The Impact of Organizational Memory Information … Impact of Organizational Memory Information Systems: ... easily and transmitted more quickly than paper ... both databases and communication

Proceedings of the 29th Annual Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences - 1996

The Impact of Organizational Memory Information Systems: The Case of Product Information Management Systems

Judy E. Scott

Graduate School of Management University of California, Irvine, CA 92 717

Abstract This research attempts to determine whether case studies from fieldwork and secondary data on product information management systems (PIMS) map to Stein and Zwass ’ (I 995) framework for an organizational memory information system (OTIS). Overall, we$nd support for the two layers in the framework, andfor organizational effectiveness from an OMIS. The secondary data suggest first and second order measures for future empirical research. The fielaF/ork data supports the jrst order measures and second order communication improvements but as yet we cannotfind evidence of second order productivity improvements. Furthermore, our data suggests that PIA4S implementation problems focus on the user interface, which can be located as points on the framework. These findings increase our understanding of OTIS and suggest improvements in designing PIMS.

1. Introduction

High technology companies are engineering driven and depend on innovation to prosper. They can leverage their intellectual capital by efficient and effective electronic control of product design information. When information is automatically captured from computer- aided design systems, documentation becomes less of a burden. When information is integrated, processes can be reengineered [l] and there is less need to rekey data resulting in fewer errors. When the information is available on-line, cross-functional and global communication improves [l], [Z]. When information is distributed electronically, organizational memory becomes more accessible because electronic search and retrieval is superior to paper document filing [3].

The technical capabilities of electronic document systems and communication networks have improved substantially over the last few years [l]. Despite this progress, many problems remain. Management needs to address implementation issues that impact organizations and their cultures. Jobs and tasks may become more difficult, at least in the short term, due to poor user interfaces and the need for retraining. There are political implications as electronic information can be shared more easily and transmitted more quickly than paper documents. Security issues are of some concern and upgrading of hardware is often necessary. The expense may be prohibitive and benefits unclear. Given these

problems it is not surprising to find that many firms are postponing adoption of these systems.

Drawing on the organizational memory literature, this research attempts to map case studies using secondary data and fieldwork to Stein and Zwass’ [3] framework for an organizational memory information system (OMIS), and to illustrate some of the impacts of product information management systems (PIMS) on organizations.

The rest of the paper is organized as follows. Section 2 is a theoretical background on organizational memory and the OMIS framework. Section 3 describes the method for this research. Section 4 presents the PIMS mapping analysis and finally section 5 (discusses the findings.

2. Theoretical background

In this section, we review the organizational memory literature and the components of the OMIS framework, which is used in section 4 for the analysis of the PIMS case studies.

2.1 Organizational memory

Organizational memory is considered an integral and important component of organizational learning [4], [S]. Without organizational memory an organization would need to continually rediscover and relearn facts, processes and procedures and would not benefit from past experiences and the efficiencies of routines [4], [5], [6].

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Proceedings of the 1996 Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences (HICSS-29) 1060-3425/96 $10.00 © 1996 IEEE


Despite the importance of organizational memory, we do not yet have a clear understanding of the construct, but have a variety of definitions, frameworks and reference disciplines. However, there is consensus on organizational memory being a storage device which acquires knowledge that is later retrieved [3], [4], [5], [7]. The first step towards greater clarity is to focus on a definition. Following are some definitions of organizational memory.

“Organizational memory depends on the recording, conservation and retrieval of experience in the form of routines” [4 1.

response [7]. Also subject to bias are anticipation of future needs for information, and the scope of future needs [4], [5]. Information is retained by documenting experience, problems and failures to avoid repeating mistakes or reinventing the wheel [4], [5], [S], [9], [lo], but limited by lack of time, the legitimacy of deviant subgroups, and a lack of organizational control [4]. Because of the cognitive limitations of individuals, the availability of information in organizational memory is biased and influenced by “the frequency of use of the routine, the recency of its use, and its organizational proximity” [4].

