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71 Volume 21, Number 1, Spring 2012 The Impact of Scripted Literacy Instruction on Teachers and Students Rocío Dresser San José State University Issues in Teacher Education, Spring 2012 Scripted reading programs have had a negative impact on teachers and students around the country. Many school districts have adopted these programs as a way to comply with state and federal mandates (Griffith, 2008; Milosovic, 2007). This move from teacher led to scripted instruction has left teachers feeling powerless and overwhelmed. They are often caught between what they are asked to do and what they know is right for their students (MacGillivray,Ardell, Curwen, & Palma, 2004). It is even more problematic for teachers when they see that English learners and other students with special needs are not meeting their academic goals. The question educators ask is what makes a student a proficient reader? Last fall a young woman approached me and asked me if I remembered her. Minerva was one of my fifth-grade English learning students and was now a senior in college. She fondly remembers our fifth-grade class, including the plays, songs, and book clubs. She was the lead actor for one of our plays that dealt with the American Revolution. That year the students read many selections related to this historical period and later wrote a script for the play. In middle school, Minerva joined the school theater and participated in several performances. Even though she was not proficient in English during the fifth grade and she came from a family that had limited resources, she was able to Rocío Dresser is an associate professor in the College of Education at San José State University. Her email address is [email protected]

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Volume 21, Number 1, Spring 2012

The Impact of Scripted Literacy Instructionon Teachers and Students

Rocío DresserSan José State University

Issues in Teacher Education, Spring 2012

Scriptedreadingprogramshavehadanegativeimpactonteachersandstudentsaroundthecountry.Manyschooldistrictshaveadoptedtheseprogramsasawaytocomplywithstateandfederalmandates(Griffith,2008;Milosovic,2007).Thismovefromteacherledtoscriptedinstructionhasleftteachersfeelingpowerlessandoverwhelmed.Theyareoftencaughtbetweenwhattheyareaskedtodoandwhattheyknowisrightfortheirstudents(MacGillivray,Ardell,Curwen,&Palma,2004).It isevenmoreproblematicforteacherswhentheyseethatEnglishlearnersandotherstudentswithspecialneedsarenotmeetingtheiracademicgoals. Thequestioneducatorsaskiswhatmakesastudentaproficientreader? Last fall a young woman approached me and asked me if Irememberedher.Minervawasoneofmyfifth-gradeEnglishlearningstudentsandwasnowaseniorincollege.Shefondlyremembersourfifth-gradeclass,includingtheplays,songs,andbookclubs.ShewastheleadactorforoneofourplaysthatdealtwiththeAmericanRevolution.Thatyearthestudentsreadmanyselectionsrelatedtothishistoricalperiodandlaterwroteascriptfortheplay.Inmiddleschool,Minervajoined the school theater and participated in several performances.EventhoughshewasnotproficientinEnglishduringthefifthgradeandshecamefromafamilythathadlimitedresources,shewasableto

Rocío Dresser is an associate professor in the College of Education at San José State University. Her email address is [email protected]

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achievehereducationalgoals,includingbecomingaproficientreader.LikeMinerva,childrenaroundthecountrycanbecomeavidreadersiftheylearntoenjoyreading. Today,effectiveandcreativeteacherdesigned instruction isbeingreplacedbyscriptedreadingprograms.Theseprogramsarechangingtheroleoftheteacherintheclassroomfromprofessionalstomeretransmittersofknowledge.Theideathattheroleoftheteacherhadchangedbecameevidentwhileconductingastudywithelementaryschoolteachersfromalocalschool.ThefiveparticipatingteacherswereconcernedabouttheirEnglishlearners(ELs)notmeetingtheiracademicrequirements.Theyattributedtheirstudents’low-testscorestothefactthatalargenumberofthemwereproficientdecoders,butstruggledwithreadingcomprehensionandcontentknowledge.Theyfeltthatthescriptedliteracyprogramwasrushedanddidnotgivethemenoughtimetotakeacloserlookatstudents’individualreadingneeds.Thisarticlebeginswithabriefoverviewoftheinitialstudyandpresentssomeoftheunexpectedfindings.Thearticlealsoexploressomeoftheunintendedconsequencesofscriptedreadingprogramsaswellastheclaimsmadebysomeproponents.Attheend,itprovidessomealternativestoscriptedinstruction.

