear power plant will start in 2023.

The first two nuclear power plants were built in Finland in the 1970s. Two of the reactors constructed at the time and still in use were built in Olkiluoto located in the municipality of Eurajoki on the western coast of Finland. At the moment it is estimated that the third reactor unit will be taken into use by the end of the current decade.

The disposal of nuclear waste has naturally been in the agenda of Finnish nuclear power companies from the very start.

– Teollisuuden Voima Oy operates the power plant in Olkiluoto and For-tum Oyj operates the two reactor units in Loviisa east of Helsinki.

Teollisuuden Voima Oy and Fortum Oyj jointly own Posiva Oy established in 1995. Posiva’s primary operating ration-ale is the disposal of spent nuclear fuel created by the power plants of its owner companies.

Posiva has delivered enormous amounts of research materials for reg-ulators/authorities for evaluation, in the compilation of which Posiva has also utilised the wide-ranging exper-tise of GTK. What is unique about this project that has lasted decades is that it combines scientific research looking for

new knowledge with practical applica-tion and method development.

In late 1970s and early 1980s, when this research began, the first object of study was to determine the suitabil-ity of Finnish bedrock for disposal of high-level nuclear waste. It was based on international criteria applied to Finnish conditions.

– Seismically Finland is among the most stable areas in the world. For ex-ample, even eastern Sweden is seismi-cally more active. Of course, there are many other basic factors to take into account, such as future ice ages, and the fact that groundwater becomes sa-line the deeper you get, says Timo Rus-keeniemi, Research Scientist at GTK.

Taking ice ages into account is significant because safe disposal of high-level nuclear waste must be tar-geted at hundreds of thousands of years. Consequently, when planning struc-tures for disposal, recurring ice age stages, covering the rock by up to two kilometre sheet of ice, must be taken into account.

– In the final analysis, these kinds of details belong to the construction project designers, but we have to take them into account in our work, which

must serve the decision-making of the disposal companies and authorities. It is a question of what kinds of solutions can be considered safe enough, says Ruskeeniemi.

Exact science

For almost the entirety of its 40-year duration, the nuclear waste disposal project has aimed at decision-mak-ers having enough reliable informa-tion to support their decision making. A necessary condition of selecting the disposal site was the general informa-tion about Finnish bedrock provided by the GTK. However, it was not nearly enough for the purposes of the disposal programme; what was needed now was new knowledge about subjects that had not been studied before.

Before, it was enough to know the properties of the rock, for example, at accuracy required by normal tunnel con-struction. For example, it was enough that fractured zones were recognised as excavation in a mine or other under-ground space proceeded. When it comes to safe disposal of spent nuclear fuel in bedrock a much more comprehensive understanding of fracturing is needed.

RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT

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This has required best geological and geophysical research competence.

– Geophysical methods have played an essential part when studying the ge-ological preconditions of the candidate sites in increasingly detailed manner, says geophysicist Markku Paananen, Senior Scientist for GTK.

More “general” rock study does not necessarily reveal at required accuracy the small physical differences, which may play a decisive part for disposal of nuclear waste. For example, thermal conductivity of the rock is an extreme-ly important property when evaluating and calculating how close to each other disposal canisters producing decay heat can be placed.

3D models and modern research methods produce as accurate data as possible

In 2000s, research methods and modelling techniques have taken great strides.

– Earlier, you needed to make con-clusions on the geology of bedrock largely based on what you could see on the outcrops. In this sense, it is a huge step to be able to study bedrock as a three-dimensional whole in ONKALO, the underground rock characterisation facility in Olkiluoto, instead of relying solely on limited number of drillholes, says Seppo Paulamäki, Geologist for GTK, who like Markku Paananen has worked in the disposal project for more than 29 years.

With humbleness typical of experi-enced geophysicist, Paananen also em-phasizes the intuition of researchers in a situation when a conclusion must be drawn based on partly incomplete facts.

– Modern research methods and 3D models produce accurate data and explicit interpretations. Nevertheless, when studying very small details, such as individual fractures and their contin-uations, it always feels that the conclu-sions must be done with rather limited amount of data, says Paulamäki.

Extensive interdisciplinary research has provided the means to define the rock area suitable for disposal. 3D mod-elling has been an essential tool in this work.

In the mid-1980s, the disposal project was at a stage dur-ing which GTK’s researchers compared the suitability of 101 potential disposal locations. From among these, Teollisuuden Voima selected five areas for preliminary disposal site studies in 1987.

Starting from 1993, detailed site studies were continued in three areas. After the new Nuclear Energy Act prohibited the export of spent nuclear fuel, Posiva Oy begun studies also in Loviisa site. In 1999, Posiva made the decision to propose Olkiluoto as the disposal site of high-level nuclear waste.

From 101potential disposal locations to 1

Seppo Paulamäki and Markku Paananen have studied safe disposal since the 1980s. Modern 3D modelling is an essential tool when looking to get as reliable research results as possible.

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CURRENT RESEARCH

Newpublications Ground penetrating radar and assessment of natural stoneLuodes, Hannu 2015. Report of Investigation, vol. 223.

http://tupa.gtk.fi/julkaisu/tutkimusraportti/tr_223.pdf

14th Natural Analogue Working Group Workshop (NAWG14), Olkiluoto 9–11 June 2015, Abstract Book.Alexander, W. Russell, Reijonen, Heini, Ruskeeniemi, Timo (eds) 2015. Guide, vol. 61.

http://tupa.gtk.fi/julkaisu/opas/op_061.pdf

Komatiite-hosted Ni-Cu-PGE deposits in Finland: Their characterization, PGE content, and petrogenesis Konnunaho, J. 2016Special Publications, vol. 92.

http://tupa.gtk.fi/julkaisu/erikoisjulkaisu/ej_092.pdf

Geophysical signatures of mineral deposit types in Finland Airo, Meri-Liisa 2015.Special Paper, vol. 58.

http://tupa.gtk.fi/julkaisu/specialpaper/sp_058.pdf

Uusia julkaisuja

Ground penetrating radar and assessment of natural stone

Hannu Luodes

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF FINLAND

Report of Investigation 223 2015

Komatiite-hosted Ni-Cu-PGE deposits in Finland: Their characterization, PGE content, and petrogenesis

Jukka Konnunaho

mallikuva; kuva-alan koko voi vaihdella

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF FINLANDEspoo 2016

Academic Dissertation

Abstract Book

14th Natural Analogue Working Group Workshop (NAWG14), Olkiluoto 9-11 June 2015

W. Russell Alexander, Heini Reijonen and Timo Ruskeeniemi (eds)

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF FINLAND

Guide 61 2015

TERVOLA

TORNIO

ROVANIEMI

Liakka

Kivimaa

Vähäjoki

Sompujärvi

Kivilompolo

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF FINLAND

Special Paper 58 2015

Geophysical signatures of mineral deposit types in Finland

Edited by Meri-Liisa Airo

19Geofoorumi 2/2016

Geological Survey of FinlandEspoo • Kokkola • Kuopio • Loppi • Outokumpu • Rovaniemigtk.fi • Tel. +358 29 503 0000 • Business ID: 0244680-7

gtk.fi

NewGeological Mapof Finland – Bedrock 1 : 1,000,000hakku.gtk.fi