“The construct is composed of the structure of its retention facility, the information contained in it, the processes of information acquisition and retrieval, and its consequential effects” 171.

“. .we consider organizational memory to be the means by which knowledge from the past is brought to bear on present activities, thus resulting in higher or lower levels of organizational effectiveness” [3],

On the other hand, individuals (1) with long-tenure are one of the most important means of information retention [3]; [5], [7], [II], (2) are prone to “fortuitous experimentation” [4]; (3) discard routines, necessary for unlearning and reengineer-nag of processes [l], [7]; (4) counter the risk from misapplication of automatic retrieval [4], [7]; and (5) reduce search costs with routines [4].

The complexity of the organizational memory construct is illustrated by Stein and Zwass’ [3] seven dimensions: (1) chronology, (2) generality, (3) mode, (4) epistemology, (5) ontology, (6) focus and (7) accessibility. Further complexity arises from Walsh and Ungson’s [7] structure of storage in six bins: individuals, culture, transformations, structures, ecology and external archives.

2.2 Organizational memory information systems

An organizational memory information system (OTIS) is defined as “a system that functions to provide a means by which knowledge from the past is brought to bear on present activities, thus resulting in increased levels of effectiveness for the organization” [3].

Walsh and Ungson [7] warn on the importance of distinguishing between decision information and memory. Decision information refer to cues while memory refers to stored information m a decision stimulus and response. For example, organizational memory properties refer to how, when, where or why events occurred [7]. “How” elaborates on the circumstances and context of the event, and has similarity to Stein and Zwass’ [3] generality, mode, ontology and accessibility dimensions. “When” corresponds to Stein and Zwass’ [3] chronology dimension which refers to past, present and future scenarios, “where” corresponds to the focus dimension, and finally, “why” can explain the rationale for a decision and as such would be an interpretation corresponding to Stein and Zwass’ [3] epistemology dimension,

Stein and Zwass [3] propose a two layer framework for an organizational memory information system (Figure 1). The first layer consists of four subsystems: integrative, adaptive, goal attainment and pattern maintenance, and the second layer consists of five mnemonic functions knowledge acquisition, retention, maintenance, search and retrieval.

There is some evidence that organizational routines are stored as procedural memory, which is more difficult to access and transfer than declarative memory [6]. This illustrates there is a relationship between the dimensions of mode (declarative versus procedural), ontology (concrete versus abstract) and accessibility. Furthermore, the literature implies that a process perspective for organizational memory is appropriate.

The integrative subsystem illustrates organizational coordination and management of information across the organization, and integration over both space and time. Spatial integration is achieved through the sharing of information across workgroups, functions, organizations and geographic boundaries, while temporal integration is represented by a temporally indexed database. The adaptive subsystem illustrates the ability of the organization to adapt to changes in its environment. The goal attainment subsystem illustrates the ability of the organization to set goals and evaluate the degree of their fulfillment. The pattern maintenance subsystem illustrates the ability of the organization to maintain cohesion and the morale of the workforce.

Organizational memory processes may be negatively influenced by biased behavior. Without high organizational commitment [ 51, individuals may block, obscure, simplify or misrepresent information, because of their interpretations of decision stimuli and organizational

Knowledge acquisition is the input process for an OMIS. With the proliferation of barcoding, databases, electronic mail, ED1 and other electronic documents, organizations are often “data rich” but may lack the information they need most. An OMIS with links to internal and external data sources, can limit bias and also enable selective information acquisition through

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knowledge mining, natural language processing and intelligent summarizing. Information retention in an OMIS is influenced by communicability and consensus. Information maintenance depends on assimilation of new information with existing information and selective discarding of old information. An OMIS is capable of non-biased, faster and more extensive searching and

retrieval than manual systems. Moreover, the potential for computer assisted information search and retrieval increases with technologies such as hypertext systems [12], [13], smart indexing [5], pattern matching, natural language processing and fuzq logic [3]

Supporting Activities Leading to Organizational Effectiveness

Figure 1 Framework for an OMIS (Adapted from Stein and Zwass 1995)

Lotus Notes, a groupware product, has been considered the dominant technology for organizational memory [lo]. “Price-Waterhouse professionals were constantly reinventing the wheel, solving, on a worldwide scale, the same problems over and over again”, but they achieved dramatic results from retention of knowledge in a “filing cabinet in the sky” when Lotus Notes was adopted by 100% of the 1000 partners [lo].