The Study

ThiswasanActionResearchstudy.Inactionresearch,thegoalisforteachersandtheresearchertoworktogethertoidentifytheproblem,formulatetheresearchquestion,collectandanalyzethedata,andinter-pretthefindings(Savin-Baden&Wimpenny,2007).Theparticipatingteachersdidnotthinkthescriptedreadingprogramtheywereusingwaseffectiveinthatalargenumberofstudentshaddifficultycomprehend-ingtextandrememberingcomplexconcepts.Inanattempttoaddresstheseneeds,thisstudyexaminedtheimpactofblendingtwowell-knownteachingmethods,ReciprocalTeachingandNarrowReading.Thegoalwasfortheparticipatingteacherstolearnhowtoimbedthesetwomethodsintothescriptedreadingprogramandacrossthecurriculum.Scriptedreadingprogramsarecommerciallydesignedand“scientifically-based”literacyprograms inwhich language instruction ishighlycontrolled(Milosovic,2007,p.28).ReciprocalTeachingandNarrowReadingwereselectedbecauseithasbeennotedthatinstructionalmethodsthatdealwiththeintegrationoftwotypesofknowledge:(a)declarativeknowledge(knowledgeofconceptsandprinciples)(Chi&Ceci,1987;Heibert,1986),and(b)linguisticcontentknowledge(academiclanguage)(Cummins,2000)aremosteffective(Dresser,2000). Reciprocal Teaching helps students develop knowledge modules

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inlong-termmemorythatcanbeaccessedbythelearnerwhenneeded(Brown&Palincsar,1985;Lubliner,2001).Studentslearncognitivestrat-egiessuchaspredicting,questioning,clarifyingandsummarizing.Theyworkingroupsoffourwheretheydiscussthereadingselection.Eachstudentisresponsibleforoneofthestrategies.Learnerswhomasterthesestrategiestendtohavebetterreadingcomprehensionskills(Brown&Palincsar,1985;Takala,2006).ThegoalofNarrowReadingistoincreasevocabularyandcontentknowledgebyreadingselectionsfromonegenre,author,ortheme(Cho,Ahn,&Krashen,2005;Schmitt&Carter,2000).This recycling provides the reader with familiar context, backgroundknowledgeandvocabulary,whichincreasesreadingcomprehensionandlearning(Cho,Ahn,&Krashen)asdepictedinFigure1. Anintegratedthematiclanguageartsandscienceunitwasdesignedandimplementedinallfourthgradeclassesinaninnercityelementaryschoolforsixweeks.Thesciencecomponentforthisunitconsistedofrocksandminerals,whichisalignedwiththeCaliforniasciencecontentstandardsforpublicschoolsforfourthgrade(http://www.cde.ca.gov/be/st/ss/documents/sciencestnd.pdf).Threepreandpost-tests(QualitativeReadingInventory[QRI],anessay,andacontentareateacher-designedtest)wereadministeredtoallstudents.TheQRIincludesacollectionofexpositoryandnarrativereadingmaterials.Itassessesstudents’priorknowledge,readingfluency,vocabulary,readingcomprehension,retellingandtheirabilitytorespondtoimplicitandexplicitquestions(Leslie&SchudtCaldwell,2005). Asteacherspredicted,thepre-testsshowedthat18%ofthestudentsweredecodingbelowgradelevelandhadlimitedcomprehension.Seventy-onepercentofthestudentsweredecodingatgradelevel;incontrast,theywereatafrustrationorinstructionallevelinreadingcomprehen-sion.Elevenpercentofstudentsreadatanindependentlevelandwereataninstructionalorindependentlevelinreadingcomprehension. Atthebeginningofthestudy,teachersandstudentsparticipatedinReciprocalTeachingreadingactivities.Oncestudentsunderstoodtheirroles and learned how to use the reading comprehension strategies,theyreadinsmallgroups.Alargecollectionofbooks,videosandalist

