“The Impact of Production for Export on Migration from Mexico to the U.S. and Morocco to Spain”

Prepared for the 16th International Metropolis Conference “Migration Futures: Perspectives On Global Changes”, September 12 - 16, 2011 in Ponta Delgada,

Azores, Portugal.

Kathryn Kopinak, Professor, Department of Sociology, King’s University College at the University of Western Ontario, London,

Canada

Co-Authors: R. Soriano, University of Granada, A. Trinidad, University of Granada, J. Hennebry, Wilfred Laurier University, P. Hondagneu-Sotelo, University of Southern California

Comparison of Growth and Development of Export Processors

Mexico

1960s start up◦ 1980s boom in response to IMF SA

Sectors: more heterogeneous, few garments

Private sector planning◦ No public industrial policy

Upgrading: 1980s◦ Flexible production (Just In Time)

Crisis leads to job loss ◦ Uneven, some MNCs relocate

production to Mexico

Greater formality:◦ Complex system of bonuses and

benefits to discipline labor, labor law not enforced

Morocco

1983 start in response to IMF SA, but growth more sustained after 2000

Sectors: garments largest sector

Government planning (Barajas 2006)◦ Emergence

Attempting upgrading: 2005◦ Pronto moda (lean retailing)

Crisis leads to boom◦ Smaller unprepared companies often

fail

Greater informality:◦ No contracts, factories in garages,

labor law not enforced

Mexican Literature review: Early literature found:

◦ maquilas not contributing to international migration (Bustamante 1983, Fernandez-Kelly 1983, Seligson & Williams 1981)

Later literature finds:

◦ a two step, ‘trampoline’ effect (Carrillo 1990)

◦ Steady stream of male migrants from Tijuana with maquila work experience (Fussell 2004))

◦ Comparing Mexicans who went to the U.S. over 8 occupational groups, those with maquila work experience differed most from those with agricultural work experience

Maquila workers more likely to be female, more educated, younger, originating at northern border, less likely to be heads of households (Kopinak 2011)

Moroccan literature review: Very little research on Moroccan export industry

Male French garment factory owners bring production to Casablanca to lower costs and avoid labor laws protecting workers, becoming immigrants (Labari 2007)

In both Tangiers & Tijuana, some women go to work in export industries as part of a long term plan to migrate internationally (Solís 2010)

Illegal pregnancy tests of female employees does not occur in Morocco as it does in Mexico (Reysoo 2005)

◦ Most Moroccan female workers are unmarried and live with their families. Due to local culture, managers tend to equate unmarried women with sexual inactivity.

Wage Differences Stimulate Labor Migration

Mexico Low direct wages leads to

commuting to work on days off, weekends, vacations, when production is curtailed

Why commuting?

◦ Workers enabled by indirect wages

Support getting visas

Indirect wages (benefits) more important than direct wages (cash)

can’t afford to live in U.S. due to higher cost of living

Morocco

Low direct wages due to:

◦ concentration of jobs in garment sector,

◦ cheated out of pay (esp. overtime)

◦ Informality (no contracts, garages)

Indirect wages not often not paid, especially in garments

Support for visas only for workers with high direct wages (e.g. call centre)

◦ Many workers don’t earn enough to satisfy Spain’s income requirements for a visa

◦ If they do, many can’t afford the cost of a visa

Geopolitics & Undocumented Migration

“The image is from Tijuana looking north east into the USA. The Tijuana Silver Arch and the U.S. border's double fence are both visible. “ (U.S. Border Patrol)

Undocumented climbed over hills in east Tijuana.

One cannot walk across the (14 km.) Strait of Gibraltar, as one can the U.S.-Mexico border.

Undocumented:◦ pay for passage in a boat

◦ hide in the trucks on the ferries

◦ hide in the ferries.

More difficult & expensive.

In Europe, only managers & owners commute

“you take the car and the boat and you know that the next day you will be sleeping in your house” (spokesperson for Spanish Chamber of Commerce in Tangiers)

“Spain and Tangiers are almost like one city. There are those who go in the afternoon to have a coffee there and come back.” (Highly educated female administrator in wiring harness factory) Ferry from Algeciras to Morocco

Regional Airlines

N.A. Borderlander Culture Facilitates International Migration

Borderlander culture ◦ transnational phenomenon in which people

who have lived at the border for generations have family and friends in both countries and often cross to shop, visit, and for entertainment. (Martínez 1996)

Has been reinforced by maquiladora industries◦ twin plants on either side of the border

which their employees move between

Electronic network compensates for lack of borderlander cultureSeveral interviewees knew

Moroccan men who had met Spanish women over the internet, married them, and migrated

Others reported using skype and telephones to connect with social network in Europe

Limited by the digital divide

Immigration of the Highly Skilled & Professionals in N.A.

Rare internal transfers to U.S. operations

Human capital acquired in maquila used to get U.S. job in SoCal

Social contacts in U.S. operations used to get job in U.S. operation

Migrating after 40 due to burnout & pensions

Marrying a U.S. national or someone with a green card and then using social capital to get job in U.S. operations

Will Moroccans Endogenize Administrative Jobs in Export Industry?

spokesperson of the CC tells companies to bring their management from Spain due to a lack of understanding of appropriate business culture

“The people …. the people lack training. There is now no illiteracy with people not knowing how to read or write, but there is a lack of literacy about professions, or ignorance. “ (Highly educated female administrator in wiring harness factory)

But financial crisis is prompting return migration of highly skilledHighly educated Moroccans who

had migrated to work in Europe are returning due to unemployment in Europe and new opportunties in export industries at home

Easier to get a job in export industries if you have European work experience than if you do not

Political Culture and Migration

Mexico Refusal to accept failure

to enforce labor law contributed to migration

Also high alienation due to acute awareness of corruption in government, unions & business

Fear of insecurity due to high crime rate

Morocco Similarly high levels of

corruption in Morocca do not motivate people to migrate

Attitudes critical of government and business lower◦ More resignation to unjust

working conditions

Nationalism◦ Discourse reveals lack of

desire to migrate due to love of country

But, living conditions motivate migration

“Living conditions are not good, really. So, for example, when you ask a person, do you want to migrate to Spain? Automatically they’re going to say no. But living conditions which exist, the living conditions which exist (implying that they might migrate)” (NGO volunteer)

European levels of consumption prompt migration

“Well, about emigration, and getting a car, everyone is wishing for that in Morocco. All my friends, when we get together, we joke and laugh among ourselves. We hang around in the zone of Sor Al Magazin, here in Tangiers, and we watch the boats coming and going and we say we wished we were now on that boat. Or, we say, what do you think if we cross swimming?” (23 year old male who works in auto export industry)

Preliminary Conclusions

While wages appear to be lower in Morocco than northern Baja California, the desire to migrate internationally is not expressed as often by export workers

This may be due to greater difficulty in migrating:◦ barrier of Strait◦ lack of employer support in getting documents

Systematic emigration of highly skilled not as prevalent in Morocco◦ possible current endogenization of skilled jobs