Information systems can augment organizational memory by making recorded knowledge retrievable or by making individuals with knowledge accessible [ 121. In the Answer Garden project, Ackerman and Malone [12] use both databases and communication systems so organizational memory can grow.

In this paper we focus on organizational memory information systems for engineering design. These systems go under various names, such as product

information management systems (PIMS), product data management (PDM) systems, engineering design automation (EDA), and. engineering document management systems (EDMS).

Engineering organizations have problems in transferring previous learning to current problems [ 131. The design rationale is lost. when the context that lay behind document creation is missing from organizational memory [lo], but captured by preserving the intent and evolution of product design [:3], [ 141, [ 151. Explicit design rationale supports reasoning processes in design, facilitates communication between participants, and furthers the cumulation and development of design knowledge across projects and products [lo], and geographic ‘boundaries with a global repository of engineering designs [2].

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3. Methods

As part of a study of information technology in the disk drive industry, questionnaire data was collected from plant managers in 18 organizations. A Likert scale that ranged from l=strongly disagree to 5=strongly agree, indicates the extent to which their plant was characterized by the following manufacturing practices:

. The control of design documents is computerized

. Imaging technology is used to store and access information

Interviews with over 50 executives in top management, information systems, manufacturing, engineering and marketing elaborating on the questionnaire items, were taped and later transcribed. With the data from the fieldwork and published secondary data sources on PIMS, we attempt to validate Stein and Zwass’ [3] framework for an OMIS, including its impacts on organizational effectiveness, using the case study method.

process management 1171 and (2) integrate a firm’s information at an enterprise level by connecting existing systems and programs and managing the data that travels among them [ 181. Open PIMS operate in a heterogeneous environment where multiple users will be using multiple types of incompatible hardware and software to access data and tiles for different purposes at different locations and times [ 161, [ 191. For example, in the Sherpa system, “..openness is made possible by its Freedom Architecture. When a designer creates a CAD drawing and checks it into the PIM “vault,” this architecture treats the drawing as a “bucket of bits.” ..accessible through the Sherpa system for many uses on a variety of machines” [ 161. Multiple incompatible computer systems - existing hardware, (mainframes, workstations and PC s ), software, (such as CAD, MRP, JIT, and Process Planning), networks and operating systems, (MVS, VMS, UNIX and DOS), which support legacy systems can be integrated into the enterprisewide system [19],. [28].

4. Analysis

Spatial integration is achieved through the sharing of information among engineers - concurrent engineering - and most other functions from pre-production purchasing and fiscal control systems [20] to materials management and planning systems [ 191.

In this section, we explain the relationship between document control and PIMS, then analyze Stein and Zwass’ [3] two layer model of an OMlS, first for layer one, then layer two and finally for OMIS impacts, using secondary data and data from fieldwork.

Temporal integration is represented by libraries of design solutions which include problems and rationale and all relevant information for a product for its entire life cycle, spanning design, engineering, manufacturing and field support [IS], (211, enabling related designs to be located for reuse [ 171.

4.1 Document control and product information management systems

PIMS are examples of OMIS since engineering and product information from the past is brought to bear on the present in an effort to improve performance. In common with groupware, PIMS require collaboration, and in common with the Answer Garden [12], PIMS use databases and communications. Full-function PIMS support an enterprise repository, manage the flow of engineering and manufacturing data, control the engineering process, route design information, manage released documents, and control product structure and cofiguration management [ 161, [ 171. Purely document control systems lack product structure and process management facilities and concentrate narrowly on library retrieval [ 171.