Figure 1Comprehension and Learning

ComprehensionandLearning

FamiliarContext BackgroundKnowledge Vocabulary

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ofwebsitesthatdealtwithrocksweremadeavailableforstudentsandteachers.Thestudentsreadseveralselectionsonrocksandminerals,participatedinexperiments,drewtherockcycle,classifiedrocks,devel-opedvocabularylists,andwrotepredictions,questionsandsummaries.TheyalsoviewedvideosandusedtheInternettoaccesswebsites.Attheendofthestudy,thedatawerecollected,codedandanalyzed.Theresults showed that12%of thestudentsweredecodingbelowgradelevelandhadlimitedcomprehension.Therewasasmallimprovementamongthisgroupofstudents.ThefactthattheywerelimitedEnglishspeakersmayexplainwhytheyhaddifficultyreadingandwriting.TheintermediateEnglishlearnersmadethelargestgains.Seventypercentofthestudentsreadatgradelevel.Only5%wereatafrustrationlevelinreadingcomprehensionwhereastherestofthestudentsachievedaninstructionallevel.Thestudentsreadingatanindependentlevelrosefrom11%to18%.Amajorityofthesestudentsachievedanindependentlevelofreadingcomprehension. Thefirstassessmentsshowedthatstudentshadlittleornoknowledgeofrocks.Theyrespondedtothecontentknowledgequestions(Whatisamineral?)withoneortwowordresponses(“big,alot”)ortheywrote,“Idonotknow.”Attheendofthestudy,studentsrespondedincompletesentencesandusedthevocabularyrelatedtorocksandminerals.Danielwrote,“Someofthethings[materials]youmightfindinrocksarelava,soil, and minerals.”They wrote summaries that demonstrated theirunderstandingofrocksandminerals.Mayrawrote:

IhavejustreadthearticleMagma.Itsaysthatwhenmagmarisesuptothesurface[oftheearth]itmakescrackstomakespace.Themagmamightmeltsomepartsoftherocks,thenitcoolsdown.Thecrystalshavetimetogrowbecausethemagmacoolsslowly.Graniteisonethatcoolsslowly.Pegmatiteandgabbroarealsorocksthatformwhenmagmacoolsdown.(M.Martinez,personalcommunication,March24,2009)

ItwasevidentthatReciprocalTeachingandNarrowReadinghadapositiveimpactonstudentsreadingcomprehensionandcontentlearning.Nevertheless,oncethestudywasoveronlyoneoftheteachersoccasion-allycontinuedusingReciprocalTeachingandNarrowReading.

Unexpected Findings

TheparticipatingteachersattendedthreeprofessionaldevelopmentsessionsatthebeginningofthestudytolearnhowtoteachandimbedReciprocalTeachingandNarrowReadingintothecurriculum.Throughoutthetraining,theywereinvolvedandresponsive.Anunexpectedfinding,however,emergedfromthisstudy.Theteachers’eagernessdissipated

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soonaftertheyrealizedthatthestudyrequiredteacher-designedlessonsandassessments.Theirroleslowlymorphedfromactiveparticipantsintopassivedeliverersofinstruction.Theweekthatthestudywasgoingtobeginoneteacherdroppedoutcomplainingthathehadtoomuchwork.Theotherfourteacherscommentedthattheydidnothaveenoughtimeorthepropermaterialstodesignthelessonsandassessmentsforthestudy.TheyrequestedthatIteachthenewmethodstothechildren.Theyalsoaskedforthecompletesetoflessonplansandmaterialsneededforthedurationofthestudy.Therequestsweregranted.Thetwomethodswereintroducedtothestudentsandtheinitiallessonsweretaught.Ad-ditionally,aseriesofinterdisciplinarylanguageartsandsciencelessons,includingmaterials,wereprovided. Ayearafterthestudyended,theteacherswerecontactedandaskedto provide feedback on the interventions. The teachers found thesemethodstobevaluableandengaging.Oneteacherwrote,

IreallyenjoyedusingReciprocalTeachingandNarrowReading.Ilikedthateachstudenthadaspecificroleinreadingthetextandapplyingareadingstrategy.Itengagedallstudentsandmadedifficulttexts(e.g., science) more readable. (M. Rosell, personal communication,April15,2010)

Anotherteacheroffered,

Mystudentsdefinitelybecamemoreindependentlearners.Theysortofinternalizedwhatitmeanstotakechargeoftheirowneducationandhowtolearnwithouttheconstantguidanceofateacher.(A.Campbell,personalcommunication,April19,2010)

Itisunfortunatethattheseteachersdidnotcontinueimplementingtheinterventions.Theyallfeltthesemethodshadapositiveeffectonstudentachievementandinterest.Nevertheless,theyexpressedtheirinabilitytoaddnewinstructionalmethodstowhattheywerealreadydoingbecauseoftheirmanyresponsibilitiesandtimeconstraints.Oneteachercommented:

IamnotusingReciprocalTeachingrightnowbecauseofmyhesita-tionwithsettingupanewsystem[program].[I]amtoocaughtupintheday-to-dayandmanagingmycurrentsystems[scriptedprogram]thatIhaven’tfoundanopportunitytopushitinandkeepitgoing.(M.Rosell,personalcommunication,April15,2010)

Onecannothelpbutaskwhatmadehardworkinganddedicatedteachersarriveataplaceofsuchpowerlessnessandreluctancetowardsteacher-designed instruction? Ihave taught literacycourses forovertenyearsataStateUniversityinNorthernCalifornia.Thelasteight

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yearsteachingthesecourseshasbecomemoreandmorechallenging.Studentteachersoftencommentthattheeffectivepracticestheylearnedinclassdonotmatchscriptedreadingprogramstheyareaskedtouseintheschools.Theyarguethatthecurrenteducationaltrendhasleftthemtrappedintoprogramandtestdriveninstruction.Teachersfeelthattheseprogramsdonottakeintoconsiderationtheirprofessionaljudgmentortheindividualneedsofthestudents(Moustafa&Land,2002).Ateachercandidateshared:

Ibelievethatthesevariousteachingstyles[methods]areawonder-fulideabuttheschooldistrictsarenotimplementingthemintotheschools.Asteachers,ourhandsaretiedandwearetoldtoteachtothetestorgiveourstudentscountlessassessmentsbothformalandinfor-mal.Itappearsthattheseteachingstyles/methodsareconceptualized[contained]withinuniversities.Ourschooldistrictsandtheeducationsystemarenotintunewithbothteachersandstudents.(F.Burnham,personalcommunication,September18,2010)

The Unintended Consequences of Scripted Programs

ScriptedreadingprogramslikeOpen Court,Reading Mastery,andSuccess for Allhavebeenaroundforsometime(McGraw-HillCompa-nies,n.d.;BusinessRoundtable,n.d.;NationalAssociationofElementarySchoolPrincipals,2002;U.S.DepartmentofEducationInstituteofEduca-tionSciences,2006).Thepushfortheseprograms,however,beganwiththereleaseofastudybytheNationalReadingPanel(NRP)in2000insupportofsystematicphonicsandphonemicawarenessinstructioninearlygrades(McIntyre,Rightmyer,&Petrosko,2008;Milosovic,2007;U.S.DepartmentofHealthandHumanServicesPublicHealthService,2000).TheNRPpanelwasnotabletoidentifywithcertaintythetypeofactivities,strategies,andinteractionsthatweremosteffective(U.S.DepartmentofHealthandHumanServices,2002).Additionally,thepaneldidnotendorseaparticularscriptedprogramandcautionedthatmoreresearchshouldbedoneinthisarea.Inspiteofthequalificationsofthereport,thefindingsoftheNRPstudyinsupportofsystematicphonemicawarenessandphonicsinstructionintheearlygradeswereutilizedasafoundationforendorsingorpromotingReading First(Griffith,2008).Reading FirstunderTitleIofNoChildLeftBehind(NCLB)includesasectionthatstatesthatresearch-basedprogramsandmaterialsmustbeusedtoensurethateverychildwillbeabletoreadatgradelevelbytheendofthirdgrade(U.S.DepartmentofEducation,2002,p.27).Furthermore, school districts that adopt scientifically based readingprograms for students in kindergarten through third grade receive