The adaptive subsystem. Customer satisfaction drives frequent changes in a product’s life cycle [2 11. In engineering firms, these changes are reflected in engineering change notices (ECNs)’ PIMS route ECNs for electronic mail sign-off approvals to marketing, production, engineering and other managers [ 171.

The goal attainment subsystem. PIMS provide tools for evaluating business processes and measuring the quality effort [21], and cater to the need for rapid and accurate access to current documents that contain the approved and adopted standards, procedures and methods [22], to comply with IS0 9000 programs [23].

4.2 Validating layer one of Stein and Zwass’ (1995) framework

The pattern maintenance subsystem. The focus of PlMS is on products and processes, not human resources. Nevertheless, PIMS record procedures and project participation that could be analyzed in terms of people adding value. Furthermore, morale may improve from concurrent engineering and cross-functional collaboration, typically associated with PIMS.

The integrative subsystem. PIMS have the potential to (1) support an enterprise repository for workflow ’ also called engineering change orders (ECOs)

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4.3 Validating layer two of Stein and Zwass’ (1995) framework

Information acquisition. Designers use CAD software and transfer the drawings into the PIMS, whereupon automatic flags alert design checkers, who check and approve the design. [24].

Information retention. Consensus is needed during implementation to determine routing, accessibility and other structures. In setting up a PIM system, there are decisions such as: what information is going to be controlled, what processes will be used to control it, who works on which projects, and what rules will be used for design reviews [16]. Implementation teams design a new company-wide product structure, with part numbers, attributes, and references to build each part at the appropriate facilities; and define the release procedures, that alert engineers and managers through email when designs are changed. Intelligent work flow algorithms establish release parameters that allow multiple engineering and manufacturing project teams to make parallel changes [21], and electronic sign-offs provide organizational control and communicability.

Information maintenance. PIMS address maintenance (1) with integration across functions which ensures that product information is updated and obsoleted throughout all databases [19] and (2) by transferring approved configuration data twice daily to the MRP system 1211.

Information search. Users can search for and look at production recipes [19] or query the metadata, which is useful for reusing designs. Sherpa/PIMS has a new graphical user interface built on a SQL relational database. Attributes of objects are set up as keyword screen prompts for queries [21]. Also, search tools are available. For example, the program, RxEDM from Expert Systems, Atlanta, allows users to access engineering design files in a variety of raster and vector formats and perform searches by various parameters such as project, type, user, drafter, date, and revision number P51.

Information retrieval, Rapid and accurate access to current information is difficult with a paper format [22], but PIMS set up links between documents and databases to help users quickly access all of the data related to a particular product, or to check on the progress of a project [25]. On-line users from assembly engineers in Singapore, to management, manufacturing and logistics worldwide, customers and suppliers, can access, input, verify and download the latest product information over global communications networks. [ 191, [26]

4.4 Organizational effectiveness from OMIS

There are three categories of business value to support organizational performance from electronic document management: (1) improved communication of concepts and ideas [lo], (2) reengineered business processes, and (3) leveraging organizational memory Sprague [ 11. Routines from organizational memory result in lower transaction costs, time savingis and fewer errors, because of the lack of necessity to “reinvent the wheel” [4], [7].

In a general sense, the lmajor benefits from PIMS reported are increases in productivity, (often from reengineering), and improved communication. More specifically, benefits are derived from cost reduction and time and quality improvements. We classify and discuss PIMS benefits and problems based on the OMIS framework, which uses the competing values organizational effectiveness literature to explain its layer one subsystems.

Productivity improvements have been reported ranging from 10% [20] to 100 times the cost [27]. Mills [25] reports achievement of a 3: 1 productivity factor over the manual “ink on Mylar” method, reducing the number of drafters from 30 to 10. Typically, the high payback projects involve reengineering [I], [23], [27], [28], and attempt to reduce (1) paper, generated internally and from customers and suppliers, [28] and (2) unneeded transactions [23]. “A call for a single drawing, pre- automation, sets in motion a series of perhaps 10 transactions, ..@ut) retrieved electronically by one. The savings of say $45 in eliminated transactions is repeated every time a drawing is required.” [23].