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funding.Thisresolutionlimitsschooldistrictstocommerciallydesignedreadingprogramsandnarrowstheselectionofteachingmethodsthatcanbeused. Schoolteachersarecurrentlydealingwiththeunintendedrepercus-sionsoftheNCLBlegislation.Thedrivetocomplywithfederalandstatemandateshasleftteachersindissonancebetweentheirownphilosophyofeducationandthatoftheirschools(MacGillivray,Ardell,Curwen,&Palma,2004).Theyareaskedtofollowreadingprogramsstep-by-step,treatingteachinglikeamerecookingrecipe.Giroux(2010)callstheseclassrooms a “dead zone” where critical thinking, self-reflection andimaginationarebeinglefttooutsidesources.Thereisnoroomforcre-ativemethodsofinstructionlikethoseusedinMinerva’sclass.Scriptedinstructiontakestheplaceoftheteacher.Theprogramdetermineswhattheteacherwillsayanddo,aswellasthepaceofthelesson(Hall,2009;MacGillivray,Ardell,Curwen,&Palma,2004). Teachercandidatesfirstfeeltheclashbetweenwhattheylearninteacherpreparationprogramsandwhatisdoneinschoolswhentheyentertheteachingprofession.Manynoviceteachers,whoareforcedtoshiftfromdesigninginstructionthattargetstheindividualneedsofthestudents,oftenresist“aonefitsall”instructionthatreliesonexternalsolutions(Griffith,2008;MacGillivray,Ardell,Curwen,&Palma,2004).Someoftheteachersfightbackandtrytodesignmoreindividualizedcurriculum,butlatersurrenderaftertheyareadmonishedfornotfollowingtheschool’sadoptedscriptedprogram(MacGillivray,Ardell,Curwen,&Palma,2004).Thedrive to scripted instruction is contradictory towhat researchershavefoundtobeeffective.Itiswellknownthatitisnottheprogramormethodofinstructionthatmakesanimpactonstudentachievement.Itisaknowledgeableandeffectiveteacherwhomakesadifference(Arnon&Reichel,2007;Griffith,2008;Milosovic,2007;Ruddell,2006). Notonlydoesitappearthatscriptedliteracyprogramsinterferewithandundermineateacher’sabilitytoteachliteracy,butinfactevi-denceshowsthatscriptedprogramsnegativelyaffectstudents’readingdevelopment.Researchindicatesthatstudentsinschoolswherescriptedprogramswereusedfortenyearsormoretendtolagbehindstudentsinschoolswithnon-scriptedprograms.MoustafaandLand(2002)con-ductedastudyinCaliforniawithsecondthroughfifthgradestudentsfrom153schools.TheyfoundnoevidencethattheOpen Courtprogrampromoteshigherearlyreadingachievementamongchildrenfromlowsocio-economicgroups.Instead,theirresultsshowedthatstudentsinnon-scriptedprogramsoutperformedstudents inschoolsusingOpen Court. Other researchers have conducted similar short-term studiesandfoundnosignificantdifferencebetweenstudentsinphonics-driven

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programsandthoseinnon-scriptedprograms(McIntyre,Rightmyer,&Petrosko,2008). Amajorconcerneducatorshaveaboutscriptedreadingprogramsisthattheycantakeuptothreehoursperday,leavinglittletimetoteachothersubjects(Milosovic,2007;Moustafa&Land,2002).Eventhoughthereisablockoftimeallocatedforlanguagearts,manyteacherscom-plainthatthelessonsarerushed.Thereisnotenoughtimetorevisitcomplex concepts students have not mastered. In many low-incomeschools,thetimeallocatedtosubjects likescience,socialstudies,artandphysicaleducationisminimalornon-existent.Thiscanincreasethegapbetweenunderrepresentedandmoreaffluentstudentpopulations.Forexample,English learnersusingOpen CourthavebeenfoundtolagbehindEnglishspeakers(Lee,Ajayi&Richards,2007).Oneofthemainproblemsthesestudentsarefacingisthattheyarenotacquiringthenecessaryacademiclanguagerequiredforthemtosucceedinschool(August&Hakuta,1997;Cummins,2000).Theonlywaythestudentscanachievehighlevelsoflanguageandcontentknowledgeisiftheylearnthecontentandthelanguagerelatedtoallsubjects.Forinstance,itisdifficulttounderstandwhytheartshavebeenoneofthemostignoredcontentareasinschoolsinthelastfewyears.Theartspromoteinterestandlearningacrossallareasofthecurriculum(Appel,2006,Dresser,2003;Eisner,2003).Throughthearts,studentscanlearnmanythingsincludingmathematics(e.g.,shapes),vocabulary(e.g.,perspective,rhythmand surface), discipline and creativity. Brouillette (2010) found thattheartspromotesocio-cognitiveunderstandingamongEnglishlearn-ers.Studentslearnthatcomprehensionandexpressionareinfluencedbyculture.ThiscanhelpEnglishlearnersadaptmoreeasilytoanewcultureandlanguage.

Supporters of Scripted Programs

Supportersofscriptedinstructionclaimthattheseprogramsareeffectiveanduserfriendly.Open Court Readingisdescribedontheirwebsiteasaresearch-basedcurriculumgroundedinsystematic,explicitinstructionofphonemicawareness,phonics,wordknowledge,compre-hensionskills,inquirystrategies,andwriting(OpenCourt,2002).Thewebsitestatesthatstudentswill“mastervirtuallyeverysound/spellinginthelanguage”(http://www.opencourtresources.com/ocr/about/about.html).Someteacherslikethefactthattheseprogramspromotedirectphonemic instruction and have helpful graphic organizers (Griffith,2008).Teacherswhohavehadminimalexperienceteachingreadingandliteracyfindscriptedreadingprogramshelpfulbecausetheycomewith

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ateacher’sguide,students’textbooksandworkbooks.Mostimportantofall,noviceteacherslikefactthatmanyprogramsincludepre-designedlessonplans.Somearguethatteacherscanalwaysenhancescriptedinstructionlikeatalentedactorwhobringsthescriptofaplaytolife(Commwyras,2007).Supportersoftheseprogramsaffirmthattheresultscanbemeasuredobjectively.Additionally,somescriptedprogramshavedemonstratedanincreaseinliteracyrates(Milosovic,2007).McIntyre,Rightmyer,andPetrosko(2008)cautionthattherehavebeenmanystud-iesconductedontheeffectivenessofscriptedprograms.However,onlyafewofthearticlesthatemergedfromthesestudieshavebeenpublishedinpeer-reviewedjournals.Themajoritythemhavebeenpublishedinjournalsfromtheuniversitieswheretheseprogramsweredeveloped.

Alternative to Scripted Programs

Manydistrictsareusingscriptedprogramsasapanaceatosolvetheacademicproblemsofthestudents.Duncan-Owens(2009)quotesan old Chinese proverb as a metaphor to scripted instruction.Theproverb states that giving a man a fish only solves an immediateproblem.Teachingthemantofishprepareshimforalifeofsuccess.Insteadofrelyingonexpensivecommerciallydesignedprogramstoeducatechildren,districtsandteachereducationprogramscouldformpartnershipsthatsupportteachersduringtheinductionpartoftheircareers (Doolittle,Sudeck,&Rattigan,2008;Hamos,Bergin,Maki,Perez,Prival,Rainey,etal.,2009).Thepurposeshouldbetograduallyreleasethenoviceteacherintothechallengingprofessionofteachingwithouthavingtorelyonapre-packagedkittoteachreading(Barry,1997;Commwyras,2007). In1988theCaliforniaNewTeacherProject(CNTP)leadastudyandfoundthatnoviceteachersdobenefitfromamentoringprogramduringtheirinitialyearsworkingintheclassroom.Basedontheresearchfind-ingsoftheCNTPstudy,thestatesenatepassedSenateBill(SB)1422,whichcreatedtheBeginningTeacherSupportandAssessment(BTSA)Inductionprogram(Lovo,Cavazos,&Simmons,2006).BTSAprovidesindividualizedsupportandformativeassessmentfornewly-credentialteachers(CaliforniaInductionBTSABeginningTeachersSupportAs-sessment, 2008). In 1998, subsequent legislation (SB 2042) changedteacherrecruitment,certificationandlicensing.Traditionally,collegesanduniversitieswereresponsiblefortheeducationofteachers.Duetotheshortageofteachersduringthe1980s,thestateapprovedmultiplepathwaystocertificationincludingthecontextstoteacherpreparationtoschooldistrictsandcountyofficesofeducation(Hafner&Maxie,2006).

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TheSenateBillSB2042extendedtheeffortsofSB1422byforminganAdvisoryPanelforDevelopmentofTeacherPreparationStandards. AccordingtotheDevelopmentofTeacherReporttotheCaliforniaCommissiononTeacherCredentialing(2006),thepanelwasresponsiblenotonlyfordevelopingtheteacherpreparationstandards,butalsofor:

redesigningteacherpreparationprogramstoensuretheintegrationof subject matter studies and professional preparation, including astandard-basedteacherperformanceassessment,andprovidingatwoyearinductionprogramforallnewteachersasameanstoearntheirCaliforniaClearCredential.

TheobjectiveofBTSAInductionprogramsisforteacherstohaveasmoothtransitionfromtheirteacherpreparationprogramsintotheclassroom.Candidatesworkwithveteranteacherswhoareprimarilyresponsibleforprovidingrigorousindividualizedsupportandmentor-ing(Meckel&Rolland,2000).Someadditionalimportantgoalsoftheprogramincludeteacherretention,andstudentachievementthroughan inquiry based professional development model (Lovo, Cavazos, &Simmons,2006).Currentlegislationencouragesthecollaborationamongschooldistricts,universities,andcountyofficesofeducation. The NCATE Blue Ribbon Panel Report (2010) proposed anothermodel,aclinical teachereducationprogramthatgoesbeyond induc-tion.Thisrigorousclinicalprogramprovidesteachercandidateswiththeopportunitytolearnabouttheory,researchandcontentwhiletheyareteaching.Thepanelrecommendsthatteachereducationprogramsanddistrictsformpartnershipswithacommonmissionthatincludescarefulselectionofteachercandidatesandclearexpectations.Account-abilityisevidence-basedinthatthemeasurementofteachercandidates’effectiveness is based on student outcome.Partnerships suchas theoneproposedbytheBlueRibbonPanelcanserveasabridgethathelpsbeginningteachersconnectcourseworkwithclassroompractice.Thisclinicalmodelprovidesopportunitiesforprofessionaltrainingandsup-portforteachers,whichwillresultinacademicachievementforstudents(Mullen&Hutinger,2008). Asidefromstronginductionteachereducationprogramsnoviceteacherbenefitfrom:(a)developingasenseofmission(Banks,2001;Nieto,2005);(b)becomingknowledgeable(Ruddell,2006);and(c)developingasenseofmoralandsocialresponsibility(Freire,1970;Nelson&Harper,2006).