Communication between engineers on a project, across functions and across sites improves [23], [25]. Concurrent engineering, helps everyone on a team share timely, up-to-date information. [25]. Enterprisewide systems link users across functions, such as design and manufacturing [ 181, personnel throughout an organization-from the shop floor, maintenance, to sales and marketing [25], cost accounting, order entry, materials management and planning systems [19], and specifications, subsystem engineering, design and design verification test [26]. “Companies can exchange technical document data interactively with sites half a world away” ]231.

Apart from communication benefits, integration reduces costs, leads to fastler cycles [ 171, [ 181, [ 191, simplifies the retrieval of engineering information by helping to “navigate the labyrinth of computers and networks containing the data” [25], eliminates “lost document” ECNs, improves, the visibility of product information in the design process - analysts see the latest changes, designers quickly find related designs to reuse,

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managers know where the projects stand - and saves time from the early discovery of mistakes, and from more robust designs [ 171.

Cost: The total cost of PlMS can be offset by reductions in hardware and software maintenance costs [19], new product development costs 1261, [25], and the cost of manufacturing [ 171. There are savings in printing, photocopying and mailing costs [24] as well as blueprinting, filing, consumables, distribution costs, storage space, along with improved staff throughputs, the elimination of additional staff for peak work periods, the reduction of external services, and the elimination or reduction of duplicate efforts [2X].

Time: Some time-based benefits cited are 50% reduction in the design cycle time [17], [18], 51% reduction in the backlog of engineering change orders [29], and 30% reduction in the work day looking for “lost” documents [27]. The approval process time for ECNs is significantly reduced [ 191, contributing to a faster product development cycle [28]. Electronic communication cuts out the time documents are spent routed manually [25], allows engineers to change the design on-line, before passing it onto the next level for approval, instead of

checking out multiple floppy disks [29], and most important overall, provides immediate access to information [27], [ZS]. “Engineers benefit since such systems can make it easy for them to find drawings and other documents and have them instantly available. No more do they have to submit a request to the drawing storage department and wait days for the drawing to be sent to them through interoffice mail” [25].

Quality: IS0 9000 quality certification depends on the accessibility of the documentation of standards and procedures [22], and audit results indicate that nearly 70% of noncompliance is due to unacceptably managed, document-centered information [23].

PIMS ensure that the most current information is being used by everyone in the organization 1171, [25], [28], and set up relationships between files associated with a specific design, reducing the likelihood of errors [30]. PIMS can maintain several versions of the same product with the option of a complete audit trail and documentation detailing the manufacturing process, complete with a history of all revisions [ 191

Table 1 First order benefits of product information management systems

entation detailing the manufacturi

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Table 2 Second order benefits of product information management systems

In summary, benefits from PIM systems are of two orders (see Table 1 and Table 2). First order benefits are improvements in time, cost and quality. Second order benefits are increased productivity and improved communication. The integrative subsystem contributes to improvements in all areas - quicker access to documents (time), error reduction by relationships between files (quality) and lower hardware and software costs. Most of the communication improvements are from the spatial integrative subsystem that links previously isolated users. The adaptive subsystem is responsible for time improvements associated with ECNs, and indirectly with resulting reduced development costs. The goal attainment subsystem primarily increases quality benefits from control of documentation. The pattern maintenance human resource oriented subsystem does not play a major role in PIMS organizational effectiveness.

Although the potential benefits are favorable, the cost of PIM systems is high enough to deter many users who are not convinced they will obtain return on their investment [31]. Some systems are complex, difficult to use, are not user-friendly, lack flexibilitv, have steep learning curves, are difficult to customize and implement and cause user confusion [25], [28], [30]. Other concerns are security issues for electronic signatures [25], the

difficulty of integration with legacy systems and the need for open systems [27].