Sense of Mission

Teacherswhoviewteachingasamissiontendtohaveahighersenseofsatisfactionandasaresultcanbemoreeffective.Theyarededicated

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individualswhohaveasenseofperseverance(Ripley,2010).Thismeansthattheyaddresseverydaychallengeswithdeterminationandmaturity.Theyareflexibleandunderstandtheimportanceoflookingattheworldfromdifferentperspectives(Dresser,2003;Doll,1993;Freire,1970;Nelson&Harper,2006).Theyhavestudent-centeredclassroomswherestudentinterestandexperiencesaretakenintoconsiderationtodesigninstruc-tion.Theteacherknowsthecurriculumwell,butencouragesstudentstotaketheinitiative.Theyknowthatlearningoccurswhenstudentsareinvolvedandchallenged(Vygotsky,1962).ThiswasdifficulttodoinMinerva’sclassbecausetherewerestudentsatdifferentlinguisticandacademiclevels.However,teacherscanadaptthecurriculum,materi-alsandpracticestomakeitinterestingforthestudentsandtoensureacademicsuccess.Itisimportanttoviewlearningasanongoingprocessnotonlyforthechildrenbutalsoforteachers(Ada,2003).Teacherswithasenseofmissionareconstantlylookingforwaystoimprove.Teachersrequiredtousescriptedliteracyoftenlosethissenseofmissionwhentheyfeelthattheirknowledgeandexpertisearenotvalued.

Knowledgeable Teachers

Effectiveteachersareknowledgeableabouttheirstudentsandthecurriculum.They know the students’ linguistic and academic levels(Nieto,2005;Peregoy&Boyle,2000).Theseteachersareawareoftheirstudents’physical,emotional,social,andacademicstrengthsandneeds.Theychallengestudentstoviewissuesfromcomplexanddifferentper-spectives(Nelson&Harper,2006).Theyencouragelearnerstobecriticalthinkersandtoquestionthestatusquo(Doll,1993;Dresser,2003).Theseteachersknowthatforstudentstodowellthestudentsmustbeactivelearnersinsteadofpassivereceiversofknowledge.Studentsneedtobeinvolvedincurriculumdevelopmentandevaluation. Forexample,Minervaandherclassmateschosetowriteascriptandputontheplayaspartoftheirsocialstudiesfinal.Teacherswhoworkatschoolswheretheyplayapivotalroleincurriculumdevelopmentandimplementationtendtobeopentochangeandaremorepleasedwiththeirprofession(Griffith,2008).Theydesigninstructionthatisrigor-ousyetflexibleenoughtoincludetheinterestsoftheirstudents(Doll,1993;Gándara,2004).Theyusetextbooksandmaterialsasresourcestoenrichinstruction.Teachersshouldbeabletoadaptthecurriculum,includingscriptedreadingprograms,tomeettheneedsofalllearners.Theyshouldhavetimetoengageinmeaningfuldiscussionsandlearn-ingactivitieswiththestudents.

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Moral and Social Responsibility of Teachers

Teacherswithasenseofmoralandsocialresponsibilityareproac-tiveagentsof change.Theyappreciate their students’ linguisticandculturaldifferencesand they see thosedifferencesasassets insteadofweaknesses(Banks,2001;Ford,2010;Unrau,2003).Theypreparestudentstoberesponsiblecitizensoftheworld.Theylookatwaystoextendinstructionbeyondtheclassroomtohelpchildrenseethattheyarepartofalargercomplexsociety.Theseteachersusetechnologyandotherresourcestomakelearningandteachingalive. Most importantly, dedicated educators understand that their re-sponsibilitygoesbeyondtheclassroom(Nieto,2005;Shor,1992).Theyareinvolvedinschoolaswellaslocalassociationsandorganizationasawaytoimpacteducationallegislation.Manyteachersusingscriptedprogramsareafraidtorejectorevenquestionschooldistrictadoptedprograms,evenwhenstudentsare failing. Instead, they complyandfollowalimitedprepackagedmodelofeducation.