4.5 PIMS in the disk drive Iindustry

The disk drive industry is turbulent, innovative and highly competitive, possibly “making much of the past irrelevant” Stein and Zwass [3], and placing demands on the adaptive and goal attainment subsystems of OMIS In fact, there is a wide variation in the methods used to manage product information. Seven organizations “strongly agree” that they have computerized control of design documents and two “strongly agree” they use imaging (Table 3). Interviews revealed that one organization, code named Alpha, has implemented PIMS, while two others, Gamma and Delta, are in the process of implementation. Another org,anization, Beta, aborted an unsuccessful implementation, begun two years prior, that was requiring extensive vendor customization. Most of the other organizations use gelneric databases (Table 4). Nevertheless, for the purposes of this study, even paper- based document control is considered a product information management systlem.

Table 3 Computerized control of design documents in the disk drive industry

Value Label Strongly disagree Disagree Undecided Agree Strongly agree Total

Control of design documents Imaging te;chnology is used is computerized

Value Frequency Frequency 1 0 6 2 1 3 3 : 2 4 5 5 7 2

18 18

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Spatial integration in the integrative subsystem is “We just implemented Sherpa in the last year. So we supported by Alpha’s reports that: (1) the engineering now have both ECNs, which are engineering change document control system has a product tree so that two notices which... An ECN is the document that you sign engineers can work on the same blueprint; (2) the off to officially change your drawing. Those are now updated document system information is distributed to electronic so that when someone submits an ECN, purchasing, so “purchasing does not order products that electronic mail pops up on my system saying, ‘You’re in are becoming obsolete”; (3) “All our off shore facilities the approval of ECN # blah, blah, blah. Please sign on are also in Sherpa, and all the document transfers are Sherpa, look at the drawing change and approve it.’ And electronic.“. Temporal integration is illustrated by Beta that goes through the loop that way. And we also have, as “the database has the entire revision history of every every company does, I’ll call it a waiver notice. Every part”, but the usefulness of reuse from organizational company has methodologies of allowing some memory is questionable since they usually modify the last discrepancies to occur... So for any temporary waivers or revision. Following are two descriptions that map to the for any kinds of non standard processing or anvthing. OMIS’ adaptive subsystem for coping with change. The first, Alpha, is successful, but the second, Beta, describes problems.

That’s also approved electronically now.” -

Table 4 PIMS in the disk drive industry

d it phenomenally useful (IS mgr)

to server; transfer them back and forth Singapore and U.S. They tend to be ounts of documentation, need large bandwidth (IS mgr)

automated document distribution electronic

Source: Research participants interview transcripts

Problems with a clumsy user interface and difficulties with implementation prevented gains in efficiency, so Beta abandoned their PIMS after 18 months of vendor customization.

“It did not achieve the end result which we were trying to do, get drawings from Engineering and turn ECOs or engineering changes quicker. We found that we couldn’t

do that. There was a lot of screens we had to go through to get the information. And it wasn’t user friendly.”

The goal attainment subsystem is illustrated by IS0 9000 quality certification in PIMS, which according to Alpha, “subscribes to that formula of document what you’re going to do and then do what you said you were going to do for the most part”. Gamma explains the advantage of electronic documentation for ensuring

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production workers have access to only the “most current” version of a document. In contrast, Delta, before PlMS implementation, explains the frustration from wrong versions of documentation being sent to off shore plants.

“It can get messed up. Certain versions are okay for this and that’s very difficult to maintain; the wrong version gets sent and we’ve lost two weeks.”

Alpha explains information acquisition when CAD drawings are automatically transferred into PIMS and older documents are scanned into the system.

“And the way the electronics thing works is that the actual paperwork, some of it can be generated manually or generated on computer. Because Sherpa can also scan older kinds of manuals when they exist. So they can either be scanned as bitmap, or they can be true electronically generated drawings.”

Information retention is influenced by users. A marketing manager, who was too busy to provide input during setup, complains about the lack of marketing perspective in an ECN, that does not specify the relationship between the product and the customer.