Conclusion

There isaneed to look carefullyat scriptedprogramsand theirimpactonstudentsandteachers.Thedriveforstandardizedcurriculahas leftmany childrenunpreparedand teachersdisillusionedabouttheirprofession(Griffith,2008;Milosovic,2007).Theeffectivenessoftheseprogramshasbeenquestionedassomeevidenceindicatestheyhavenotbeenfoundtomeettheneedsofindividualstudents.Scriptedprograms keep education and learning at a superficial level in thattheynarrowopportunitiesforteachersandstudentstobeinnovative.Theycannotdeviatefromthescriptedcurriculumtoexploreoransweraquestiontheymighthaveortoincludestudents’interests.Teachersfeelthatthereisnotenoughtimetoreviewortorevisitsomeimportantconcepts.NelsonandHarper(2006)callthisapproachthe“CliffNotes”methodtoeducation,whichleaveslittleroomfordeeperlevelsofthink-ingand“processingwhichshortchangesthestudentsbyprovidinganimpoverishededucationalexperience”(p.7). Motivatedandknowledgeableteachers,whoareaskedtorelinquishtheirviewsonbestpracticestofollowascriptedprogram,feeloverwhelmedandfrustrated.EventhoughthestudyonReciprocalTeachingandNar-rowReadingreferredtoearliershowedapositiveimpactonstudents’reading comprehension skills, vocabulary development and contentlearning,theteachersfelttheyhadnooptionbuttorevertbacktotheirscriptedreadingprogram.AsMartacommented,they“hadnotimetotrynewmethods”(M.Rosell,April15,2010,personalcommunication).

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Abetteroptiontoscriptedinstructionistoprepareteacherswiththenecessaryknowledge,dispositionsandskillstosucceed.Districtperson-nelandteacherpreparationinstructorsneedtotakeacloserlookatwaystoensureamoresecureandsuccessfulinductionpathforteachercandidates.Itisessentialforteacherstolearnandalsotoreceivethemessageinreturnfromtheirschooldistrictsthattheyplayapivotalpartinstudents’success(Nieto,2005).Similarly,teachersmustunderstandthatbeinggoodteachersisnotenough(Jong&Harper,2005).Educa-torsmustbecomeadvocatesfortheirstudentsbysearchingforwaystoimpactlegislation. Iwasaschoolteacherformanyyearsandrememberwellmyfirstyearofteaching.Ihadaclassof32veryenergeticfifth-gradebilingualstudents.OneofthemostenergeticoneswasMinerva.ThestudentswereallEnglishlearnerswithdifferentlinguisticabilitylevelsinEnglishandSpanish.Ibegantheschoolyearwithnothingintheclassroombutstudentdesksandaball.Thedistrictgaveme$92dollarstopurchasematerialsfortheyear.Manyofmystudentswerealreadyinvolvedingang-relatedactivities.Formanyofthemeducationwasnotaprioritybecausesomeoftheirbasicneedslikefoodandshelterwerenotmet.Oneofmystudentswasshotduringafightamongrivalgangsnexttoour school.Theprincipalwas caught sellingdrugs toanundercoverpoliceofficer.ThesewereonlyafewoftheproblemsIhadtoendureasanoviceteacher.TheonlywayIwasabletomakesocialstudiesandothercontentareasrelevantformystudentswasthroughtheartsandotherrelatedactivities(Dresser,2003). Iknow,therefore,howdifficultitisforteacherstotaketimeofffromtheirbusyschedulestoparticipateinotheractivitiesasidefromtheirclassroomresponsibilities.However,theonlywaylegislationcanchangeisifeducators,administrators,andthecommunitymakelegislatorsawareoftheproblemswithscriptedinstruction.Newinstructionalmodels,inwhichtextbooksandothermaterialsareusedtoenhancelearning,needtobedesigned.Strongpartnershipsbetweencollegesofeducationandschooldistrictsmustbeinplaceasawaytoprovidesupporttoteachercandidatesthroughlong-termmentoringmodels.Moreshorttermandlongitudinalresearchneedstobeconductedondifferentlanguageandliteracymodels.Finally, it is critical that the teachingprofessionbereturnedtothetrueexperts,theteachers.

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