The major payoff from PIh4S in this industry is control of the current version of docmments and fast ECNs. These improvements in quality and1 time, translate into better cross-functional and global communications, but it is too soon to see productivity gains. On the other hand, according to research participants (Table 4), apart from the PIMS itself, costs include high bandwidth communication networks, hardware such as graphic terminals or personal computers, customizing code and training. In fact, the lack of resources for infrastructure and systems has prevented aIdoption of PIMS by several organizations. There were reports of a lack of industry standards for graphics, lack of a good handshake to MRP systems, and the need for more reporting out of their document control database. However, the main complaints from research participants concerned implementation problems, mess ups, lack of a marketing perspective, difficulties with maintenance and problematic interfaces.

“Which drive are you talking about now? . ..We work off of a tree. Our documentation is all in a documentation tree. So if someone wants to make a change to an assembly that’s below the customer specific assembly, you’ll see that. But you don’t know whether it affects a given customer or not. Because it’s farther up the tree.”

With regard to the OMIS framework, most of the problems, apart from lack of resources, are at the user interface, especially PIMS setup. Perhaps intelligent wizards, along the lines of those available in desktop application software, would ease the user interface problems. Alternatively, the recent introduction of a graphical user interface by Sherpa addresses this issue.

5. Discussion

Ease of information maintenance is important because of frequent ECNs and waivers. Beta, having suffered from an unsuccessful implementation that required prolonged, expensive, vendor customization, explains the importance of being able to do their own maintenance.

“ ..There’s a couple of products that are all object oriented. ..That one product that we looked at, Matrix, looked very, very interesting. It looked like it would be really very functional. You could do pretty much all of your own set up and maintenance .“.

Information search Gamma reports on the usefulness of keywords for searches in PIMS - an improvement over paper-based systems.

Information retrieval with PIMS by sites in Singapore and other offshore sites improve the reliability and speed of access to the most current version of documents and reduce paper distribution and copying costs. Gamma explains:

“More recently, . . we’re just transferring files by our satellite link. . . ..(to our operation in Singapore). Very useful.. Where if it’s electronic, we only get access to the most current... And of course, (there is) the cost of distributing paper to Singapore, or recopying. .”

Our study lends support to Stein and Zwass’ [3] framework. Using our dat;a from field studies, and secondary data sources, we have shown that product information management systems are suitable examples of organizational memory information systems. Each subsystem in the framework is well represented by the PIMS, but pattern maintenance less so than the others. This is not surprising since products rather than human resources are the focus of PIMS. Stepping through the mnemonic functions also shows relevance for PIMS, and highlights the importance of the user interface. A minor recommendation for the model is to make the user- interface explicit at retention, maintenance and search. System setup which determines information retention appears to be a point of weakness. Unless users find the time to specify requirements, their perspectives will be neglected. Finally, organizational effectiveness is supported with benefits from productivity, communication, cost, time and quality, which we recommend as appropriate research measures to assess the consequences of OMIS use.

PIMS have progressed considerably in the last few years, and offer potential in improving the engineering design process and reducing time to market for new products. Real time access to product information

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throughout a global enterprise promises large gains in productivity. Yet, our fieldwork does not show PIMS utopia. High costs for networks, hardware, customizing software, and training; lack of standards and implementation problems, especially at the user interface have discouraged widespread adoption of these systems. However, by mapping PIMS characteristics to Stein and Zwass’ framework for OMIS, practitioners gain a basis for justifying and improving PIMS and researchers gain insights into practitioner problems with PIMS that focus future studies.

Garden: A Tool for Growing Organizational Memory,” Proceedings of the ACM Conference on OfliCe Information Systems, 31-39. [13]Conklin, E.J. (1993), “Capturing Organizational Memory, ” in R. Baecker (ed.), Readings in Groupware and Computer-Supported Cooperative Work, Morgan Kaufmann.

6. Acknowledgements

We thank the anonymous referees for their suggestions.

7. References

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